Bridge Design (AASHTO LRFD)

113. Bridge Design (AASHTO LRFD)

As of the October 2010 exam, the ocial syllabus for the PE Civil exam
references the document AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specications, 4th
ed., 2007, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Ocials, Washington, D.C. These specications govern the design of highway
bridges according to the LRFD design philosophy. This is a major departure
from the previously referenced standard AASHTO Standard Specications
for Highway Bridges , 16th ed., American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Ocials, Washington, D.C., which was based on the load
factor design method.

In this chapter, we will discuss the specications regarding the following:

1. Design methods

2. Standard live loadingstruck and lane loads

3. Distribution of deck live loads to superstructure elements

4. Design of concrete deck slabs

5. Design of longitudinal beams (stringers)

113.1. Design PhilosophyLRFD

In the working stress design method (AASHTO Standard Specications),

structural members are designed such that specic stresses in the structural
member do not exceed a predened allowable stress, which is dened as a
limiting stress divided by a factor of safety. Thus, the allowable stress is a
fraction of some kind of "failure stress" for the material.

The main drawbacks of the working stress method are that (a) it designs
members for low stress levels (within the elastic limit) and usually results in
overdesigned structures and (b) it employs a single factor of safety and
therefore makes no distinction between the dierent degrees of variability of
dierent types of loads.

The load factor design (AASHTO Standard Specications), conceived to

improve upon the stated drawbacks of the working stress method, makes use
of the plastic range of material behavior and employs dierent load factors
for dierent load types. Limit states can be broadly classied into strength
limit states (such as yielding, fracture, buckling, etc.) and serviceability limit
states (such as fatigue, deection, vibration, etc.).

The LRFD design philosophy calibrates load factors such that the structure
has the same level of reliability for all load types. The LRFD principle may be
stated as

(113.1)

The i is the load factor associated with i th category service load Q i . The
factor is a load-modication factor, calculated as a product of ductility ( D ),
redundancy ( R ), and importance factors ( I ).

The ductility load modier accounts for the ability of a structure to

redistribute stresses from overstressed (inelastic) elements to other parts of
the load-resisting system. The redundancy load modier accounts for the
presence of multiple load paths in the structure. Redundancy in a structure
increases its factor of safety and this is reected by the load modier for
redundancy. Bridges are categorized as important if they provide a short
route to critical facilities.

113.2. LRFD Load Combinations

There are various categories of limit states employed in the LRFD

specicationsservice limit states (restrictions on stress, deformation, and
crack width under regular service conditions), fatigue and fracture limit
state, strength limit state, and extreme event limit states (major
earthquake or ood, vessel or vehicle collision).

Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the design equation for
the applicable combinations of factored extreme force eects as specied at
each of the following limit states:

Strength I This is the basic load combination

relating to the normal vehicular use
of the bridge without wind.

Strength II Load combination relating to the

use of the bridge by owner-
specied special design vehicles,
evaluation-permit vehicles, or both,
without wind.

Strength III Load combination relating to the

bridge exposed to wind velocity
exceeding 55 mph.

Strength IV Load combination relating to very

high dead load to live load ratios.

Strength V Load combination relating to normal

vehicular use of the bridge with
wind of 55-mph velocity.

Extreme Event I Load combination including

earthquake.

Extreme Event II Load combination relating to ice

load, collision by vessels and
vehicles, and certain hydraulic
events with a reduced live load
other than that which is part of the
vehicular collision load CT.

Service I Load combination relating to the

normal operational use of the
bridge with a 55-mph wind and all
loads taken at their nominal values.

Service II Load combination intended to

 control yielding of steel structures
and slip of slip-critical connections
due to vehicular live load.

Service III Load combination for longitudinal

analysis relating to tension in
prestressed concrete
superstructures with the objective
of crack control and to check
principal tension in the webs of
segmental concrete girders.

Service IV Load combination relating only to

tension in prestressed concrete
columns with the objective of crack
control.

Fatigue Fatigue- and fracture-load

combination relating to repetitive
gravitational vehicular live load and
dynamic responses under a single
design truck having the axle
spacing specied in Article
3.6.1.4.1.

The LRFD load factors are summarized in Table 113.1.

Table 113.1. AASHTO LRFD Load Factors

Table 113.2 gives the load factor p for various categories of permanent
loads. Either the minimum or maximum value of the load factor may produce
the most critical condition, and so, both must be considered.

Table 113.2. Load Factors for Permanent Loads (p)

(Load factor) (Load factor)

Symbol Name
Minimum Maximum

DC Dead load of 0.90 1.25

structural &
nonstructural
components

DD Downdrag 0.45 1.80

DW Dead load of 0.65 1.50

wearing
surfaces and
utilities
 EH Horizontal earth
pressure

Active 0.90 1.50

At rest 0.90 1.35

EV Vertical
pressure from
dead load of
earth ll

Overall stability 1.00

Retaining 1.00 1.35

structure

Rigid buried 0.90 1.30

structure

Rigid frames 0.90 1.35

Flexible buried 0.90 1.95

structures
except metal box
culverts

Flexible metal 0.90 1.50

box culverts

ES Earth surcharge 0.75 1.50

load

113.3. Deection Limits

The following are the deection limits prescribed by AASHTO LRFD:

For steel, aluminum, and concrete construction:

Vehicular load, general L /800

Vehicular load and/or pedestrian L /1000

 loads

Vehicular load on cantilever arms L /300

Vehicular load and/or pedestrian L /375

loads on cantilever arms

For wood construction:

Vehicular and pedestrian loads L/425

Vehicular load on wood planks and 0.1 in

panels

For orthotropic plates:

Vehicular load on deck plate L /300

Vehicular load on ribs of orthotropic L /1000

metal decks

Vehicular load on ribs of orthotropic 0.1 in

metal decks (relative deection
between adjacent ribs)

113.4. Minimum Depth of Superstructure

Table 113.3 summarizes minimum superstructure depths for various bridge

types, as recommended in the AASHTO LRFD specications.

Table 113.3. Minimum Depth of Superstructure Recommended in

AASHTO LRFD
 (Minimum
(Minimum
(Superstructure) (Superstructure) depth)
depth)
Material Type Continuous
Simple spans
spans

REINFORCED Slabs with main

CONCRETE reinforcement
parallel to trac

T-beams 0.070L 0.065L

Box beams 0.060L 0.055L

Pedestrian 0.035L 0.033L

structure beams

PRESTRESSED Slabs 0.030L 6.5 0.027L 6.5 in

CONCRETE in

CIP box beams 0.045L 0.040L

Precast I-beams 0.045L 0.040L

Pedestrian 0.033L 0.030L

structure beams

Adjacent box 0.030L 0.025L

beams

STEEL Overall depth of 0.040L 0.032L

composite I-beam

Depth of steel I- 0.033L 0.027L

beam

Trusses 0.100L 0.100L

113.5. Multiple Presence of Live Load

Unless specied otherwise, the extreme live load force eect shall be
determined by considering each possible combination of number of loaded
lanes multiplied by a corresponding multiple presence factor to account for
the probability of simultaneous lane occupation by the full HL-93 design live
load. In other words, the live load force eect on the member being designed
shall be computed for multiple scenarios of live load presence (1 lane loaded,
2 lanes loaded, 3 lanes loaded, etc.) multiplied by the corresponding multiple
presence factor from Table 113.4.

Table 113.4. Multiple Presence Factor for Live Load

Number of loaded lanes Multiple presence factor

1 1.20

2 1.00

3 0.85

>3 0.65

For the fatigue limit state, only one design truck is used, regardless of the
number of design lanes, and therefore the multiple presence factor is not
used.

113.6. Vehicular Live Load

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures,

designated HL-93, shall consist of three dierent live loadsa design truck,
design tandem, and design lane load. Each design lane under consideration
shall be occupied by either the design truck or tandem, coincident with the
lane load, where applicable. The loads shall be assumed to occupy 10.0 ft
transversely within a design lane.

113.6.1. Design Truck

The design truck is a model load that consists of three axle loads that
resemble a typical semitrailer truck. The front axle is 8 kips, the drive axle is
32 kips located 14 ft behind the front axle, and the rear trailer axle is also 32
kips positioned at a variable distance between 14 ft and 30 ft. For most
situations, such as to maximize shear and bending moment on simple spans,
the compact spacing (14 ft between second and third axle) of the truck axles
governs. The design truck is the same conguration that has been used in
the Standard Specications and designated as HS20 (Fig. 113.1).

Figure 113.1. AASHTO design truck (former HS20 in AASHTO LFD).

113.6.2. Design Tandem

The design tandem shall consist of a pair of 25.0-kip axles spaced 4.0 ft
apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 6.0 ft. A dynamic
load allowance shall be considered.

113.6.3. Design Lane Load

The design lane load shall consist of a load of 0.64 klf uniformly distributed
in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over a 10.0-ft width. The force eects
from the design lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.

The load eects of the design truck or design tandem must be superimposed
with the load eect of the design lane, as opposed to the Standard
Specications where the greater of the eects of the truck or lane loading
was used for design.

In addition, a third live load combination is used in the LRFD specications to

model the scenario where a truck is closely followed by another heavily
loaded truck. AASHTO LRFD A3.6.1.3.1 species

For both negative moment between points of contraexure

under a uniform load on all spans and reaction at interior
supports, 90 percent of the eect of two design trucks spaced a
minimum of 50 ft between the lead axle of one truck and the
rear axle of the other truck, combined with the eect of 90
percent of the design lane load. The distance between the 32
kips axles of each truck shall be taken as 14 ft.

These loads are shown in Figs. 113.2 to 113.4.

Figure 113.2. AASHTO LRFD design truck + design lane load.

Figure 113.3. AASHTO LRFD design tandem + design lane load.

Figure 113.4. AASHTO LRFD dual truck + design lane load.

113.7. Pedestrian Loads

A pedestrian load of 75 lb/ft 2 shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 2.0
ft and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load. Bridges
for only pedestrian and/or bicycle trac shall be designed for a live load of 85
lb/ft 2.

113.8. Dynamic Load Allowance

The static eects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and
braking forces, shall be increased by the percentage specied in Table 113.5
for dynamic load allowance. The factor to be applied to the static load shall
be taken as (1 + IM/100). The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to
pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

Table 113.5. Dynamic Load Allowance (IM)

Component IM

Deck joints

All limit states 75%

All other components

Fatigue and fracture limit state 15%

All other limit states 33%

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to retaining walls not subject to
vertical reactions from the superstructure, and foundation components that
are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures shall be
taken as

(113.2)

where D E = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (ft). The
dynamic load allowance is applied to the static live load according to

(113.3)

113.9. Wind on Superstructure ( W )

The base wind pressure on superstructure elements shall be taken according

to Table 113.6.

Table 113.6. Base Wind Pressure on Superstructure Elements

Trusses, columns, and

Girders
arches

Skew angle
Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Longitudinal
of wind
load (ksf) load (ksf) load (Ksf) load (Ksf)
(degrees)

0 0.075 0.000 0.050 0.000

15 0.070 0.012 0.044 0.006

30 0.065 0.028 0.041 0.012

45 0.047 0.041 0.033 0.016

60 0.024 0.050 0.017 0.019

113.10. Wind on Live Load ( Wl )

When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to both
structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an
interruptible, moving force of 0.10 klf acting normal to, and 6.0 ft above, the
roadway and shall be transmitted to the structure.

113.11. Design of Deck Cantilever and Railings

The deck cantilever, located beyond the exterior girder, is designed for a
uniform load of 1 kip/ft located 1 ft from the face of the curb or railing. The
railing and the deck overhang must sustain the eect of a truck collision. Six
test levels are designated based on the momentum characteristics of various
vehicles. The design forces are summarized in Table 113.7.

Table 113.7. Design Loads on Railings

Railing test level

Design
forces & TL-1 TL-2 TL-3 TL-4 TL-5 TL-6
parameters

Transverse 13.5 27.0 54.0 54.0 124.0 175.0

force F t
(kips)

Longitudinal 4.5 9.0 18.0 18.0 41.0 58.0

force F L
(kips)

Vertical 4.5 4.5 4.5 18.0 80.0 80.0

force F v
(kips)

L t & L L (ft) 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 8.0 8.0

L v (ft) 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 40.0 40.0

Minimum 18.0 20.0 24.0 32.0 42.0 56.0

H e (ft)

Minimum 27.0 27.0 27.0 32.0 42.0 90.0

rail height
(in)

TL-1: Work zones with low posted speeds

and very low-volume, low-speed
local streets

TL-2: Work zones and most local and

collector roads with favorable site
conditions, a small number of heavy
vehicles and reduced posted speeds

TL-3: High-speed arterial highways with

low heavy vehicle fraction and
favorable site conditions

TL-4: Majority of high-speed highways,

freeways, expressways, and
interstate highways with a mix of
heavy vehicles

TL-5: Same as TL-4 category except with a

large fraction of heavy vehicles or
where unfavorable site conditions
justify higher railing design loads

TL-6: Highways where tanker type trucks

are expected

where F t = transverse force (kips) acing on railing

L t = longitudinal distance for distribution of F t

F L = longitudinal force (kips) acing on railing

L L = longitudinal distance for distribution of F L

 F V = vertical force (kips) acing on railing

L V = longitudinal distance for distribution of F v

H e = elevation of F t and F L above deck

H = height of railing

113.12. Deck Design

There are two methods of deck design in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specications: (1) the approximate method, otherwise known as the
equivalent strip method and (2) the empirical method.

113.12.1. Equivalent Strip Method for Design of Reinforced Concrete

Decks

Decks can be analyzed by dividing the deck into strips perpendicular to

supporting elements. This approach can be used for decks except fully lled
and partially lled grids and top slabs of segmental concrete box girders.

Truck axle loads are supported by a transverse strip whose width is given by

1. For overhangsstrip width SW = 45.0 + 10.0X

2. For positive momentstrip width SW = 26.0 + 6.6S

3. For negative momentstrip width SW = 48.0 + 3.0S

where X and S are in feet and SW is in inches.

Minimum deck thickness is 7.0 in. For slabs less than 1/20 of the design span,
consideration should be given to prestressing in that direction to control
cracking. Eective span of concrete slabs supported by steel stringers or
prestressed concrete girders is specied as

For slabs monolithic with walls or beams: the face-to-face distance

For slabs supported on steel or concrete girders: the distance between

ange tips plus the ange overhang, taken as the distance from the
extreme ange tip to the face of the web, disregarding any llets
113.13. Bending Moment in Slab

Table 113.8 may be used to determine design moment in slabs. The values
computed in the table are based on the following assumptions:

Table 113.8. Design Moment in Concrete Slabs Supported by Steel

Beams

Negative moment (kip-ft)

Positive
Span Distance from CL of girder to design section for
moment
S (ft) negative moment
(kip-ft)

0 in 3 in 6 in 9 in 12 in 18 in 24 in

4 0 4.68 2.68 2.07 1.74 1.60 1.50 1.34 1.25

4 3 4.66 2.73 2.25 1.95 1.74 1.57 1.33 1.20

4 6 4.63 3.00 2.58 2.19 1.90 1.65 1.32 1.18

4 9 4.64 3.38 2.90 2.43 2.07 1.74 1.29 1.20

5 0 4.65 3.74 3.20 2.66 2.24 1.83 1.26 1.12

5 3 4.67 4.06 3.47 2.89 2.41 1.95 1.28 0.98

5 6 4.71 4.36 3.73 3.11 2.58 2.07 1.30 0.99

5 9 4.77 4.63 3.97 3.31 2.73 2.19 1.32 1.02

6 0 4.83 4.88 4.19 3.5 2.88 2.31 1.39 1.07

6 3 4.91 5.10 4.39 3.68 3.02 2.42 1.45 1.13

6 6 5.00 5.31 4.57 3.84 3.15 2.53 1.50 1.20

6 9 5.10 5.50 4.74 3.99 3.27 2.64 1.58 1.28

7 0 5.21 5.98 5.17 4.36 3.56 2.84 1.63 1.37

7 3 5.32 6.13 5.31 4.49 3.68 2.96 1.65 1.51

7 6 5.44 6.26 5.43 4.61 3.78 3.15 1.88 1.72

7 9 5.56 6.38 5.54 4.71 3.88 3.30 2.21 1.94

8 0 5.69 6.48 5.65 4.81 3.98 3.43 2.49 2.16

8 3 5.83 6.58 5.74 4.90 4.06 3.53 2.74 2.37

8 6 5.99 6.66 5.82 4.98 4.14 3.61 2.96 2.58

8 9 6.14 6.74 5.90 5.06 4.22 3.67 3.15 2.79

9 0 6.29 6.81 5.97 5.13 4.28 3.71 3.31 3.00

9 3 6.44 6.87 6.03 5.19 4.40 3.82 3.47 3.20

9 6 6.59 7.15 6.31 5.46 4.66 4.04 3.68 3.39

9 9 6.74 7.51 6.65 5.80 4.94 4.21 3.89 3.58

10 0 6.89 7.85 6.99 6.13 5.26 4.41 4.09 3.77

10 3 7.03 8.19 7.32 6.45 5.58 4.71 4.29 3.96

10 6 7.17 8.52 7.64 6.77 5.89 5.02 4.48 4.15

10 9 7.32 8.83 7.95 7.08 6.20 5.32 4.68 4.34

11 0 7.46 9.14 8.26 7.38 6.50 5.62 4.86 4.52

11 3 7.60 9.44 8.55 7.67 6.79 5.91 5.04 4.70

11 6 7.74 9.72 8.84 7.96 7.07 6.19 5.22 4.87

11 9 7.88 10.01 9.12 8.24 7.36 6.47 5.40 5.05

12 0 8.01 10.28 9.40 8.51 7.63 6.74 5.56 5.21

12 3 8.15 10.55 9.67 8.78 7.90 7.02 5.75 5.38

12 6 8.28 10.81 9.93 9.04 8.16 7.28 5.97 5.54

12 9 8.41 11.06 10.18 9.30 8.42 7.54 6.18 5.70

13 0 8.54 11.31 10.43 9.55 8.67 7.79 6.38 5.85

13 3 8.66 11.55 10.67 9.80 8.92 8.04 6.59 6.01

13 6 8.78 11.79 10.91 10.03 9.16 8.28 6.79 6.16

13 9 8.90 12.02 11.14 10.27 9.40 8.52 6.99 6.30

14 0 9.02 12.24 11.37 10.50 9.63 8.76 7.18 6.45

14 3 9.14 12.46 11.59 10.72 9.85 8.99 7.38 6.58

14 6 9.25 12.67 11.81 10.94 10.08 9.21 7.57 6.72

 14 9 9.36 12.88 12.02 11.16 10.30 9.44 7.76 6.86

15 0 9.47 13.09 12.23 11.37 10.51 9.65 7.94 7.02

1. Moments are calculated using the equivalent strip method, applied to

concrete deck on parallel girders.

2. Multiple presence factor and dynamic load allowance are included.

3. Deck is supported by at least three girders and has a width of not less
than 14.0 ft between centerlines of exterior girders.

4. Moments represent upper bound for moments in interior of slab,

calculated assuming dierent number of girders. For each case, the
minimum overhang was assumed to be 21 in and the maximum overhang
was assumed to be equal to the smaller of 0.625 times girder spacing and 6
ft.

5. Values in the table do not apply to deck overhangs.

113.14. Concrete Design

In the absence of precise data, the modulus of elasticity of concrete is given

by

(113.4)

where E c = modulus of elasticity (ksi)

K l = parameter related to source of aggregate (default value 1.0)

w c = unit weight of the concrete (kcf)

f c = specied compressive strength of the concrete (ksi)

For normal-weight concrete (w c = 0.145 kcf), this reduces to

(113.5)

Poisson's ratio of concrete may be taken as 0.20 if more precise data is not
available. For normal-weight concrete, the modulus of rupture f r (ksi) of
concrete is given by

(113.6)

Minimum reinforcement is provided to ensure that the nominal moment

capacity is at least 20% greater than the cracking moment, which is
calculated from the modulus of rupture based on Eq. (113.7).

(113.7)

The following strength reduction factors are specied in AASHTO LRFD:

For tension-controlled reinforced = 0.90

concrete sections

For tension-controlled prestressed = 1.00

concrete sections

Shear and torsion

Normal-weight concrete = 0.90

Lightweight concrete = 0.70

Compression-controlled sections = 0.75

with spirals or ties

Bearing on concrete = 0.70

Compression in strut and tie models = 0.75

For reinforced concrete decks with only tension reinforcement, the depth of
the compression block is given by
If the ultimate strength of the deck is written as

(113.8)

The strength parameter k may be related to the reinforcement ratio

according to

(113.9)

The required reinforcement in the deck is calculated as

(113.10)

where the eective depth of the slab is given by

The maximum permitted tensile reinforcement in exural members, based on

a desired level of ductility, corresponds to a lower limit on the tensile strain:

(113.11)

113.14.1. Distribution Steel in Concrete Slabs

For concrete slabs, distribution reinforcement shall be placed in the

secondary direction in the bottom of the slab as the following percentages of
the primary reinforcement for positive moment:

For primary reinforcement parallel to trac

(113.12)

For primary reinforcement perpendicular to trac

(113.13)

where S is the eective span length (ft).

Example 113.1

Design a transversely reinforced concrete deck slab for a concrete deck on

steel stringer type bridge. The bridge span is 100 ft and the deck is
supported by 6 girders spaced at 8 ft center-to-center spacing. The overall
width of the bridge is 46 ft and carries 2 trac lanes. The ange width of the
steel stringer is 12 in. The design live load is HS20-44. Concrete 28-day
compressive strength is 5 ksi and steel reinforcement is grade 60. Provide for
a 25 psf future wearing surface.

Solution For a slab supported continuously over more than two steel
stringers, the eective span is given by the sum of the clear distance
between anges and half the ange width:

Assuming 8-in slab thickness

Dead load per feet width of slab = weight of slab + weight of future wearing
surface

Factored dead load D = 1.25 100 + 1.50 25 = 162.5 lb/ft

The dead load moment for a slab continuous over more than two supports is
From the Table 113.8, for S = 7.5 ft, live load moment is given by M LL = 5.44
kips-ft (includes dynamic allowance). Total factored moment (Strength I ):

Assuming No. 5 main reinforcement bars and 1.0-in clear cover, we get

Using Table 105.5

Reinforcement equal to 0.37 in 2/ft can be provided by No. 5 bars at 10-in

spacing. This reinforcement should be provided on the top and bottom of the
slab. Distribution reinforcement is equal to the following percentage of the
primary reinforcement: . Use 67% . Use 0.67 0.37 = 0.25 in 2/ft
(use No. 4 at 9-in spacing).

113.15. Distribution of Wheel Loads to Girders

Depending on the arrangement of its components, the bridge system may be

analyzed as a three-dimensional (3D) system or reduced to equivalent 2D or
1D subsystems for analysis and design of specic components. The validity of
such analyses is dependent on the quality of assumptions made in reducing
the order of complexity of a subsystem. There are certain analyses that are a
hybrid of 1D and 2D systems and are broadly classied as 1.5D level
analyses. Similarly, a method which is a hybrid of 2D and 3D analyses could
be labeled a 2.5D system.

AASHTO specications permit the use of so-called distribution factors for

analysis.

113.15.1. Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams

The live load bending moment for each interior stringer shall be calculated
by applying to the stringer a fraction of the wheel load (front and rear)
according to Tables 113.9 and 113.10. The former is to be used to compute
distribution factors for concrete deck on steel beams while the latter is for
concrete deck on prestressed girders.

Table 113.9. Girder Load (Lanes/Girder) for Concrete Deck on Steel

Stringers

Table 113.10. Girder Load (Lanes/Girder) for Concrete Deck on

Prestressed Concrete Girders

This approach of distributing deck loads to girders is limited to bridges that

meet the following criteria:

Center-to-center spacing between 3.5 S 16 ft

beams
 Slab thickness 4.5 t s 12 in

Bridge span 20 L 240 ft

Longitudinal stiness parameter 1 104 K g 7 106 in 4

No. of beams 4 or more

The stiness parameter K g is given by

(113.14)

where n = modular ratio = E girder/E deck

I g = moment of inertia of the girder

e g = distance from the centroid of the deck to centroid of the girder

The factors summarized in Tables 113.9 and 113.10 include the eect of the
multiple presence factor. The moment or shear is rst calculated for a single
lane loaded with the most critical load. This load/lane is then multiplied by
the lane/girder factor in these tables to obtain the design load/girder. In
Tables 113.9 and 113.10, the variable d e is the distance from the centerline
of the exterior girder to the inside face of the curb or barrier.

113.16. Eective Width of Flange

When the bridge deck is made composite with the top ange of the girder, a
certain width of the deck bends integrally with the girder. This "eective"
portion of the deck serves as the compression ange for the composite
exural member.

For interior beams, the eective width of ange may be taken as the least of
(1) one-quarter of the eective span length, (2) 12 times the slab thickness
plus the greater of the web thickness or one-half the width of the top ange
of the girder, and (3) the average spacing of adjacent beams.

For exterior beams, the eective width of ange may be taken as one-half the
eective width of the adjacent interior beam plus the least of (1) one-eighth
of the eective span length, (2) six times the slab thickness plus the greater
of one-half the web thickness or one-quarter the width of the top ange of
the girder, and (3) width of the overhang.

113.17. Deections

Immediate deections are computed according to standard methods for

elastic deections. The moment of inertia may be taken as either the gross
moment of inertia I g or the eective moment of inertia calculated by Eq.
(113.13).

(113.15)

where the cracking moment is calculated using

(113.16)

where f r = modulus of rupture (ksi) =

f c = 28-day compression strength (ksi)

y t = distance from centroid to extreme tension ber

For calculating long-term deections, the immediate deection caused by

sustained loads is multiplied by one of the following factors:

1. Where the immediate deection is based on I g , the factor is 4.

2. Where the immediate deection is based on I e , the factor is

where A s is the area of the compression reinforcement and A s is the area of

the tension reinforcement.

Citation
EXPORT
Indranil Goswami: Civil Engineering All-In-One PE Exam Guide: Breadth and Depth,
Second Edition. Bridge Design (AASHTO LRFD), Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional,
2012), AccessEngineering

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