Chapter 2 Foundations of Individual Behavior

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Ability

1. Which of the following statements is true about the term ability, as it is used in the field of
organizational behavior?
a. It refers to an individuals willingness to perform various tasks
b. It is a current assessment of what an individual can do
c. It refers exclusively to intellectual skills
d. It refers exclusively to physical skills
e. It is a prediction of future aptitude based on current attitudes
(b; Moderate; p. 44)

2. Which one of the following words is the best synonym for ability, as the term is used in
organizational behavior?
a. motivation
b. capacity
c. experience
d. intellect
e. wisdom
(b; Challenging; p. 44)

3. Which of the following is not a dimension of intellectual ability?

a. number aptitude
b. perceptual speed
c. spatial visualization
d. dynamic flexibility
e. social aptitude
(d; Moderate; p. 45)

4. Research has found that tests that measure specific dimensions of intelligence are strong
predictors of which of the following?
a. job satisfaction
b. turnover
c. job performance
d. ability to work with others
e. absenteeism
(c; Challenging; p. 48)

5. Recent evidence suggests that intelligence can be better understood by breaking it down into
four sub-parts. Which one of the following is not one of those sub-parts?
a. cognitive
b. social
c. emotional
d. cultural
e. physical
(e; Moderate; p. 47)

6. Which type of intelligence encompasses the aptitudes that have long been tapped by traditional
intelligence tests?
a. Cognitive intelligence
b. Social intelligence
c. Emotional intelligence
d. Cultural intelligence
e. Spiritual intelligence
(a; Easy; p. 47)

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7. Although he scores well on traditional intelligence tests, James does not perform well in the
workplace due to an inability to relate effectively with his colleagues. James would likely score
below the median on a test that measures what subpart of intelligence?
a. Cognitive
b. Social
c. Emotional
d. Cultural
e. Spiritual
(b; Moderate; p. 47)

8. A company is looking for a manager to liaise between its home office in the United States, its
manufacturing plants in Poland and Germany, and its suppliers in the Middle East and South
Asia. A good candidate would be likely to score highly in what subpart of intelligence?
a. Cognitive
b. Social
c. Emotional
d. Cultural
e. Spiritual
(d; Easy; p. 47)

9. Which subpart of intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and manage affect?
a. Cognitive
b. Social
c. Emotional
d. Cultural
e. Spiritual
(c; Easy; p. 47)

10. What is the correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction?

a. strongly negative
b. slightly negative
c. about zero
d. slightly positive
e. strongly positive
(e; Moderate; p. 47)

11. Which of the following is not one of the nine basic abilities involved in the performance of
physical tasks?
a. stamina
b. dynamic flexibility
c. speed
d. body coordination
e. trunk strength
(c; Challenging; p. 47)

12. An employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job. Which of the following
predictions about that employee is most likely to be true?
a. The employees performance is likely to be inadequate
b. The employees performance is likely to be far above what is required.
c. The employees job satisfaction is likely to be low.
d. The employees job satisfaction is likely to be high.
e. The employees abilities will deteriorate until they match what is required for the job.
(a; Moderate; p. 47)

Biographical Characteristics

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13. What will be the largest demographic change in the U.S. workforce in the next decade?
a. increasing ethnic diversity
b. a fall in married workers
c. increasing age of workers
d. decreasing tenure of workers
e. more women in the workforce than men
(c; Moderate; p. 49)

14. Which of the following is not a biographical characteristic?

a. political affiliation
b. age
c. sex
d. tenure
e. race
(a; Easy; p. 48-53)

15. Research shows that which of the following is likely to decrease as a worker grows older?
a. productivity
b. likelihood of quitting
c. absenteeism
d. vacation days taken
e. work ethic
(b; Moderate; p. 49)

16. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than younger workers.
b. Older employees have lower rates of unavoidable absence than younger workers.
c. Older employees are more likely to quit their job than younger workers.
d. Older employees are perceived to be more flexible than younger workers.
e. Older employees generally have lower productivity than younger workers.
(a; Moderate, p. 49)

17. Which of the following is true concerning the relationship between age and job satisfaction?
a. Most studies have found a negative association between age and satisfaction.
b. Some studies have found a U-shaped relationship between age and satisfaction.
c. Satisfaction decreases among professionals as they age.
d. Satisfaction increases among nonprofessionals during middle age.
e. Satisfaction decreases among nonprofessionals after middle age.
(b; Challenging; p. 49)

18. Research does not support which of the following statements about gender in the workplace?
a. Women are more willing to conform to authority than men.
b. Men are more aggressive than women.
c. Women are more productive at work than men.
d. Men have higher expectations of success.
e. Women have lower turnover rates than men.
(c; Moderate; p. 50)

19. Research supports which of the following statements about men and women in the workplace?
a. Men are more productive.
b. Women are more productive.
c. Men are the most receptive to socialization.
d. Women are more likely to resign.
e. Women have more absences.
(e; Moderate; p. 50)

20. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for the higher absentee rate of women in the

30
 workplace?
a. Women tend to have more illnesses that keep them from work than do men.
b. Traditionally, women have had the responsibility of caring for home and family.
c. Women tend to be less satisfied with their jobs than men.
d. Women generally have jobs for which a temporary replacement can be hired.
e. Women tend to work in jobs that have less flexible schedules than men do.
(b; Challenging; p. 50)

21. Which of the following statements concerning tenure is not true?

a. Recent evidence demonstrates a positive relationship between seniority and job productivity.
b. Tenure does not appear to be a good predictor of employee productivity.
c. Tenure is a potent variable in explaining turnover.
d. Tenure and satisfaction are positively related.
e. Tenure and organizational investment are negatively related.
(b; Moderate; p. 52)

22. Studies indicate that which of the following tends to decrease with increased tenure?
a. job satisfaction
b. productivity
c. absenteeism
d. raises and promotion
e. efficiency
(c; Moderate; p. 52

23. Which of the following is a major problem in the use of ability tests for selection and promotion
of personnel?
a. the low reliability of the tests
b. the tests fail to take into account the personality of the individual
c. some individuals with high intelligence are poor test takers
d. the unfair advantage that women enjoy on these tests
e. the adverse impact the tests may have on different racial and ethnic groups
(e; Moderate; p. 52)

Learning

24. Which of the following indicates that learning has taken place?
a. The ability to perform well on exams
b. A change in motivation
c. A change in behavior
d. A high I.Q. score
e. An increase in experience
(c; Easy; p. 53)

25. Learning has not taken place in which of the following cases?
a. A farm worker makes sure that she always wears a hat after she was badly sunburned,.
b. A salesman watches a training video and then uses some of the techniques in that video.
c. An athlete trains rigorously, until he can run a mile in less than 4 minutes.
d. A warehouseman avoids working by staying in areas of the warehouse where he has
observed that the foreman does not enter.
e. A manager only completes an important project by working through the night.
(e; Moderate; p. 53)

26. All of the following are true about learning except that it _____.
a. involves change
b. can have a very short duration
c. requires a change in behavior

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 d. requires some form of experience
e. affects aptitude
(b; Moderate; p. 53)

27. A cashier starts greeting her customers with a simple Hello rather than following the company
policy of greeting them with the standard greeting Thank you for shopping with us, since she
find saying the latter slightly embarrassing. In this case, what is the experience that has led to
learning?
a. The feeling of embarrassment when she uses the standard company greeting.
b. The direction of the company to use the standard greeting.
c. The decision not to use the company greeting.
d. Her use of the informal greeting of Hello.
e. The decision of the company to adopt the standard greeting.
(a; Moderate; p. 53)

28. Experiments performed by Pavlov led to what theory?

a. classical conditioning
b. operant conditioning
c. social learning
d. method reproduction
e. behavior shaping
(a; Moderate; p 53-54)

29. What role did the meat play in Pavlovs experiment with dogs?
a. an unconditioned response
b. a conditioned stimulus
c. a conditioned response
d. a reconditioned stimulus
e. an unconditioned stimulus
(e; Moderate; p. 54)

30. Classical conditioning would view which of the following as most likely to be a conditioned
response?
a. wincing when you stub your toe
b. driving on the right side of the road
c. flinching when startled by a loud noise
d. looking for shelter when the sky turns gray
e. mouth watering when you eat delicious food
(d; Moderate; p. 54)

31. In Pavlovs experiment, the bell was a/an _____.

a. unconditioned stimulus
b. unconditioned response
c. conditioned stimulus
d. conditioned response
e. none of the above
(c; Easy; p. 54)

32. Which of the following is not true of classical conditioning?

a. Classical conditioning is passive.
b. Classical conditioning can explain simple reflexive behaviors.
c. Learning a conditioned response involves building an association between a conditioned
stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
D. A neutral stimulus takes on the properties of a conditioned stimulus.
e. Classical conditioning is different in many respects from operant conditioning.
(d; Challenging; p. 54)

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33. When Joe gets stressed he often drinks chamomile tea. This calms him since he associates
chamomile tea drinking with happy visits with his grandmother in his childhood. The calm feeling
brought on by the tea is an example of which of the following?
a. classical conditioning
b. operant conditioning
c. sensory learning
d. social learning
e. shaping
(a; Easy; p. 54)

34. Why does classical conditioning theory fail to adequately describe behavior in the workplace?
a. Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is reflexive rather than voluntary.
b. Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is emitted rather than elicited.
c. Most behavior of individuals in the workplace is complex.
d. It is very difficult to determine exactly which conditioned stimulus elicits which response in the
workplace.
e. Classical conditioning works well describing animal behavior but not human behavior.
(b; Challenging; p. 55)

35. Operant conditioning argues that _____.

a. behavior is reflexive
b. behavior is unlearned
c. behavior is a function of its consequences
d. the tendency to repeat a behavior is very strong
e. the tendency to repeat a behavior is instinctual
(c; Moderate; p. 55-56)

36. Which of the following researchers thought that reinforcement was the central factor involved in
behavioral change?
a. Pavlov
b. Fayol
c. Skinner
d. Deming
e. Surber
(c; Moderate; p. 56)

37. Stella has been late to work often in the past. Stellas manager tries to change Stellas behavior
by praising her whenever she is on time. However, Stella realizes that this is what he is doing,
and resents his attempts to manipulate her behavior. This is an example of what problem with
behaviorism and OB Mod?
a. behaviorism and OB Mod assume that peoples thoughts and feelings in response to their
environment are irrelevant
b. behaviorism and OB Mod put undue emphasis on cognitive processes
c. behaviorism and OB Mod only have an effect on human subjects when those subject are
unaware that these techniques are being used.
d. the best reinforcement to use and the schedule on which it should be used varies widely
between individual subjects.
e. behaviorism and OB Mod are based upon simple models of stimulus and response that may
not hold true in a complex, real world environment
(a; Challenging; p. 56)

38. Your boss does not follow through on her promise to pay you double for overtime hours worked.
When asked again to work overtime, you decline. This is an application of _____ conditioning.
a. classical
b. operant
c. sensory
d. association

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 e. disappointment-weighted
(b; Challenging; p. 56)

39. According to operant conditioning, when a behavior is not reinforced, what happens to the
probability of that behavior occurring again?
a. it increases
b. it declines
c. it remains unchanged
d. it becomes zero
e. it may increase or decrease based on other factors
(b; Easy; p. 56)

40. What do we call the view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience?
a. situational learning theory
b. classical learning
c. social learning theory
d. hands-on learning experience
e. the Pavlov principle
(c; Easy; p. 56)

41. Social learning theory is an extension of _____.

a. classical conditioning
b. operant conditioning
c. shaping
d. Pavlovian theory
e. continuous reinforcement principles
(b; Challenging; p. 56)

42. Isadora observes that when her brother Mikey crosses the street without looking he is punished
by their parents. Based on this, she is careful to look before she crosses the street. Isadora has
learned through what principle?
a. classical conditioning
b. operant conditioning
c. shaping
d. extinction
e. social learning theory
(e; Challenging; p. 56)

43. Social learning theory would best describe the learning in the following situation?
a. an employee works through lunch several days in a row after being told by her boss that she
will receive extra pay.
b. a man learns how to perform yoga by watching a videotape of a yoga teacher.
c. a child always addresses his grandmother politely after he is given candy as a reward for his
good manners.
d. a man stops wearing brightly colored shirts to work after being teased for doing so by his co-
workers.
e. a postal workers pulse rate rises whenever she approaches a house where she has been
bitten by a dog before.
(b; Challenging; p. 58)

44. A manager in a workshop that reconditions used air conditioners finds that employees are
avoiding cleaning the air conditioners properly, since this is a dirty and difficult task. The
manager decides to alter this behavior by docking the pay of employees who do not clean the air
conditioners properly. Which of the following is not a probable outcome of attempting to change
the behavior by using punishment rather than by using positive reinforcement?
a. The employees will probably stop cleaning the air conditioners properly soon after they are
not punished for it.

34
 b. Positively reinforcing the correct behavior will eliminate the undesired behavior more quickly
than
negative reinforcement
c. The punished employees will have lowered morale.
d. The punished employees will resent their manager.
e. The punished employees will start to clean the air conditioners properly.
(b; Moderate; p. 58)

45. Using operant conditioning, which of the following is not a method that can be used to change
behavior?
a. negative reinforcement
b. punishment
c. counseling
d. positive reinforcement
e. shaping
(c; Easy; p. 58)

46. Four processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have on an
individual. Which of the following is not one of those processes?
a. attentional processes
b. retention processes
c. motor reproduction processes
d. reinforcement processes
e. consequential processes
(e; Moderate; p. 58)

47. Which of the following processes deals with how well an individual remembers a models action
after it is no longer readily available?
a. Attitudinal
b. Retention
c. Motor reproduction
d. Reinforcement
e. Attention
(b; Easy; p. 57)

48. What do we call the practice of reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired
behavior ?
a. modeling
b. shaping
c. classical conditioning
d. social learning
e. aping
(b; Moderate; p. 57)

49. You want to increase the productivity of an employee. Your goal is to have him produce 10 units
per day. On the first day he produces 5 units and you give him a reward. On the second day he
produces 5 units and you dont give him a reward. On the third day he produces 6 units and you
give him a reward. Which method of behavioral change are you using?
a. modeling
b. shaping
c. classical conditioning
d. social learning
e. ego impairment
(b; Challenging; p. 57)

50. Which of the following can be used in shaping behavior?

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 a. positive reinforcement
b. diminishment
c. reaction
d. manipulation
e. unionization
(a; Easy; p. 57)

51. What is it called when a desired response is followed by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant?
a. negative reinforcement
b. positive reinforcement
c. manipulation
d. elimination
e. psychic withdrawal
(a; Moderate; p. 57)

52. Suspending an employee for dishonest behavior is an example of which method of shaping
behavior?
a. extinction
b. negative reinforcement
c. punishment
d. poor planning
e. reaction
(c; Moderate; p. 57)

53. Which of the following is an example of the use of extinction in shaping behavior?
a. a teacher does not respond to any student who speaks before being called upon
b. a workplace institutes a zero-tolerance policy for drug and alcohol use
c. a manager docks the pay of all workers who arrive late
d. a cat owner sprays his cat with water every time it tries to sit on the couch
e. a soccer coach rewards his players with praise and small rewards if they prevent the other
team from scoring
(a; Moderate; p. 57)

54. Which of the following statements about positive and negative reinforcement is not true?
a. They both result in learning.
b. They both strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition.
c. They tend to weaken behavior and decrease its subsequent frequency.
d. They are effective shaping tools.
e. They are often used in learning.
(c; Challenging; p. 57)

55. An employee is frequently late for work. Every time he is not tardy the manager compliments
him for being on time. What form of reinforcement is the manager using?
a. continuous schedule
b. negative
c. intermittent schedule
d. repetitious
e. repetitious negative
(a; Moderate; p. 57)

56. According to research, which of the following is a schedule of reinforcement that promotes the
greatest resistance to extinction?
a. continuous
b. fixed interval
c. variable interval
d. fixed ratio

36
 e. negative
(c; Moderate; p. 59-60)

57. In which reinforcement schedule is a reward provided after a given number of responses?
a. variable-ratio
b. fixed-ratio
c. variable-interval
d. fixed-interval
e. viable
(b; Moderate; p. 60)

58. In general, _____ reinforcement schedules tend to lead to higher performance than _____
reinforcement schedules.
a. variable; fixed
b. fixed; intermittent
c. fixed; variable
d. variable; ratio
e. fixed; static
(a; Moderate; p. 60)

59. The corporate audit staff makes a series of randomly timed, unannounced visits to a company
office. On each visit they check the records to see that they are up to date and correct. These
visits are an example of which of the following?
a. positive reinforcement
b. variable-interval reinforcement schedule
c. continuous reinforcement schedule
d. fixed reinforcement schedule
e. static response method
(b; Moderate; p. 60)

60. The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting is referred to as
_____.
a. classical conditioning
b. self-management
c. reengineering
d. OB Mod
e. social modeling
(d; Moderate; p. 62)

61. Which of the following is one of the steps of the problem-solving model followed by the typical
OB Mod program?
a. identifying critical behaviors
b. reinforcing behavior
c. developing horizontally arrayed data
d. developing vertically arrayed data
e. identifying member barriers
(a; Moderate; p. 62)

62. A manager wishes to use OB Mod in order to increase the friendliness of his staff towards
customers. The manager starts by determining exactly what behaviors his sales staff needs to
use in order to increase their friendliness towards customers. What is the next step that the
manager should take?
a. determine why employees are not friendly towards customers
b. develop a strategy for increasing the friendliness of employees towards customers
c. reward employees who are friendly towards customers
d. record how often employees are friendly to customers at the present time
e. establish what is needed to motivate employee friendliness towards customers

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(d; Moderate; p. 62)

63. Which of the following is not a means of achieving high levels of ability-job fit?
a. an effective job selection process
b. promotion and transfer decisions that reflect the abilities of candidates
c. fine tuning the job to better fit the incumbents abilities
d. designing self-analysis tools for high level managers
e. being sensitive to employee needs
(d; Moderate, p. 64)

64. Who said Give me a child at birth and I can make him into anything you want?
a. B.F. Skinner
b. Ivan Pavlov
c. Sigmund Freud
d. James Emery
e. Ben Franklin
(a; Moderate; p. 65)

TRUE/FALSE

Ability

65. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability that make them relatively superior or
inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities.
(True; Easy; p. 44)

66. Ability is the assessment of what one will do.

(False; Easy; p. 44)

67. An individuals overall abilities are essentially made up of three sets of factors: thinking,
reasoning, and problem solving.
(False; Challenging; p. 44)

68. It is illegal in the U.S. for employers to use I.Q. tests for employment selection.
(False; Moderate; p. 44)

69. A high I.Q. is a good prerequisite for all jobs.

(False; Easy; p. 44)

70. Tests that measure specific dimensions of intelligence have been found to be strong predictors of
future job performance.
(True; Moderate; p. 44)

71. Mental ability tests used for selection, promotion, training, and similar personnel decisions may
have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups.
(True; Challenging; p. 44)

72. Stamina, dexterity, and strength are dimensions of physical ability.

(True; Easy; 45)

73. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and manage affect.
(True; Moderate; p. 47)

74. The multiple intelligence line of inquiry has been largely discredited.
(False; Easy; p. 47)

75. Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit.

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(True; Easy; p. 48)

76. Individuals who have a high score on one dimension of physical ability will usually score high on
all other dimensions.
(False; Moderate; p. 47)

Biographical Characteristics

77. Biographical data is easier to acquire than information on employee motivation levels.
(True; Easy; p. 48)

78. Collecting biographical data is typically a very difficult task in organizations.

(False; Easy; p. 48)

79. Personal characteristics that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records (such as
age, sex, and marital status) are called biographical characteristics.
(True; Easy; p. 48)

80. A persons age is an example of a biographical characteristic.

(True; Easy; p. 49)

81. The relationship between age and job performance is likely to be an issue of increasing
importance during the next decade.
(True; Moderate; p. 49)

82. In general, woman and men desire the same work schedules.
(False; Moderate; p. 49)

83. Recent American legislation makes it easier for a company to enforce mandatory retirement.
(False; Moderate; p. 49)

84. Mandatory retirement has become an increasingly rare phenomenon in organizations.

(True; Moderate; p. 49)

85. Age and turnover rates are directly related.

(True; Moderate; p. 49)

86. Age and avoidable absences are negatively related.

(True; Moderate; p. 49)

87. Workers productivity tends to decline with age.

(False; Moderate; p. 50)

88. Age and job satisfaction are related for professional workers.
(True; Moderate; p. 50)

89. There is no significant difference between the absenteeism rates of men and women.
(False; Easy; p. 51)

90. In employment settings, individuals tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance
evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises.
(True; Easy; p. 51

91. People who have been on a job longer are more productive than those with less seniority.
(True; Moderate; p. 52)

92. Tenure is negatively related to absenteeism.

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(True; Moderate; p. 52)

93. Tenure is negatively related to turnover.

(True; Moderate; p. 52)

94. Tenure and satisfaction are negatively related.

(False; Moderate; p. 52)

Learning

95. Learning has occurred when there is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of experience.
(True; Easy; p. 53)

96. One can easily observe others learning.

(False; Easy; p. 53)

97. Classical conditioning grew out of the work of B.F. Skinner.

(False; Moderate; p. 53)

98. In Pavlovs study, dogs salivated in response to a ringing bell.

(True; Easy; p. 54)

99. The meat in Pavlovs experiment was an unconditioned stimulus.

(True; Moderate; p. 54)

100. Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between a conditioned

stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
(True; Challenging; p. 54)

101. Operant conditioning can be used to explain why Christmas carols often bring back pleasant
memories of childhood.
(False; Challenging; p. 54)

102. Classical conditioning is passive.

(True; Moderate; p. 55)

103. Classical conditioning can explain simple reflexive behaviors.

(True; Moderate; p. 55)

104. What Pavlov did for operant conditioning, Skinner did for classical conditioning.
(False; Challenging; p. 55)

105. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned
behavior.
(True; Challenging; p. 55)

106. Your supervisor has explained that he will reward those who take extra effort to see that their
jobs are done well. This tactic follows from research into operant conditioning.
(True; Easy; p. 56)

107. Rewards are most effective if they are delayed following the desired response.
(False; Moderate; p. 56)

108. Learning through both observation and direct experience is called operant conditioning.
(False; Easy; p. 56)

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109. Older workers are not as capable of learning as younger employees.
(False; Moderate; p. 58)

110. Trainability is a measure of a persons willingness to learn.

(False; Moderate; p. 58)

111. Personality has been found to significantly influence learning and training outcomes.
(True; Moderate; p. 58)

112. Shaping occurs when we mold individuals by using intensive training to change their behavior
quickly.
(False; Easy; p. 58)

113. One method of shaping behavior is called positive reinforcement and occurs when a desired
response is followed with something pleasant.
(True; Moderate; p. 58)

114. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called punishment.

(False; Moderate; p. 58)

115. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning.

(True; Easy; p. 58)

116. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.
(True; Challenging; p. 58)

117. Some type of reinforcement is necessary to produce a change in behavior.

(True; Easy; p. 58)

118. A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each time it is
demonstrated.
(True; Easy; p. 60)

119. A piece-rate incentive plan is an example of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement.

(False; Moderate; p. 60)

120. Salespeople on commission are examples of individuals on a variable-ratio schedule.

(True; Moderate; p. 60)

121. In the typical OB Mod program, everything an employee does on his or her job is equally
important in terms of performance outcomes.
(False; Moderate; p. 60)

122. The first step in OB Mod is to identify critical behaviors impacting the employees performance.
(True; Moderate; p. 62)

123. Our knowledge about learning suggests that punishment is a more effective tool in OB mod than
reinforcement.
(False; Moderate; p. 62)

SCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONS

Application of Ability

You are the new human resources manager for a design and manufacturing firm. Overall, job
performance is adequate, but the company has experienced high rates of turnover. A high percentage of

41
employees have quit and taken other jobs. In the exit interviews, you find the most common complaint is
that they are frustrated in their jobs.

124. This scenario gives rise to the suspicion that there are problems in this firm with _____.
a. ability-job fit
b. negative reinforcement
c. adequate reinforcement
d. disciplinary measures
e. training
(a; Easy; p. 44)

125. After looking into the situation more, you find that the highest turnover is in the circuit-board
manufacturing area. The employees in this area are required to have at least a two-year college
degree. While there are many different jobs in this area, the majority involve loading automatic
machines with parts to be placed on the circuit boards. Which of the following is most likely to be
true about the employees in this area?
a. They need better manual dexterity skills
b. They are over-qualified, dissatisfied, and paid more than necessary
c. They are underpaid and resentful
d. They are incompetent
e. They are under-qualified
(b; Moderate; p. 44)

Application of Biographical Characteristics

You work in the air filter manufacturing business. Your division is made up of three other people with very
different biographical characteristics. Gina is 27 years old, single and female. She has been with the
company only six months. Jonathan is 63 years old and a widower who has been with the company for
thirty years. Sally is a single mother with four children who has been with the company for five years.

126. Based on the information given, which employee would you expect to have the lowest rate of
avoidable absence?
a. all these employees would have about the same rate of avoidable absence
b. Sally
c. Gina
d. Jonathan
e. Gina and Sally would probably have equally low rates
(d; Moderate; p. 48)

127. Based on the information given, which employee would you expect to most desire the option to
telecommute or arrange a more flexible work schedule.
a. all these employees would have the same desire for these options
b. Jonathan
c. Sally
d. Gina
e. Gina and Sally
(c; Moderate; p. 48)

128. Based on the information given, which employee would be least likely to quit his or her job?
a. all these employees would have about the same likelihood of quitting
b. Gina
c. Jonathan
d. Sally
e. Gina and Sally
(c; Moderate; p. 48)

Application of Learning TheoryShaping Behavior

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You are the first-line supervisor for a group of employees who make cheese slicers. Their job is not
terribly interesting or challenging and you have noticed that they are frequently tardy returning from their
breaks. You have studied the concept of shaping behavior and decide that you will try to apply it to this
situation.

129. You praise Allen for returning on time from break. This is an example of _____.
a. negative reinforcement
b. positive reinforcement
c. extinction
d. social learning
e. modeling
(b; Moderate; p. 57)

130. Sam is late coming back to work and you dock his pay. This is an example of _____.
a. positive reinforcement
b. negative reinforcement
c. punishment
d. extinction
e. classical conditioning
(c; Moderate; p. 57)

131. You want Allison to take an accounting course so that she can help with the bookkeeping. Allison
does not want to go to night school to take the course and has been resisting. You know that her
least favorite duty is preparing payroll. You tell her that she will be given extra help with
preparing payroll whenever she takes an accounting class. This is an example of _____.
a. positive reinforcement
b. negative reinforcement
c. punishment
d. extinction
e. classical conditioning
(b; Challenging; p. 57)

Application of Different Schedules of Reinforcement

You have decided to experiment with the relationship between reinforcement schedules and maintaining
desired employee behavior. You are interested in observing the differences between continuous and
intermittent reinforcement and between the various types of intermittent reinforcement schedules.

132. Veronica is paid $10.00 per dozen units that she produces. This is an example of _____
reinforcement.
a. intermittent, fixed-interval
b. continuous
c. intermittent, variable-interval
d. negative
e. none of the above
(a; Challenging; p. 59)

133. Gerald is a staff accountant who is visited several times a year by the corporate auditor. These
visits are unannounced. This is an example of _____reinforcement.
a. intermittent, fixed-interval
b. continuous
c. intermittent, variable-interval
d. negative
e. reactive
(c; Challenging; p. 59)

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134. Johns attendance has historically been unreliable and you have decided to use reinforcement
and compliment him when his attendance record shows improvement. The most effective
schedule of reinforcement will probably be _____.
a. variable-interval intermittent
b. fixed-interval intermittent
c. continuous
d. punishment-based
e. shaped
(a; Challenging; p. 59)

135. You know that the reinforcement schedule that your firm chooses for compensation will have an
impact on the behavior of employees. Which of the following is not likely based on available
research?
a. Continuous reinforcement schedules will lead to early satiation.
b. Continuous reinforcement schedules are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-
frequency responses.
c. Variable schedules do not clearly link performance and rewards.
d. Fixed schedules will lead to higher performance than variable schedules.
e. Variable schedules will be highly effective.
(d; Challenging; p. 59)

Application of Behavior Modification

Your manager has read about the now-classic study of Emerys use of OB Mod. He was impressed by the
savings to the company of $2 million over a three-year period. He has announced that he is
implementing an OB Mod program at your organization.

136. You can expect to see the application of which of the following in the work setting?
a. reinforcement concepts to individuals
b. open book management
c. additional stock option plans
d. analysis of biographical characteristics
e. higher health care benefits
(a; Easy; p. 62)

137. What is the first step that your manager is likely to take?
a. identify behavioral consequences
b. identify critical behaviors
c. evaluate performance improvement
d. develop baseline data
e. none of the above
(b; Challenging; p. 62)

138. In the first step of the OB Mod program, your manager will most likely be attempting to identify
those five to ten percent of behaviors that may account for up to _____ percent of each
employees performance.
a. 20-25
b. 40-50
c. 60-70
d. 70-80
e. 100
(d; Challenging; p. 62)

SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

139. What is a likely explanation of why people with high cognitive intelligence do not necessarily
work well with others or succeed when placed in leadership roles?

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 The view of multiple intelligences offers a likely explanation. This theory suggests that
intelligence can be best understood by breaking it down into four subparts: cognitive,
social, emotional, and cultural. Thus some people may have a great deal of cognitive
intelligence but be relatively low in terms of their social skills, etc. (Page 45)

140. Amazon and Microsoft emphasize intelligence when hiring employees. What is the rationale for
this approach?

Bill Gates defends the practice by stating You can teach smart people anything. This
perspective illustrates the perception that intelligent people are more trainable and
capable of acquiring information than their less intelligent peers might be in the same
situation (Page 45)

141. What prediction can you make for an organization where the ability-job fit is poor?

If employees lack the required abilities, they are likely to fail in their job performance.
Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employees job
satisfaction when the employees desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong
and is frustrated by the limitations of the job. (Page 48)

142. Has research indicated the existence of gender differences in job productivity? Explain.

There is little evidence indicating that an employees gender affects his or her job
productivity. In this area of study the similarities between male and female workers seems
to far outweigh the very minor differences (for example, in the area of absenteeism) that
have been found in some studies. (Page 50)

143. Why is the relationship between age and job performance likely to be an issue of increasing
importance during the next decade?

First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age.
Regardless of whether its true or not, many people believe it and act on it. Second is the
reality that the workforce is aging. Workers age 55 and older are currently the fastest-
growing sector of the labor force. The third reason is that U.S. legislation, for all intents
and purposes, outlaws mandatory retirement. (Page 49)

144. What is learning?

Leaning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result
of experience. (Page 53)

145. How can managers shape employee behavior?

Managers can shape employee behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive

step that moves the individual closer to the desired response. Managers can mold
individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps. Reinforcement increases as
responses more closely approximate the desired behavior. Managers may use positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction to promote this
gradual shaping of employee behavior. (Pages 57)

146. Give an example of a fixed-ratio schedule for paying employees and an example of a variable-
ratio schedule for payment.

In a fixed-ratio schedule, rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of

responses. For example, a worker is rewarded with a piece rate system paying $10 for
every 12 widgets produced. Each dozen earns the worker another $10. A variable-ratio

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 schedule provides variable reward relative to the behavior of the individual. For example,
a car salesman on commission is on a variable-ratio schedule. Each potential customer
does not necessarily result in a sale and thus a commission. (Page 59)

MEDIUM LENGTH DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

147. What is ability? What are the two sets of factors comprising a persons ability level?

Ability refers to an individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a given job. It is a
current assessment of what one can do. An individuals overall abilities are essentially
made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical abilities. Intellectual abilities are
those needed to perform mental activities. Physical abilities are important for
successfully performing jobs that are more standardized which require manual labor
(Pages 44)

148. What is the relationship between age and the organizational issues of productivity, turnover and
satisfaction?

This is a somewhat complex set of relationships. The older you get, the less likely you
are to quit your job. Older workers are less likely to resign than are younger workers
because their long tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer paid
vacations, and more attractive pension benefits. In general, older employees have lower
rates of avoidable absence than do younger employees. However, they also have higher
rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to the poorer heath associated with aging
and the longer recovery that older workers need when injured. The demands of most
jobs, even those with heavy manual labor requirements, are not extreme enough for any
declines in physical skills due to age to have an impact on productivity; or if there is
some decay due to age, it is offset by gains due to experience. The evidence is mixed
when examining the relationship between age and job satisfaction, however. Most studies
indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age 60. Other
studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship. Satisfaction tends to continually
increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals
during middle age and then rises again in the later years. (Pages 49)

149. Identify and briefly describe the five steps of a typical OB Mod program.

The typical OB Mod program follows a five-step problem-solving model: identifying

critical behaviors, developing baseline data, identifying behavioral consequences,
developing and implementing an intervention strategy, and evaluating performance
improvement. The first step is to identify the critical behaviors that make a significant
impact on the employees job performance. The second step requires the manager to
develop some baseline performance data. This is obtained by determining the number of
times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions. The third step is to
perform a functional analysis to identify the behavioral contingencies or consequences of
performance. This tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the
consequences that are currently maintaining it. In the fourth step, the manager develops
and implements an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors
and weaken undesirable behaviors. The final step is to evaluate performance
improvement. (Page 62)

COMPREHENSIVE ESSAYS

150. How do we learn? Identify and discuss the theories to explain the process by which we acquire
patterns of behavior. Be sure to specifically identify the key elements of each of these theories
by name.

Classical conditioning was discovered by Pavlov. Learning a conditioned response

46
 involves building up an association between a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus in order to invoke the performance of a conditioned response,
which was formerly an unconditioned response. When the stimuli, one compelling and
the other one neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and,
hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus and leads to the
performance of a conditioned response (which is the same response as the original
unconditioned response). Skinner, who discovered operant conditioning, argues that
behavior is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they
want or to avoid something they dont want. Operant behavior means voluntary or
learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat
such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about
by the consequences of the behavior and can be manipulated through positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, shaping, and extinction. Social
learning is the theory that we can learn through both observation and direct experience.
Social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning; it assumes that behavior
is a function of consequences it also acknowledges the existence of observational
learning and the importance of perception to learning. People respond to how they
perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves.
(Pages 53)

151. Discuss the four processes management should include when creating employee training
programs.

The likelihood that training programs will be successful can be improved with the
inclusion of attentional, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement processes.
People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical
features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly
available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation. A models influence will
depend on how well the individual remembers the models action after the model is no
longer readily available. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model,
the watching must be converted to doing. This motor reproduction process demonstrates
that the individuals can perform the modeled activities. Individuals will be motivated to
exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. (Pages 56-
57)

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