CAMBRIDGE SECONDARY 1

YEAR 8 SCIENCE

Chapter 7
Drugs, Diseases and Immunity
TAN WAI SHAN
B. Sc. Microbiology (USM)
[email protected] | [email protected]
Introduction to Drugs
DRUGS: substances that bring physiological changes to the body.
Can be benecial or harmful if abused.
Classied as follows based on their eects on the human body. Three main
types:
Pharmaceu<cal drugs (analgesics and an<bio<cs)
Social drugs (psychotherapeu<c drugs)
Performance-enhancing drugs
Have a trade name and a generic name.
Example: Paracetamol, the generic name is sold under the trade name of
Panadol.
Drugs Formulation
Usually contain:
mixture of ac8ve ingredients dissolved in
solvent
Enclosed or packaged in dierent forms, such
as capsules, pills, solu<ons or suspensions.
 Pharmaceu<cal
Pharmaceutical Drugs Drugs

Used to cure diseases or reduce their

Analgesics An<bio<cs
symptoms.
Including analgesics (painkillers) or
an8bio8cs.
Aspirin Penicillin
Painkillers used to reduce the pain
caused by diseases.
An<bio<cs used to treat the infec<on
caused by bacteria. Paracetamol Streptomycin

Codeine
Analgesics
Also known as painkillers.
Drugs that relieve pain.
Examples of analgesics are aspirin,
paracetamol, and codeine.
Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers
whereas codeine is powerful painkillers.
Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the
disease.
Aspirin
Pain relief and an8-inammatory ac8on
Acidic in nature and should be avoided during
pregnancy.
Uses of aspirin:
Reduce fever and inamma<on
Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint
aches.
Treat arthri<s, an inamma<on of the joints.
Act as an an<coagulant. It prevents
the cloOng of blood and reduce the risk of
the heart aPack and strokes.
Paracetamol
Neutral in nature.
Similar to aspirin in its eects (that is,
reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not
reduce inamma8on.
Also helps to reduce or relieve u symptoms
such as fever, bone aches and runny nose.
Codeine
Used to relive mirror to moderate pain.
More powerful than paracetamol and aspirin.
Codeine is a narco<c drugs (drugs that trigger
drowsiness).
Used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.

Antibiotics
Chemicals that destroy or prevent the
growth of infec<ous microorganism.
Can be extracted from fungi and bacteria.
Examples of an<bio<cs are penicillin and
streptomycin.
Used to treat diseases caused by bacteria
and fungi.
Not eec8ve against diseases caused by
viral infec8ons such as inuenza, measles,
or smallpox.
Penicillin
Extracted from the mould
Penicillium notatum.
Used to treat bacterial diseases
such as pneumonia, gonorrhea
and syphilis.
Only eec<ve on certain bacteria.
For example, it cannot be used to
treat tuberculosis.
Streptomycin
Produced by the bacteria Streptomyces griseus
Used to treat tuberculosis infec8on.
Common side eects include: nausea,
vomi<ng, stomach upset, loss of appe<te and
spinning sensa<on (ver<go).
Social Drugs
Also known as psychotherapeu8c drugs.
Aect the nervous system.
People used them to experience the eects the drugs
have on their brain.
Including s8mulants, depressants and hallucinogens.
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogen
Also known as psychedelics.
Aect all the senses, altering a person's thinking,
sense of <me and emo<ons.
They can cause a person to hallucinate seeing
or hearing things that do not exist or are
distorted.
There are many dierent kinds of hallucinogens.
Some occur naturally, such as cannabis
(marijuana) and magic mushroom.
Others are made in laboratories, such as lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD).
Examples of Hallucinogen
LSD
one of the most potent, mood-changing chemicals.
manufactured from ergot fungus that grows on rye and other grains
Cannabis
one of the most abused drugs in the world.
comes from the Indian hemp plant, and the part that contains the
drug is found primarily in the owers and much less in the seeds,
leaves, and stems of the plant.
Magic mushroom
Scien<cally known as Psilocybe semilanceata
used to induce euphoria, alter thinking processes, close and open-
eye visuals, an altered sense of <me and spiritual experiences.
Effects of Hallucinogens
Makes people relax and talka<ve
but it can lead to panic aMack
and mental problems.
Can cause addic8on
Lead to infer8lity
Stimulants
Drugs that used to increase alertness,
aMen8on, and energy, as well as elevate
blood pressure, heart rate, and respira8on.
Used to treat asthma and other respiratory
problems, obesity, neurological disorders,
and a variety of other ailments.
Also prescribed to treat only a few mental
health condi<ons, including ADHD,
narcolepsy (not energe<c), and occasionally
depression.
Examples of Stimulants
Nico8ne
found in cigarePes makes people more alert.
Caeine
found in coee, tea and zzy drinks makes
people feel awake and less <red.
Cocaine
from the leaves of cocoa plant makes people
experience extreme happiness, energe<c and
mentally alert.
Amphetamine
ar<cially produced and used as the drug to
treat ADHD, narcolepsy and obesity.
Effects of Stimulants
When used in conserva<ve
doses, s<mulants do not
usually cause signicant side
eects.
However, extreme high levels
or long term s<mulant
excita<on can result in
insomnia, heart aMack, stroke,
seizures, or even fatal
overhea8ng.
Depressants
The opposite drug class of s<mulants.
Drug that lowers neurotransmission
levels, which is to depress or reduce
s8mula8on or arousal, in various areas
of the brain.
Widely used throughout the world as
prescrip<on medicines for pain relief,
sleep inducer, muscle relaxa8on,
lowered blood pressure or heart rate,
and an8convulsant eects.
Examples of Depressants
Alcohol
found in alcoholic beverage contains a substan<al amount of ethanol,
which causes euphoria, reduced anxiety in lower dosage and
drunkenness, stupor and unconsciousness in higher dosage.
Tranquilizer
drug that is used to reduce anxiety, fear, tension, agita8on, and related
states of mental disturbance
Barbiturates
drug that possess sleep inducing and anxiety decreasing eects
Opioids
medically used as pain relief and can also be used to treat addic8on,
diarrhea, and as cough suppressor.
Effects of Depressants
Lead to chronic fa8gue, breathing
dicul8es, sexual problems and sleep
problems.
As a dependency on the drug increases,
cravings, anxiety or panic are common if
the user is unable to get more.
Can lead to complete anesthesia or death at
high doses.
Withdrawal symptoms include insomnia,
weakness and nausea.
Alcohol
Present in wines, beers and spirits.
Slows down signals in the nerves and brain.
There are legal limits to the level of alcohol that drivers and pilots can
have in the body.
This is because alcohol impairs the ability of people to control their
vehicles properly.
Effects of Alcohol
Short term eects
Induce sleepiness and impaired
judgment, balance and muscle control.
This leads to blurred vision and slurred
speech.
Vasodila<on occurs that will lead to
excessive heat loss.
Long term eects
Damage to the liver and brain.
The liver removes alcohol from the
bloodstream, as it is a toxic chemical.
Over <me, alcohol consump<on can
lead to liver overwork and damage
condi<on called cirrhosis.
Performance-Enhancing
Substances that are used
to improve any form of
ac8vity performance in
humans.
Drugs

Example: anabolic steroid.

Introduction to Diseases
DISEASE: abnormal condi<on that impairs bodily func<ons
causes pain, dysfunc<on, distress, death
pathological condi<on of part, organ, body system due to various
causes such as: infec8on, gene8c defect, diet or environmental stress
characterized by signs, symptoms & syndrome
Can be categorized into 4 types:
nutri<onal disease (refer to chapter 2)
degenera<ve disease,
hereditary disease,
infec8ous disease
Manifestations of Diseases

X
 X
Degenerative Diseases
Type of a medical condi<on that causes a 8ssue or organ to deteriorate
over 8me.
Associated with aging and gets worse during the aging process.
Classied into three main groups:
Cardiovascular
hypertension, coronary disease, heart aPack.
Neoplas8c
tumours and cancer
Nervous system
Parkinsons and Alzheimers disease
 Can due to the normal wear and tear of
the body, unhealthy lifestyle or due to
unknown factors.
Many degenera<ve diseases can be cured,
but there are s<ll quite a few that have no
treatment. In such cases, the available
op<ons are designed to relieve the
symptoms to help pa<ents have a normal
life as much as possible.
Millions of people around the world are
aected by these diseases.
In fact, in most countries, certain types of
degenera<ve diseases are consistently
among the top causes of mortality.
Hereditary Diseases
Disorders that are inherited from the parents or are related to some
type of spontaneous gene8c change (muta8on).
Some inherited gene<c disorders, such as cys8c brosis and colour
blindness, are caused simply by the inheritance of genes that do not
work properly.
However, gene8c and environmental factors seem to work together
to cause muta8on in other normal genes.
For example, some forms of radia<on or chemicals can cause cancer
in people who are prone to be aected because of their gene<c
makeup.

Mutagens
Substances that can lead to
muta<on (the altera<on of
gene<c materials).
Can be categorized into three
main types:
Radia<on
Chemicals
Infec<ous agents
 Downs syndrome characterized with trisomy 21

X
Infectious Diseases

Communicable diseases that kill more people worldwide than any other
single cause.
Caused by germs (pathogens) that are found everywhere - in air, soil and
water.
Can get infected by touching, ea8ng, drinking or breathing something that
contains a germ.
Germs can also spread through animal and insect bites, kissing and sexual
contact.
Vaccines, proper hand washing and medicines can help prevent infec<ons.
Introduction to Pathogens
PATHOGENS
Any agent capable of causing disease
Bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites (worms & protozoa)
PATHOGENICITY
Ability of organism to enter host & cause disease
VIRULENCE
Intensity of pathogenicity
Pathogenicity
Ability to cause disease under certain condi<ons
Depends on
Proper8es of pathogens
Capsulated Streptococcus pneumoniae is pathogenic
and non-capsulated S. pneumoniae is not pathogenic
Ability of host to defend itself & prevent injury
Dierent individual have dierent immunity.
Host (species) specicity
Gonococcus cause gonorrhoea only in humans but
not animals
Site of entry
HIV is harmless in diges<ve tract but will lead to AIDS
in blood.
Types of Pathogenic Diseases
Bacterial diseases
Tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid fever, syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia
Viral diseases
AIDS, hepa<<s B, genital warts, herpes simplex
Fungal diseases
Ringworm, candidiasis, pneumocys<s pneumonia
Parasi8c diseases
Protozoa
Malaria, African sleeping sickness, toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis
Worms
Roundworm, tapeworm, hookworm, lariasis, river blindness
Contamination, Infection and Disease
Infec<ous diseases begin with
CONTAMINATION - aPachment of microorganisms at the surface
contamina<on can occur in food, drink, air, wounds, insect bites, sexual
intercourse, blood transfusion
via portals of entry
INFECTION - microorganisms entering body system
infec<on does not necessarily cause disease unless infec<on disrupts
normal func<oning of host
abnormality induced by infec<on will lead to diseases.
pathogenesis refers to the series of events producing diseases.
Bacterial Pathogenesis
X
Viral Pathogenesis

X
Outbreak of Diseases
Happens when a disease occurs in greater numbers than expected in a
community or region, or during a season.
An outbreak may occur in one
community or even extend to
several countries. It can last
days or years.
Can be classied into 4 types:
Endemic
Epidemic
Pandemic
Sporadic
 Endemic
Present in community at all 8mes but
in rela<vely low frequency
Constantly present within given
loca<on or popula<on group
Typically restricted or peculiar to a
locality or region, i.e. not occurring
naturally anywhere else
Example: malaria endemic in some
areas of Africa & chickenpox in US.

Epidemic
Outbreak of contagious disease that spreads
rapidly & widely
aec8ng many individuals in area or
popula<on at same <me
acutely infec<ous disease i.e. easily
spread through popula8on
e.g. measles, polio, dengue, TB, AIDS
Epidemics occur when:
large number of suscep8ble persons
exposed to infec<ous agents
circumstances permit spread of agent
Index case: rst case iden<ed in an
epidemic
Pandemic
Occurs when epidemic becomes
very widespread & aects whole
region, con<nent or en<re world
e.g. inuenza pandemics ofen

global Flu A H1N1.

Sporadic Cases
Occurs in random &
unpredictable manner
Involving several isolated
cases that pose no threat
e.g. encephali<s .
Transmission Modes of Diseases
Transmission must occur for an infec<on to spread.
First, transmission from the reservoir to the individual must occur.
Then, the individual must transmit the infec8ous agent to other
suscep8ble individuals.
Pathogenic microorganisms employ 4 main modes of transmission:
Direct contact
Food borne/water borne
Air borne
Vector borne
Direct Contact
Person-to-person transmission.
Agent is transmiPed through ac<ons such as touching, kissing or sexual
intercourse.
Can be categorized as ver<cal or horizontal.
Ver8cal direct contact transmission occurs when pathogens are
transmiPed from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or
breasjeeding.
Other kinds of direct contact transmission are called horizontal direct
contact transmission.
Examples: STDs including syphilis, gonorrhea, genital warts (refer to
chapter 6) and Ebola virus.
 X
Food borne/Water borne Diseases
Food or water act as reservoir & vehicle of transmission
Inges8on of contaminated food or water will cause the diseases.
Example: typhoid fever and cholera (refer to chapter 3)
Life Cycle of Vibrio cholera
Air borne Diseases
Involves spread to new host respiratory
system via aerosol
Cloud of small droplets & solid par8cles
suspended in air
Come from sneezing, coughing, generated
by any movement of air
Examples: tuberculosis and respiratory
viruses.
Tuberculosis
Due to the bacterium, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
TransmiPed from person to person
via respiratory aerosol route and its
ini<al site of infec<on is in the lung.
Humans are the only natural
reservoir for TB even though TB can
also be established in primates and
laboratory animals
Life Cycle of M. tuberculosis
Symptoms of Tuberculosis
Chronic coughing that lasts three
or more weeks.
Coughing up blood.
Chest pain, or pain with breathing
or coughing.
Uninten<onal weight loss.
Fa<gue.
Fever.
Night sweats.
Chills.
 The waxy wall M. tuberculosis
protects it from desicca<on and it
can remain viable in dried aerosol
droplets for about eight months.
M. tuberculosis can infect any
organ, but majority of the infected
site is the lung.
Only about 5 % of people infected
with the M. tuberculosis develop
the disease.
If untreated, the mortality rate is
about 50 %.
Stages of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis can be separated into three categories of progression:
Primary TB
Enter the lung and cause hard nodules known as tubercles.
Can lead to latent TB or secondary TB when immune system is weaken.
Secondary TB or reac8vated TB
Occurs when the tubercles rupture and the bacteria are released and re-
established ac<ve infec<on in which bacteria proliferate through the lung
via bronchiole.
Disseminated TB
TB spreads from the lung to variety parts of the body organs, including
brain, spinal cord, bone marrow, spleen and kidney.
The signs and symptoms are varies and depend on the infected site
involved.
 X
Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis
TB Prevention and Treatment
Can prevent through:
Vaccina<on using Bacilli-CallmaPe-Geurin (BCG)
Ensure room has proper ven<la<on system
Personal protec<on such as wearing face masks
Treatment available:
An<bio<cs such as streptomycin, ethambutol, rifampicin and isoniazid.
Vector borne Diseases
Animals typically arthropods help to
spread the disease
Vector can serve as host for pathogen
growth during some stage of life cycle
Transmission through bites or s8cky
appendages
Mosquitoes, <cks, lice, some ies, eas,
mites
Examples: malaria, dengue, zika and
chikungunya.
Malaria
Cause of Malaria
Pathogens: Plasmodium sp.
(Protozoan)
Vector: Anopheles mosquitoes
Types of Anti-Microbial Agents
Substances that used to kill, inhibit or prevent the growth or
microorganisms.
Can be categorized into 4 types
An<bio<cs
An<sep<cs
Disinfectants
Vaccine
Antibiotics
Complex chemicals that were extracted from microorganisms and used to
kill or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
Usually through injec<on of oral inges<on.
Examples are penicillin and streptomycin.
Penicillin
Extracted from the fungi Penicillium notanum
Used to treat many bacterial infec<ons but not eec<ve to treat
tuberculosis infec<on
Streptomycin
Extracted from the bacteria Streptomyces griseus
Used to treat tuberculosis infec<on
Efficacy of Antibiotics to treat Viral Infections
Viral infec<ons cannot be treated with
an<bio<cs because
Most an<bio<cs target bacterial cell
wall and viruses do not have cell
wall.
Viruses are non-living and do not
carry out metabolisms that
an<bio<cs can target.
Besides, viruses are intracellular
parasites that hide within host cell
and this protects the virus from being
destroyed.
Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics

X
 X
Antiseptics
Chemicals applied on the living objects (such as skin
or wounds) to kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganisms.
Examples:
Iodine
an<sep<c for topical applica<on in the
treatment and preven<on of wound infec<on.
It may be used in rst aid for minor cuts,
burns, abrasions and blisters.
Hydrogen peroxide
mild an<sep<c used on the skin to prevent
infec<on of minor cuts, scrapes, and burns
A three-percent is commonly used as a wound
an<sep<c.
Disinfectants
Chemical solu<ons used to apply on the non-
living objects (such as surface of oor, building
and furniture).
Also used to sterilize hospital opera<ng room,
surgical instruments and laboratory tools.
Examples:
Chlorine is used to kill or inhibit the growth
of microorganisms on the swimming pool.
Ethanol is used in laboratory to kill bacteria
by denaturing their protein.
Vaccine
Weakened, aMenuated or killed viruses and
bacteria that were injected into a healthy person
to s<mulate the produc<on of an<bodies.
Used to prevent certain diseases by providing
ar8cial ac8ve immunity.
Examples:
Bacille CalmeMe-Geurin (BCG) is a vaccine for
tuberculosis infec<on.
Gardasil is the vaccine that used to prevent
HPV infec<on (cervical cancer).
Introduction to Immune System
The body's defense system against
infec<ous organisms and other invaders.
.

Through a series of steps called the

immune response, the immune system
aPacks organisms and substances that
invade body systems and cause disease.
The immune system is made up of a
network of cells, 8ssues, and organs that
work together to protect the body.
Human Immune System
White Blood Cells
Also called leukocytes.
=
Main cells that help in immune system.
Come in two basic types: phagocytes and
lymphocytes.
Produced and stored in lymphoid organs, including the thymus, spleen,
and bone marrow.
There are also clumps of lymphoid <ssue throughout the body, primarily
as lymph nodes, that house the abundant of leukocytes.
Circulate through the body between the organs and nodes via lympha8c
vessels and blood vessels.
Types of Leukocytes
The two basic types of leukocytes are:
phagocytes (neutrophils and monocytes), cells that chew up invading
organisms
lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to remember and recognize
previous invaders and help the body destroy them.
Phagocytes
A number of dierent cells are considered phagocytes.
The most common type is the neutrophils, which primarily ghts bacteria.
Monocytes will transform to mature macrophages and kill the invading
pathogens.
Increased number of neutrophils or monocytes indicate bacterial infec<on.

Lymphocytes
The two kinds of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T
lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and
become mature into
B cells at bone marrow, or
T cells at thymus gland.
B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes have separate
func<ons:
B lymphocytes lock onto the the target and bring T
cells to aPack. B lymphocytes also produce an<bodies.
T cells destroy the invading pathogens that B cell has
iden<ed. They mainly kill intracellular pathogens.
Types of Acquired Immunity
4 types:
naturally ac<ve immunity,
ar<cially ac<ve immunity,
naturally passive immunity,
ar<cially ac<ve immunity.