American Marketing Association

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing

Author(s): Walter R. Nord and J. Paul Peter
Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 36-47
Published by: American Marketing Association
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PETER
WALTER
R.NORD
&J.PAUL
This article presents an overview of behavior modification
and investigates its applicability to marketing. It is suggested
that this perspective provides a useful complement to the
more cognitively-oriented approaches which currently dominate the marketing literature. Some of the approach's
potential contributions and unresolved issues are also discussed.

A
BEHAVIOR
MODIFICA
MARKETIN
ON
PERSPECTIVE

of marketinghave borrowedfreely

from many areas of

STUDENTS

psychology. For example,

need
satisfaction models,
cognitive psychology,
field theory, psychoanalytic theory, and stimulusresponse theory have all provided useful insights
for understanding and predicting consumer behavior. However, marketing scholars have given little
consideration to one of the most influential perspectives developed in psychology in the last 40 yearsthe behavior modification approach stimulated by
the work of B. F. Skinner' (e.g., 1953, 1969). The
purpose of this paper is to provide an overview
of the Behavior Modification Perspective (BMP)
which has evolved from the work of Skinner and
others and investigate its applicabilityto marketing.

Fundamental Elements of Behavior

Modification
There is an important basic difference between the
BMP and the psychological perspectives which
currently dominate the marketing literature: the
BMP focuses on environmentalfactors which inWalter R. Nord is Professor of OrganizationalPsychology
and J. Paul Peter is Associate Professor of Marketing
at Washington University, St. Louis, MO. The authors
would liketo thankC. WilliamEmoryand two anonymous
reviewers for their helpful comments.

fluence behavior. It takes the prediction and control

of behavior as problematic and deliberately shuns
speculation about processes which are assumed to
occur within the individual such as needs, motives,
attitudes, information processing, etc. In fact, the
so-called radical behaviorists reject the value of
considering these internal processes at all. Our
approach is far less radical and more consistent
with the social learning theories of Bandura (1978)
and Staats (1975). We believe that it is useful and
desirable to theorize about and investigate internal,
psychological processes which affect behavior.
However, we maintain that many marketing objectives can be (and in fact have been) accomplished
without such theories by simply studying environmental conditions and manipulating them to influence consumer behavior. The BMP provides the
stimulus and technology for systematizing this external focus.
Frequently, treatments of behavior modification
are limited to two types of environmentalmanipulations-those which result in respondent (classical)
conditioning and those which produce operant (in'Some psychologists consider Skinner and his followers to be
S-R theorists. While there are important similarities, the differences
are significant enough that leading psychologists consider Skinner's
work separately from their treatment of S-R theory (see Hall and
Lindzey 1970).

36 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

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Journal of Marketing
Vol. 44 (Spring 1980), 36-47.

strumental) conditioning.2This treatment of behavior modification will include these manipulations

as well as those which alter behavior through
vicarious learning and ecological design.
A review of the literature revealed that these
four ways of modifying behavior have been given
little systematic attention in marketing. While respondent conditioning has been discussed at length
in the marketing literature in an attempt to explain
behavior, it has not been discussed as a method
of modifying or controlling behavior. Operant
conditioning has been discussed (e.g., Carey et al.
1976; Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell 1973; Kassarjian 1978; Ray 1973) but has not been integrated
into the mainstream of marketing thinking. Treatment of vicarious learning and ecological design
is almost totally absent.3 As a result many students
of marketing are apt to be unfamiliar with these
processes. Therefore, all four will be described in
some detail.
RespondentConditioning
Respondents are a class of behaviors which are
under the control of stimuli which precede them.
Generally, these behaviors are assumed to be governed by the autonomic nervous system and, therefore, are not susceptible to conscious control by
the individual. Pavlov's classical conditioning
experiments provide the basic paradigm for this
approach.
In general, respondent conditioning can be defined as a process throughwhich a previously neutral
stimulus, by being paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, comes to elicit a response very similar
to the response originally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. It is well established that a variety
of human behaviors including reflexes, glandular
responses, and what are often called "emotions"
can be modified through the process of respondent
conditioning.4 For example, when a new product
for which people have neutral feelings is repeatedly
advertised during exciting sports events, it is possible for the productto eventually generate excitement
on its own solely through the repeated pairing with
the exciting events. Similarly, an unknown political
candidate may come to elicit patriotic feelings in
2It has been argued that respondent and operant
conditioning
may not be as separable processes as previously thought. For a
discussion of this point, see Miller (1969). However, for present
purposes they will be treated as conceptually distinct.
3However, Kotler's (1976, p. 324) notion of atmospherics as well
as several of Belk's (1974, 1975) situational influences, e.g., physical
and social surroundings, are fully consistent with the principles
of ecological design (and respondent conditioning).
4Miller (1969) has demonstrated that these behaviors can also
be conditioned by stimuli which occur after them.

voters simply by having patriotic music constantly

played in the background of his/her political commercials.
Since it is a process which can account for many
of the responses which environmental stimuli elicit
from individuals, respondent conditioning has a
number of important implications for marketing.
Throughit, a particularstimulus can come to evoke
positive, negative, or neutral feelings. Consequently, respondent conditioning influences whether a
wide variety of objects or events are those which
an individual will work to obtain, to avoid, or be
indifferent to.
At this point, it should be clear that what the
BMP views as respondent conditioning can account
for many of the reactions to stimuli which have
also been accounted for by cognitive or affective
models. We are not saying that the BMP view is
incompatible with these traditionalconcerns or that
it is a perfect substitute for such models. However,
these traditionalconcerns have led marketingscholars to accept models and to design research in which
internal psychological processes are focal and assumed to be "causal." As a result, the role of
external events has received insufficient attention.
Respondent conditioning and other elements of the
BMP focus on the manipulation of external factors
and it is clear that consumer behavior can be
influenced through this external emphasis without
a complete psychology of internal processes.'
Consider a productor a product-relatedstimulus.
External stimuli which elicit positive emotions can
be paired with the product in ways which result
in the product itself eliciting positive effect. Consequently, behavior may be triggered which brings
the potential consumer into "closer contact" with
the product.6 Similarly, stimuli may be presented
"There are three basic ways by which researchers attempt to
determine what properties certain stimuli have for people. One
way is through verbal reports. A second method may be termed
projection whereby the investigator infers the properties from
his/her observations of another person's behavior. A third means
can be termed empirical. This involves presentation of a stimulus
and description of its consequences. Of course, these three are
often used in combination. The BMP encourages marketers not
to discount the advantages of the empirical approach.
6"Closer contact" refers to a general relationship between a
person's behavior and a given stimulus (e.g., a product). For
example, if a product elicits positive effect, an individual exposed
to the product is more apt to move towards it than if negative
emotions are elicited. Attending behavior is also apt to be a function
of respondently conditioned effect. Stimuli which elicit stronger
emotional responses (either positive or negative) are, at least over
a considerable range, apt to receive more attention from an individual
than are stimuli which are affectively neutral. To the degree that
attending behavior is necessary for product purchase or other
product-related behavior, respondent conditioning influences product contact.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 37

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which produce certain general emotional responses

such as relaxation, excitement, nostalgia, or some
other emotion which is likely to increase the probability of some desired response such as product
purchase. Note, while it may be useful to obtain
verbal reports or physiological measures in deciding
what stimuli to employ to elicit such emotions, the
BMP bypasses these procedures and focuses directly on ways to modify behavior. While a number
of psychological theories could be used to account
for these processes, behavior can be modified
without such theories. In fact, it seems clear that
the actions of practitioners often follow this atheoretical approach.
Consider the following examples. Radio and
television advertisements often use famous sportscasters whose voices have been paired for years
with exciting sports events. These voices elicit
excitement as a result of this frequent pairing.
Repeated pairings of the voices with the advertised
product can result, via higher-order respondent
conditioning, in feelings of excitement associated
with the product. Music, sexy voices and bodies,
and other stimuli are used in similar ways. Often
these stimuli may influence behavior without this
"higher order conditioning" simply by drawing
attention to the ad. Of course, the attention generating properties of the stimulus itself are apt to have
developed through previous conditioning which
occurs "naturally"in society. The use of telephones
ringing or sirens in the background of radio and
television ads, some legal version of the phrase
"news bulletin," and the presence of famous celebrities, are common examples of how stimuli,
which are irrelevant to the content of an ad or
the function of the product, are used to increase
attention to the ad itself. In this sense, one of the
major resources that organizations use to market
their products is made available through previous
respondent conditioning of members of society.
Stimuli at or near the point of purchase also
serve the goals of marketers through their ability
to elicit respondent behaviors. Christmas music in
a toy department is a good example. Although no
data are available to support the point, we suspect
that Christmas carols are useful in eliciting the
emotions labeled as the "Christmas spirit." Once
these feelings have been elicited, we suspect (and
retailers seem to share our expectations) that people
are more apt to purchase a potential gift for a loved
one. In other words, Christmas carols are useful
in generating emotions which are incompatible with
"sales resistance."
These examples can serve as a basis for several
generalizations about the role of respondent condi-

tioning as a marketing tool. First, the concept of

respondent conditioning directs attention to the
presentation of stimuli which, due to previous conditioning, elicit certain feelings in the potential consumer. Sometimes (as with Christmas music) these
stimuli trigger certain emotions which are apt to
increase the probabilityof certain desired behaviors
or reduce the probability of undesired responses.
Second, in many cases the marketer may find it
useful to actually condition responses to stimuli.
For example, as with the voices of famous sportscasters, it may be desirable to pair the stimuli
with the product repeatedly in order to condition
the feelings elicited by a particular stimulus to the
product. Then, the product itself may stimulate
similar reactions. Finally, some of the benefits
which can be gained from employing the principles
of respondent conditioning have already been used
by marketingpractitioners in an (apparently)ad hoc
manner. While the systematic application of the
respondent paradigm is unlikely to result in any
new principles, by calling attention to the actual
control process being employed, it is apt to yield
a number of practical benefits both to advertising
and to point of purchase promotion. In particular,
stimuli are apt to be arranged in ways which are
more effective in eliciting desired emotional responses. Thus, the primary benefit of respondent
conditioning, as with other elements of the BMP,
is that it encourages the systematic analysis of
purchase and purchase-related behaviors and indicates specific techniques for modifying and controlling these behaviors.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning differs from respondent
conditioning in at least two important ways. First,
whereas respondent conditioning is concerned with
involuntary responses, operant conditioning deals
with behaviors which are usually assumed to be
under the conscious control of the individual. Second, respondent behaviors are elicited by stimuli
which occur prior to the response; operants are
conditioned by consequences which occur after the
behavior.
In any given situation, at any given time, there
is a certain probability that an individual will emit
a particularbehavior. If all of the possible behaviors
are arranged in descending order of probability of
occurrence, the result is a response hierarchy.
Operantconditioning has occurred when the probability that an individual will emit one or more
behaviors is altered by changing the events or
consequences which follow the particularbehavior.
Some events or consequences increase the fre-

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quency that a given behavior is likely to be repeated.

For example, a cash rebate given at the time of
purchase increases the probability that a shopper
will purchase in the same store in the future, other
things being equal. In this case,since the cash rebate
has the effect of increasing the probability of the
preceding behavior, it is referred to as a positive
reinforcer. In other cases, the frequency of a given
behavior can be increased by removing an aversive
stimulus. This is called negative reinforcement.
Although there are few examples of negative reinforcement in marketing, one illustration is the situation where a consumer purchases a product primarily to avoid the high pressure tactics of an overzealous salesperson.
Sometimes operant techniques are used to decrease the probability of a response. If the environment is arranged so that the particular response
results in neutral consequences, over a period of
time that response will diminish in frequency. This
process is referred to as extinction. If the response
is followed by a noxious or "undesired" result,
the frequency of the response is likely to decrease.
The term punishment is usually used to describe
this process.7
In addition to these general procedures, there
are a number of other principles of operant conditioning. (For a rather complete description of these
possibilities, Honig 1966and Staats 1975are recommended.) However, there are three concepts which
deserve specific mention: reinforcement schedules,
shaping, and discriminative stimuli.
ReinforcementSchedules. A numberof different
schedules of reinforcement can be employed. For
example, it is possible to arrange conditions where
a positive reinforcer is administeredafter: (1) every
desired behavior, (2) every second desired behavior,
etc. When every occurrence of the behavior is
reinforced, a continuous schedule of reinforcement
is being employed. When every second, third, tenth,
etc. response is reinforced, a fixed ratio schedule
is being used. Similarly, it is possible to have a
reinforcer follow a desired consequence on average
one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc. of the time,

but not every second time or third time, etc. Such

a schedule is called a variable ratio schedule.
The ratio schedules are of particular interest
because they produce high rates of behavior which

are reasonably resistant to extinction. Gambling

devices are good examples. Slot machines are very
effective in producing high rates of response, even
under conditions which often result in substantial
financial losses. This property of the ratio schedule
is particularly important for marketers because it
suggests how a great deal of desired behavior can
be developed and maintained for relatively small,
infrequent rewards. For example, Deslauriers and
Eberett (1977) found that by giving small rewards
for riding a bus on a variable ratio schedule, the
same amount of bus riding could be obtained as
when rewards were given on a continuous schedule.
Thus, for approximately one-third the cost of the
continuous schedule, the same amounts of behavior
were sustained.8
Numerous other examples of the use of the
variable ratio schedule can be found in marketing
practice. Lotteries, door prizes, and other tactics
whereby individualsare asked to respond in a certain
way to be eligible for a prize are common examples
(when the prize is assigned by chance).
Shaping. Another concept from the operant
tradition which has importantimplications for marketing is "shaping." Shaping is important because
given an individual's existing response hierarchy,
the probability that he/she will make a particular
desired response may be very small. In general,
shaping involves a process of arrangingconditions
which change the probabilities of certain behaviors
not as ends in themselves, but to increase the
probabilities of other behaviors. Usually, shaping
involves the positive reinforcement of successive
approximationsof the desired behavior or of behaviors which must be performed before the desired
response can be emitted.
Many firms already employ marketingactivities
which are roughly analogous to shaping. For example, loss leaders and other special deals are used
as rewards for individuals coming to a store. Once
customers are in the store, the probability that they
will make some other response such as purchasing
other full-priced items is much greater than when
they are not in the store. Also, shopping centers
or auto dealers who put carnivals in their parking
lots may be viewed as attemptingto shape behavior.
Similarly, free trial periods may be employed to
make it more likely that the user will have contact

7In this paper, we will focus primarily on the use of positive

reinforcement. We are making this choice for two reasons. First,
we personally do not believe that aversive consequences should
be used to sell products. Second, it is unlikely that the use of
aversive consequences to sell products is generally practical in
the current socioeconomic system even if organizations were
predisposed to use them.

8There are a number of other possible reinforcement schedules.

However, we will limit our attention to continuous and ratio
schedules. Also we will not deal with the consequences that the
different schedules have on the pattern, rate, and maintenance
of behavior. For a detailed treatment of these effects, Honig (1966)
is recommended.

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with the product so that he/she can experience

the product's reinforcing properties.
Discriminative Stimuli. It is important to distinguish between the reinforcement and discriminative
functions played by stimuli in the operant model.
In our treatment of respondent conditioning, we
noted that a stimulus can act as a reinforcer or
can function to trigger certain emotions or other
behaviors. So far in this section, the focus has been
on the reinforcing function. However, the mere
presence or absence of a stimulus can serve to
change the probabilities of behavior; such stimuli
are called discriminative stimuli.
Many marketing stimuli are of a discriminative
nature. Store signs (e.g., "50% off sale") and store
logos (e.g., K-Mart's big red "K") or distinctive
brandmarks(e.g., the Levi tag) are good examples.
Previous experiences have perhaps taught the customer that purchasebehavior will be rewardedwhen
the distinctive symbol is present and not rewarded
when the symbol is absent. Here then is yet another
parallel between the principles of behavior modification and common marketing practice.
Vicarious Learning
Vicarious learning (or modeling) refers to a process
which attempts to change behavior by having an
individual observe the actions of others (i.e.,
models) and the consequences of those behaviors.
According to Bandura (1969) there are three
major types of vicarious learning or modeling influences. First, there are observational learning or
modeling effects whereby an observer acquires one
or more new response patterns that did not previously exist in his/her behavioral repertoire. Second, there are inhibitory and disinhibitory effects
whereby an observer's inhibitory responses are
either strengthened or weakened by observation of
a model's behavior and its consequences. Third,
there is response facilitation whereby the behavior
of others ". . . serves merely as discriminative
stimuli for the observer in facilitatingthe occurrence
of previously learned responses .. ." (Bandura
1969, p. 120).
Developing New Responses. There are at least
three types of new behaviors that marketers often
wish to induce in consumers or potential consumers.
First, it is often desirable to "educate" consumers
in productusage. Second, it may be helpful to induce
consumers to shop in certain ways. Finally, by
developing certain types of "attending behavior,"
the sensitivity of a potential customer to advertising
information can be increased. Vicarious learning
can be very useful in achieving these three goals.
First, modeling can be used to develop behaviors

which enable potential consumers to utilize particular products appropriately. The demonstration of
ways of using a product may make purchase more
probable, particularly if the model(s) appear to be
experiencing positive consequences from using the
product. Moreover, repurchaseor purchase by one's
friends may become more probableif the consumer
has learned, by watching someone else, to use the
product appropriately. This use of modeling is
common to both industrial and consumer products
salespeople who are attempting to sell technically
complex products. Also, many self-service retail
stores now use video cassette machines with taped
demonstrations of proper product usage.
Second, models may be very helpful in developing the desired purchasing behaviors. For example,
suppose a firm has a product which is currently
technically superior to its competitors. It may be
important to teach the potential consumer to ask
questions about such technical advantages at the
point of purchase. Advertisements showing individuals doing just this or behaving in other ways which
appear to give a particular product a differential
advantage may be useful.
Third, particularlyat early stages in the purchase
process, it is often necessary to find ways to increase
the degree to which potential customers attend to
information in advertisements and other messages
about a product. Attaining this objective can be
facilitated through the application of findings from
recent research on factors which influence the
attention observers pay to models. For example,
attending behavior is influenced by such factors
as: incentive conditions, the characteristics of the
observers, the characteristics of the model, and the
characteristics of the modeling cues themselves.
Advertising practitioners seem to be very sensitive to these factors. Many ads reflect their creators'
acute awareness of salient characteristics of the
target audience, the characteristics of the users of
the product in the ad, and the behaviors exhibited
by the model. Moreover, many ads show the models
receiving positive social or other reinforcementfrom
the purchase or use of the product.
Inhibiting Undesired Behaviors. Because of the
obvious ethical and practical problems involved in
attemptingto use punishmentin marketing,we have
given little attention to ways of reducing the frequency of "undesired" responses. However, while
these problems exist in the direct use of punishment,
they are far less prevalent when aversive consequences are administeredto models. Thus, vicarious
learning may be one of the few approaches which
can be used in marketing to reduce the frequency
of unwanted elements in the behavioral repertoire

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of a potential or present consumer.

It is well known from the modeling literature
that, under appropriate conditions, observers who
see a model experience aversive outcomes following
a particularact, will reduce their tendency to exhibit
that behavior. Similarly, vicarious learning can
employ an extinction situation to reduce the frequency of behavior.,
While most marketing efforts are directed at
increasing rather than decreasing behaviors, some
ads are directed at reducing such behaviors as
smoking, drinking, overeating, wasting energy, polluting and littering, as well as purchasing or using
a competitor's product. The effectiveness of messages to achieve these goals may benefit from the
use of vicarious negative conditioning.
Response Facilitation. In addition to its role in
developing new behaviors and inhibiting "undesired" behaviors, modeling can be used to facilitate
the occurrence of desired behaviors which are
currentlyin the individual's repertoire. For example,
modeling has been used extensively in advertising
not only to illustrate the uses of a product but to
show what "types" of people use it and in what
settings. Since many of these uses involve behaviors
already in the observer's response hierarchy, the
function of the model is merely to facilitate these
responses by depicting positive consequences for
use of the productin a particularway. This technique
appears frequently in advertising for high status
products. Such ads do not demonstrate any new
behaviors, but show the positive consequences of
using a particular product. The recent series of
Lowenbrau ads stressing the use of this beer for
very special occasions is a clear example of this.
It is also possible to influence emotional behavior
through a vicarious learning paradigm. Bandura
(1969) noted that many emotional behaviors can
be acquired through observations of others, as well
as through direct respondent conditioning:
.. . vicarious emotional conditioning results from
observing others experience positive or negative
emotional effects in conjunction with particular
stimulus events. Both direct and vicarious conditioning processes are governed by the same basic
principles of associative learning, but they differ
in the force of the emotional arousal. In the direct
prototype, the learner himself is the recipient of
pain- or pleasure-producing stimulation, whereas
in vicarious forms somebody else experiences the
reinforcing stimulation and his affective expressions, in turn, serve as the arousal stimuli for the
observer (p. 167).

To the degree that positive emotions toward a

product are desired, vicarious emotional conditioning may be a useful concept for the design of
effective advertisements.

In sum, vicarious learning or modeling has a

number of current and potential uses in marketing.
If a potential consumer has observed appropriate
models, then he/she is more likely to know the
appropriate behaviors; if the model has been
rewardedappropriately,the potential consumer may
be more likely to engage in these behaviors. Likewise, if the potential consumer has observed inappropriate models receiving aversive consequences, he/she may be less likely to emit them.
Models may be used to develop, inhibit, or facilitate
behavior. In short, as with the other components
of the BMP, it is clear that this technique for
modifying behavior is commonly employed in current television and other advertising messages. In
fact, Markin and Narayana (1976, p. 225) suggest
that many of today's most successful products are
promoted and advertised on the basis of modeling
approaches which show the model receiving positive
functional or social benefits from the use of the
product. Products they suggest have used this approach include "Coca-Cola," "Pepsi Cola," "McDonald's," "Kentucky Fried Chicken," "Nyquil,"
"Absorbine Jr.," "Alka Seltzer," Philip's "Milk
of Magnesia," "Pepto Bismol," "Folgers,"
"Crest," and "Head and Shoulders." However,
since the link of current marketing practice to the
BMP has not been explicit, research exploring the
application of the principles of vicarious learning
to marketing settings is lacking. Such research is
apt to have both practical importance for marketing
and theoretical implicationsfor students of modeling
as previous findings are tested in more general,
less artificial settings.
Ecological Design
Although knowledge about the role of physical space
and other aspects of environmentaldesign is meager,
there is considerable evidence that the design of
physical situations and the presence or absence of
various stimuli have powerful effects on behavior
(Barker 1968; Hall 1959, 1966; Sommers 1969). We
will use the term ecological design to refer to the
deliberate design of environments to modify human
behavior.
Ecological design is widely used in marketing.
For example, department stores place displays in
high traffic areas (e.g., at the end of an escalator)
to increase the likelihood that consumers will observe the product on display. Similarly, end aisle
displays in supermarkets and the internal arrangements of stores involve efforts to place stimuli in
positions which increase the likelihood of consumers
making one or more desired responses. Direct mail
is also a means of placing stimuli in the potential

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consumer's environment to increase the likelihood

that the individual will at least be aware of the
particularproduct. Other techniques include the use
of sound, odors, lights, and other stimuli to increase
attentive behaviors. In fact, store location and
external arrangements (e.g., design of malls, arrangement of parking space) are all efforts to alter
behavior through environmental design. In a be-

havioral sense, these are all ways to increase the

probability that the individual will make certain
responses which increase the likelihood that purchase or some other desired response will follow.
Like shaping, ecological manipulations are frequently employed to modify behavior early in the
purchase process. Thus, their major impact is
throughtheir role in inducing the potential consumer

TABLE 1
Illustrative Applications of the BMP in Marketing
I. Some Applications of Respondent Conditioning Principles
A. Conditioning responses to new stimuli
Unconditioned or Previously
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
A product or theme song
Exciting event
Patrioticevents or music

A product or person

B. Use of familiar stimuli to elicit responses

Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response(s)
Familiarmusic
Relaxation, excitement, "good
will"
Familiarvoices
Excitement, attention
Sexy voices, bodies

Excitement, attention, relaxation

Familiarsocial cues

Excitement, attention, anxiety

Examples
Gillette theme song followed by
sports event
Patriotic music as background
in political commercial
Examples
Christmas music in retail store
Famous sportscaster narratinga
commercial
Noxema television ads and many
others
Sirens sounding or telephones
ringing in commercials

II. Some Applications of Operant Conditioning Principles

A. Rewards for desired behavior (continuous schedules)
Desired Behavior
Product purchase

Reward Given Following Behavior

Trading stamps, cash bonus or rebate, prizes,
coupons

B. Rewards for desired behavior (partialschedules)

Desired Behavior
Product purchase

Reward Given (sometimes)

Prize for every second, or third, etc. purchase
Prize to some fraction of people who purchase

C. Shaping
Approximation of Desired
Response
Opening a charge account
Tripto point-of-purchase
location
Entryinto store
Producttrial
D. DiscriminativeStimuli
Desired Behavior
Entryinto store
Brand purchase

Consequence Following
Approximation
Prizes, etc., for opening account
Loss leaders, entertainment, or
event at the shopping center
Door prize
Free product and/or some
bonus for using
Reward Signal
Store signs
Store logos
Distinctive brandmarks

Final Response Desired

Expenditureof funds
Purchase of products
Purchase of products
Purchase of product

Examples
50% off sale
K-Mart'sbig red "K"
Levi tag

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to come into contact with the product and/or

perform product-related behavior. As such, ecological design is best viewed as one part of a
comprehensive marketing approach; ecological
modifications can be conveniently sequenced with
other techniques (e.g. modeling, respondent conditioning, operant conditioning).
As with other elements subsumed under the
BMP, ecological designs to modify behavior have
received far less attention in the academic literature
than they deserve in view of how frequently they
are used by marketing practitioners. A major advantage of the BMP is that it encourages the
integration of these various techniques to lead to
a coherent approach for modifying the entire sequence of behaviors desired of consumers and
potential consumers.

Summaryof Some Applicationsof the

BMP in Marketing
Table 1 provides a framework for considering some
applications of the BMP to marketing. Each of the
four sections of the table outlines the general

procedures which would be followed in applying

one of the four basic elements of the BMP. The
table lists a number of the specific behaviors which
marketers may wish to develop and organizes the
examples presented in the previous sections of the
paper. In reviewing this table, two qualifications
should be kept in mind. First, there are many tactics
for modifying behavior which are combinations of
a number of techniques which do not fit neatly
into the simple categories presented in the table.
For example, Anheuser-Busch has a series of commercials which begin with a sports trivia question
and then give the listener "time to think" while
the virtues of a particular brand of beer are discussed. Then, the answer to the question is given.
Determination of exactly which principles this approach uses and whether or not the approach can
be reduced to principles of behavior modification
at all requires a complex analysis of the acquisition
and use of language. However, the approach is
clearly one of picking a desired behavior (i.e.,
listening to the commercial) and organizing stimuli
to increase the probability of this behavior.
Second, most, if not all of these tactics have

TABLE 1 (Continued)
Ill. Some Applications of Modeling Principles
Desired Response
Modeling Employed
Use of product in technically competent way
Instructor,expert, salesperson using product
(in ads or at point-of-purchase)
Models in ads asking questions at point-ofAsk questions at point-of-purchase which highlight
purchase
product advantages
Models in ads receiving positive reinforcement
Increase product purchase and use
for product purchase or use
Models in ads receiving no reinforcement or
Extinctionor decrease undesired behaviors
receiving punishment for performing undesired
behaviors
Individualor group (similar to target) using
Use of product in new ways
product in novel, enjoyable way
IV. Some Applications of Ecological Modification Principles
Environmental Design
Intermediate Behavior Final Desired Behavior
Specific Example
Store layout
End of escalator,
Product purchase
Bring customer into
end-aisle, other displays visual contact with
product
Purchase locations
Purchase possible from Product or store contact Product purchase
home, store location
In-store mobility
In-store product
Product purchase
Bring consumer into
directories, information visual contact with
booths
product
Noises, odors, lights
Product purchase
Flashing lights in store
Bring consumer into
window
visual or other sensory
contact with store or
product

A Behavior Modification

Perspective

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on Marketing / 43

already been used by practitioners. While the BMP

may lead to some new tactics, its most important
value to practitioners will be in systematizing and
integrating marketing efforts by focusing attention
on the sequence of specific behaviors which can
be modified to change the probability of product
purchase or of some other desired behavior.

PotentialContributionsof the BMP to

Marketing
As the examples in the previous section illustrate,
a number of tactics which are frequently used by
marketing practitioners can be derived from the
BMP. Of course, the fact that they can be derived
does not mean that they were so derived or that
they could not have been derived from other models.
Nevertheless, the fact that such a varied array of
tactics can be subsumed under a relatively simple
model suggests that the perspective can be a valuable
addition to the academic marketing literature. It
is in this spirit that we speculate about the potential
contributions of the BMP to marketingpractice and
to the study of consumer behavior.
Marketing Practice
The BMP can make at least two major contributions
to marketing practice. First, it can facilitate the
development of a comprehensive set of strategies
and tactics which encompass those environmental
and situational factors which directly influence
behavior. If the behaviors desired from the potential
buyer are specified, it will often be possible to be
explicit about a set of actions which should occur
in any given situation to move the potential buyer
to behave in ways which are more likely to lead
to purchase behavior. Marketing tactics developed
with this degree of specificity force more careful
planning and analysis of exactly what outcomes
are sought and are more easily evaluated and refined. It should be noted here that in other systems
where behavior modification has been introduced,
it has often been found that there was considerable
ambiguity about exactly what results previous
methods of organization were really attempting to
achieve (Nord 1969; Schneier 1974). We suspect
that other than purchase behavior, many students
of marketing have never delineated the basic sequence of behaviors that consumers must perform
in order to purchase a product.
Second, the BMP can stimulate a closer interchange between academics and practitioners. In this
connection it is important to emphasize that while
marketing managers are rewarded for developing
tactics which generate sales and profits, academics

are more apt to be rewarded for attempting to

provide theoretical explanations of consumer behavior. The BMP focuses academics on the investigation of behaviors and techniques which produce
sales and profits. Moreover, its simplicity and
pragmatic emphasis should help academics in their
efforts to communicate with practitioners.
Study of Consumer Behavior
There are also two major contributions to the study
of consumer behavior. First, the BMP forces explicit
recognition that, to the degree that marketingefforts
seek to increase sales, marketing is directly concerned with the influence, modification, and control
of consumer behavior. Such recognition can have
profound effects on consumer behavior research.
While research on attitudes and decision processes
will not be precluded, valuable empirical research
may be conducted without attaching great significance to internal psychological processes. Instead,
attention is apt to center on the manipulation of
external factors which affect behavior in desired
ways. Even in cases where internal psychological
processes are the focus of research, the BMP forces
explicit recognition that there are a variety of
external influences which need to be accounted for
in research designs. Several of Belk's (1974, 1975)
situational influences as well as a variety of the
stimuli discussed in this article could well be affecting both the internal validity (i.e., interpretability)
and external validity (i.e., generalizability) of current consumer behavior research findings. The discussions by Snow (1974) and Petrinovich (1979)
should be useful for developing research methods
to incorporate these external influences.
Second, there is considerable evidence that the
behavior of consumers is far more consistent with
the principles of the BMP than with traditional
explanations. For example Markin(1974) and Markin and Narayana (1976)note that empiricalresearch
on consumer decision processes documents that
consumers: (1) do not seek extensive amounts of
informationin relationto purchase and consumption
problems; (2) do not process large amounts of
informationin relationto purchase and consumption
problems; and (3) do not appear to engage in
extensive problem solving behavior even in relation
to big ticket or capital intensive items such as
automobiles, houses, and major appliances. Not
only does the BMP account for the empirical data
better than many other approaches, but it does so
with fewer variables. In a word, it is more parsimonious. Further, it has long been recognized that
purchase behavior often precedes attitudes about
the product or brand purchased. Thus, the BMP

44 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

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may well provide insights into predicting and controlling the purchase-consumption process. It is
important to emphasize here that the BMP does
not nor is it intended to provide theoretical explanations of behavior. However, it is clear that any
scientific explanation of the causes of consumer
behavior will have to include not only internal
psychological processes, but also the external influences embodied in the BMP.

Some UnresolvedIssues
Based on our argument, we believe it is reasonable
to conclude that a good deal of marketing, at least
at the tactical or operational level, is as closely
aligned with techniques of behavior modification
as with those suggested by more complex, internally-oriented psychological models. To the degree this
conclusion is valid, it raises a number of issues
about the value of the BMP for marketing.
First, to what extent is the BMP a suitable
replacement for more traditional approaches? We
believe that it is a useful complement, not a replacement. The BMP focuses on external factors; it stops
short of providing adequate explanation of internal
processes. Although Skinner (1969) has argued persuasively that the skin is an arbitrary barrier, we
do not find the attempts of many radicalbehaviorists
to ignore the internal correlates of external stimuli
intellectually satisfying. At the same time, we agree
with Bindra (1959) that the efforts of motivational
and cognitive psychologists to deal with these internal correlates often are merely classifications of
acts, rather than adequate accounts for causes of
behavior. Thus, we are driven to a psychological
eclecticism which, unlike the current psychological
eclecticism in marketing, incorporates an external
perspective.
Second, there is the issue of the efficacy of
behavior modification techniques. While existing
research indicates that the technology exists to
modify behavior very effectively, this technology
can be used more effectively in controlled environments. While retail stores and shopping malls provide relatively closed environments, they do not
permit the type of control which experimenters in
hospitals, schools, prisons, and even work organizations may have. Moreover, the degree of control
which is possible will vary at different stages in
the purchasing process. Empirical research involving applications of behavior modification principles
at different stages of the purchasing process would
clearly be useful for investigating this issue. It is
only at the latter stages that substantial control
seems possible.

Third, there are major ethical/moral issues involved in the use of the BMP in marketing. In
many areas, the ethical/moral challenges to the
application of behavior modification are, at least
in the minds of most behavior modifiers, relatively
easy to refute. In most areas where behavior modification has been applied (e.g., psychotherapy,
education, self-improvement), it is usually possible
(although the possibility is often not translated into
practice) for subjects of behavior modification to
participate in defining the ends and also to what
degree they will determine in the means. Thus
human freedom and dignity are, to some degree,
protected; in such situations, the BMP provides
a useful technology for helping human beings
achieve the ends they are seeking. However, even
in these cases, behavior modification has been
challenged on ethical grounds.
We maintain that behavior modification is not,
in itself, immoral or unethical, but that valid ethical /moral concerns stem from (1) the ends to which
the technology is used and (2) the process by which
these ends are determined (see Nord 1976). The
application of these techniques in marketing seems
ethically vulnerable on both these counts. Efforts
to market products rarelyinclude the subject whose
behavior is modified as a full participant in determining either the use of the technology or the ends
to which it is put. There are, of course, examples
of the use of behavior modification techniques in
marketing to achieve purposes which many people
believe are socially desirable. For example, certain
outcomes such as reduction in littering, reduction
in pollution, smoking, and other behaviors can be
and are marketed through such techniques.
Moreover, much of consumer education involves
modifying the purchasingbehavior of the uneducated poor to get better economic value for dollars
spent. However, there appear to be many other
applications which have few redeeming social benefits.
The BMP reveals that these concerns are relevant to the present-not just the future. It is clear
that behavior modification techniques, even though
they may be called something else, are being currently employed in marketing. Moreover, since it
is clear that the type of emotions often labeled
"needs" or motives can be developed through
conditioning and modeling processes, the defense
that marketing satisfies needs is not fully adequate.
Thus, while explicit application of the BMP in
marketing is apt to trigger ethical concerns, the
BMP may be quite useful for viewing ethical problems involved in current marketing practice.
Fourth, there are a number of practical issues.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 45

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In addition to the problem of developing sufficiently

controlled environments, there are problems of
selecting reinforcers, of designing and implementing
effective schedules, and of designing effective ecological structures. Solutions to these problems can
benefit from an eclectic research approach. The
trial and error approach of the radical behaviorists
derived from their research with animals can be
useful, but is only one approach. In addition,
analysis of historical data on the effectiveness of
various marketing tactics in generating desired behaviors and laboratory or field experiments using
different types of reinforcers is needed. Moreover,
cognitively-oriented approaches which rely on verbal reports may offer insights into these questions.
Of course, the most important practical issue requires cost-benefit analysis. While the bottom line
will be the ultimate test, the BMP does lead to
the analysis of the sequence of behaviors which
is expected to lead to purchase or to other desired
behavior. These outcomes can be defined and measured more precisely with current technology than
can attitudes, needs, etc. Thus it is likely that
research to test the BMP will have a clear action
orientation as well as permit measurement of success at a number of intermediate steps.

Conclusions
This paper has attempted to provide an overview
of behavior modification and investigate its applicability to marketing. While it appears that many
marketingtactics currently employed are quite consistent with the BMP, these tactics appear to have
been derived in an ad hoc manner. A more systematic application of the BMP to marketing may well
provide insights for the development of improved
tactics and overall strategies and for describing how
the purchase-consumptionprocess works. Although
marketing academics and practitioners may be reluctant to view marketing as a technology for
modifying and controlling consumer behavior, it is
clear that marketing tactics which are fully consistent with this perspective will continue to be implemented. In terms of consumer behavior research,
it will undoubtedly be some time before researchers
actively catalog and sample elements of the external
environmentgiven the predilectiontoward the study
of internal processes. In any case, the BMP may
provide a clear understandingthat one of the major
de facto functions of marketing in our society is
the modification of behavior.

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Ag-Chem Marketing
Conference

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The Dorsey Press.

October 26-28, 1980

San Francisco, CA
Holiday Inn-Golden Gateway

TENTATIVE FEES
Early Late
AMA members $125 $140
Non-members $140 $175

Two and one-half day conference for the practicing researcherengaged in all forms of agricultural,chemical
research. Includes general sessions and concentrates on pesticide and fertilizer marketing. Conference features a
tour of The Napa Valley wineries with a stop for dinner at a leadingwinery on Monday as part of the registration
fee.
EDUCATIONDEPARTMENT
American MarketingAssociation
Suite 606
222 South Riverside Plaza
Chicago, Illinois 60606

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