3-8 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

3.3.2—Load and Load Designation

The following permanent and transient loads and

forces shall be considered:

• Permanent Loads
CR = force effects due to creep
DD = downdrag force
DC = dead load of structural components and
nonstructural attachments
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = miscellaneous locked-in force effects resulting
from the construction process, including jacking
apart of cantilevers in segmental construction
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
PS = secondary forces from post-tensioning for
strength limit states; total prestress forces for
service limit states
SH = force effects due to shrinkage

• Transient Loads
BL = blast loading
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CT = vehicular collision force
CV = vessel collision force
EQ = earthquake load
FR = friction load
IC = ice load
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = force effect due to settlement
TG = force effect due to temperature gradient
TU = force effect due to uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure

3.4—LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS

3.4.1—Load Factors and Load Combinations C3.4.1

The total factored force effect shall be taken as: The background for the load factors specified herein,
and the resistance factors specified in other Sections of
Q = ∑ ηi γ i Qi (3.4.1-1)
these Specifications is developed in Nowak (1992).

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 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 3-9

where:

ηi = load modifier specified in Article 1.3.2

Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
γi = load factors specified in Tables 3.4.1-1 and
3.4.1-2

Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy

Eq. 1.3.2.1-1 for the applicable combinations of factored
extreme force effects as specified at each of the following
limit states:

• Strength I—Basic load combination relating to the

normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
• Strength II—Load combination relating to the use of The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the
the bridge by Owner-specified special design vehicles, only vehicle on the bridge unless so assured by traffic
evaluation permit vehicles, or both without wind. control. See Article 4.6.2.2.5 regarding other traffic on the
bridge simultaneously.
• Strength III—Load combination relating to the bridge Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities.
exposed to wind velocity exceeding 55 mph. Therefore, high winds prevent the presence of significant
live load on the bridge.
• Strength IV—Load combination relating to very high The standard calibration process for the strength limit
dead load to live load force effect ratios in bridge state consists of trying out various combinations of load
superstructures. and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their
components. Combinations that yield a safety index close
to the target value of β 3.5 are retained for potential
application. From these are selected constant load factors γ
and corresponding resistance factors φ for each type of
structural component reflecting its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a
large number of bridges with spans not exceeding 200 ft
These calculations were for completed bridges. For the
primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and
live load force effects is rather high, and could result in a
set of resistance factors different from those found
acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is
believed to be more practical to investigate one additional
load case than to require the use of two sets of resistance
factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load

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Combination I, depending on other permanent loads
present. Spot checks had been made on a few bridges with
up to 600-ft spans, and it appears that Strength Load
Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live
load force effect ratio exceeds about 7.0. This load
combination is not applicable to investigation of
construction stages, substructures, and bearing design.
Other load combinations adequately address substructures
and bearings.
• Strength V—Load combination relating to normal
vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 55 mph
velocity.
• Extreme Event I—Load combination including Past editions of the Standard Specifications
earthquake. The load factor for live load γEQ, shall be used γEQ = 0.0. This issue is not resolved. The
determined on a project-specific basis. possibility of partial live load, i.e., γEQ < 1.0,
with earthquakes should be considered. Application
of Turkstra’s rule for combining uncorrelated

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 3-10 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

loads indicates that γEQ = 0.50 is reasonable for

a wide range of values of average daily truck traffic
(ADTT).
• Extreme Event II—Load combination relating to ice The following applies to both Extreme Event I and II:
load, collision by vessels and vehicles, check floods,
and certain hydraulic events with a reduced live load • The recurrence interval of extreme events is thought
other than that which is part of the vehicular collision to exceed the design life.
load, CT. The cases of check floods shall not be • Although these limit states include water loads, WA,
combined with BL, CV, CT, or IC. the effects due to WA are considerably less significant
than the effects on the structure stability due to scour.
Therefore, unless specific site conditions dictate
otherwise, local pier scour and contraction scour
depths should not be combined with BL, EQ, CT, CV,
or IC. However, the effects due to degradation of the
channel should be considered. Alternatively, one-half
of the total scour may be considered in combination
with BL, EQ, CT, CV, or IC.
• The joint probability of these events is extremely low,
and, therefore, the events are specified to be applied
separately. Under these extreme conditions, the
structure may undergo considerable inelastic
deformation by which locked-in force effects due to
TU, TG, CR, SH, and SE are expected to be relieved.
The 0.50 live load factor signifies a low probability of
the concurrence of the maximum vehicular live load (other
than CT) and the extreme events.
• Service I—Load combination relating to the normal Compression in prestressed concrete components and
operational use of the bridge with a 55 mph wind and tension in prestressed bent caps are investigated using this
all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile
deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel stresses in prestressed concrete components.
liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe, to control crack
width in reinforced concrete structures, and for
transverse analysis relating to tension in concrete
segmental girders. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.

• Service II—Load combination intended to control This load combination corresponds to the overload
yielding of steel structures and slip of slip-critical provision for steel structures in past editions of the
connections due to vehicular live load. AASHTO Specifications, and it is applicable only to steel
structures. From the point of view of load level, this
combination is approximately halfway between that used
for Service I and Strength I Limit States.
• Service III—Load combination for longitudinal The live load specified in these specifications reflects,
analysis relating to tension in prestressed concrete among other things, current exclusion weight limits
superstructures with the objective of crack control and mandated by various jurisdictions. Vehicles permitted
to principal tension in the webs of segmental concrete under these limits have been in service for many years
girders. prior to 1993. For longitudinal loading, there is no
nationwide physical evidence that these vehicles have
caused cracking in existing prestressed concrete
components. The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor
on live load is that the event is expected to occur about
once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for
bridges with a single traffic lance. Service I should be used
for checking tension related to transverse analysis of
concrete segmental girders.

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 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 3-11

The principal tensile stress check is introduced in

order to verify the adequacy of webs of segmental concrete
girder bridges for longitudinal shear and torsion.
• Service IV—Load combination relating only to tension The 0.70 factor on wind represents an 84 mph wind.
in prestressed concrete columns with the objective of This should result in zero tension in prestressed concrete
crack control. columns for ten-year mean reoccurrence winds. The
prestressed concrete columns must still meet strength
requirements as set forth in Load Combination Strength III
in Article 3.4.1.
It is not recommended that thermal gradient be
combined with high wind forces. Superstructure expansion
forces are included.
• Fatigue I—Fatigue and fracture load combination The load factor for the Fatigue I load combination,
related to infinite load-induced fatigue life. applied to a single design truck having the axle spacing
specified in Article 3.6.1.4.1, reflects load levels found to
be representative of the maximum stress range of the truck
population for infinite fatigue life design. The factor was
chosen on the assumption that the maximum stress range in
the random variable spectrum is twice the effective stress
range caused by Fatigue II load combination.
• Fatigue II—Fatigue and fracture load combination The load factor for the Fatigue II load combination,
related to finite load-induced fatigue life. applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found
to be representative of the effective stress range of the
truck population with respect to a small number of stress
range cycles and to their cumulative effects in steel
elements, components, and connections for finite fatigue
life design.
The load factors for various loads comprising This Article reinforces the traditional method of
a design load combination shall be taken as specified selecting load combinations to obtain realistic extreme
in Table 3.4.1-1. All relevant subsets of the load effects and is intended to clarify the issue of the variability
combinations shall be investigated. For each load of permanent loads and their effects. As has always been
combination, every load that is indicated to be taken the case, the Owner or Designer may determine that not all
into account and that is germane to the component of the loads in a given load combination apply to the
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being designed, including all significant effects due situation under investigation.
to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate It is recognized herein that the actual magnitude of
load factor and multiple presence factor specified permanent loads may also be less than the nominal value.
in Article 3.6.1.1.2, if applicable. The products This becomes important where the permanent load reduces
shall be summed as specified in Eq. 1.3.2.1-1 the effects of transient loads.
and multiplied by the load modifiers specified in Article
1.3.2.
The factors shall be selected to produce the total It has been observed that permanent loads are more
extreme factored force effect. For each load combination, likely to be greater than the nominal value than to be less
both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated. than this value.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases The earth load factor for thermoplastic culverts is set
another effect, the minimum value shall be applied to the to 1.3; however, to preserve the overall safety at the same
load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, levels as historical specifications, an earth-load-installation
the load factor that produces the more critical combination factor is introduced later in these Specifications as part of
shall be selected from Table 3.4.1-2. Where the permanent the implementation of NCHRP Report 631. This factor may
load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a be adjusted based on field control of construction practices.
component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor In the application of permanent loads, force effects for
for that permanent load shall also be investigated. each of the specified six load types should be computed
separately. It is unnecessary to assume that one type of load
varies by span, length, or component within a bridge. For
example, when investigating uplift at a bearing in a
continuous beam, it would not be appropriate to use the
maximum load factor for permanent loads in spans that
produce a negative reaction and the minimum load factor in

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 3-12 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

spans that produce a positive reaction. Consider the

investigation of uplift. Uplift, which was treated as a
separate load case in past editions of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications, now becomes a strength load
combination. Where a permanent load produces uplift, that
load would be multiplied by the maximum load factor,
regardless of the span in which it is located. If another
permanent load reduces the uplift, it would be multiplied by
the minimum load factor, regardless of the span in which it
is located. For example, at Strength I Limit State where the
permanent load reaction is positive and live load can cause
a negative reaction, the load combination would be 0.9DC
+ 0.65DW + 1.75(LL + IM). If both reactions were
negative, the load combination would be 1.25DC +
1.50DW + 1.75(LL + IM). For each force effect, both
extreme combinations may need to be investigated by
applying either the high or the low load factor as
appropriate. The algebraic sums of these products are the
total force effects for which the bridge and its components
should be designed.
The larger of the two values provided for load factor of PS, CR, SH, TU, and TG are superimposed
TU shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for deformations as defined in Article 3.12. Load factors for
all other effects. For simplified analysis of concrete TU, and TG are as shown in Table 3.4.1-1. Load factors for
substructures in the strength limit state, a value of 0.50 for PS, CR, and SH are as shown in Table 3.4.1-3. For
γTU may be used when calculating force effects, but shall be prestressed members in typical bridge types, secondary
taken in conjunction with the gross moment of inertia in the prestressing, creep and shrinkage are generally designed
columns or piers. When a refined analysis is completed for for in the service limit state. In concrete segmental
concrete substructures in the strength limit state, a value of structures, CR and SH are factored by γP for DC because
.0 for γTU shall be used in conjunction with a partially analysis for time-dependent effects in segmental bridges is
cracked moment of inertia determined by analysis. For nonlinear. Abutments, piers, columns, and bent caps are to
concrete substructures in the strength limit state, the value of be considered as substructure components.
0.50 for γPS, γCR, and γSH may similarly be used when The calculation of displacements for TU utilizes a
calculating force effects in non-segmental structures, but factor greater than 1.0 to avoid undersizing joints,
shall be taken in conjunction with the gross moment of expansion devices, and bearings.
inertia in the columns or piers. For steel substructures, a
value of .0 for γTU, γPS, γCR, and γSH shall be used.
The evaluation of overall stability of retained fills, as Applying these criteria for the evaluation of the
well as earth slopes with or without a shallow or deep sliding resistance of walls:
foundation unit should be investigated at the service limit
state based on the Service I Load Combination and an • The vertical earth load on the rear of a cantilevered
appropriate resistance factor as specified in Article 11.5.6 retaining wall would be multiplied by γpmin (1.00) and
and Article 11.6.2.3. the weight of the structure would be multiplied by γpmin
For structural plate box structures complying with the (0.90) because these forces result in an increase in the
provisions of Article 12.9, the live load factor for the contact stress (and shear strength) at the base of the
vehicular live loads LL and IM shall be taken as 2.0. wall and foundation.

• The horizontal earth load on a cantilevered retaining

wall would be multiplied by γpmax (1.50) for an active
earth pressure distribution because the force results in
a more critical sliding force at the base of the wall.
imilarly, the values of γpmax for structure weight (1.25),
vertical earth load (1.35) and horizontal active earth pressure
(1.50) would represent the critical load combination for an
evaluation of foundation bearing resistance.
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Water load and friction are included in all strength

load combinations at their respective nominal values.
For creep and shrinkage, the specified nominal values

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 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 3-13

should be used. For friction, settlement, and water loads,

both minimum and maximum values need to be
investigated to produce extreme load combinations.
The load factor for temperature gradient, γTG, should The load factor for temperature gradient should be
be considered on a project-specific basis. In lieu of project- determined on the basis of the:
specific information to the contrary, γTG may be taken as:
• Type of structure, and
• 0.0 at the strength and extreme event limit states,
• Limit state being investigated.
• 1.0 at the service limit state when live load is not
considered, and Open girder construction and multiple steel box
girders have traditionally, but perhaps not necessarily
• 0.50 at the service limit state when live load is correctly, been designed without consideration of
considered. temperature gradient, i.e., γTG = 0.0.

The load factor for settlement, γSE, should be

considered on a project-specific basis. In lieu of project-
specific information to the contrary, γSE, may be taken as
1.0. Load combinations which include settlement
shall also be applied without settlement.
For segmentally constructed bridges, the following
combination shall be investigated at the service limit state:

DC DW EH EV ES WA CR SH TG EL PS

(3.4.1-2)
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 3-14 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

Table 3.4.1-1—Load Combinations and Load Factors

DC Use One of These at a Time

DD
DW
EH
EV LL
ES IM
EL CE
Load PS BR
Combination CR PL
Limit State SH LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ BL IC CT CV
Strength I γp 1.75 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
(unless noted)
Strength II γp 1.35 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Strength III γp — 1.00 1.4 — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
0
Strength IV γp — 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 — — — — — — —
Strength V γp 1.35 1.00 0.4 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
0
Extreme γp γ 1.00 — — 1.00 — — — 1.00 — — — —
Event I
Extreme γp 0.50 1.00 — — 1.00 — — — — 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Event II
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.3 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
0
Service II 1.00 1.30 1.00 — — 1.00 1.00/1.20 — — — — — — —
Service III 1.00 0.80 1.00 — — 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Service IV 1.00 — 1.00 0.7 — 1.00 1.00/1.20 — 1.0 — — — — —
0
Fatigue I— — 1.50 — — — — — — — — — — — —
LL, IM & CE
only
Fatigue II— — 0.75 — — — — — — — — — — — —
LL, IM & CE
only

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 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 3-15

Table 3.4.1-2—Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp

Type of Load, Foundation Type, and Load Factor

Method Used to Calculate Downdrag Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DC: Strength IV only 1.50 0.90
DD: Downdrag Piles, Tomlinson Method 1.4 0.25
Piles, Method 1.05 0.30
Drilled shafts, O’Neill and Reese (1999) Method 1.25 0.35
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
• AEP for anchored walls 1.35 N/A
EL: Locked-in Construction Stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.00 N/A
• Retaining Walls and Abutments 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
• Flexible Buried Structures
o Metal Box Culverts, Structural Plate Culverts with Deep Corrugations, and 1.5 0.9
Fiberglass Culverts 1.3 0.9
o Thermoplastic Culverts 1.95 0.9
o All others
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

Table 3.4.1-3—Load Factors for Permanent Loads Due to Superimposed Deformations, γp

Bridge Component PS CR, SH

Superstructures—Segmental 1.0 See γP for DC, Table 3.4.1-2
Concrete Substructures supporting Segmental
Superstructures (see 3.12.4, 3.12.5)
Concrete Superstructures—non-segmental 1.0 1.0
Substructures supporting non-segmental Superstructures
• using Ig 0.5 0.5
• using Ieffectuve 1.0 1.0
Steel Substructures 1.0 1.0

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 3-16 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

Where prestressed components are used in conjunction The most common applications of prestressed concrete
with steel girders, the force effects from the following in steel girder bridges are transverse post-tensioning of the
sources shall be considered as construction loads, EL: deck and integral pier caps in which the tendons penetrate
the girder webs. When a composite deck is prestressed
• In conjunction with longitudinal prestressing of a longitudinally, the shear connectors transfer force to the
precast deck prior to making the deck sections steel. The effect of shrinkage and long-term creep around
composite with the girders, the friction between the the shear connectors should be evaluated to ensure that the
precast deck sections and the steel girders. composite girder is able to recognize the prestressing over
the life of the bridge. The contribution of long-term
• When longitudinal post-tensioning is performed after deformations in closure pours between precast deck panels
the deck becomes composite with the girders, the which have been aged to reduce shrinkage and creep may
additional forces induced in the steel girders and shear need evaluation.
connectors. The Poisson effect recognizes the bulging of concrete
• The effects of differential creep and shrinkage of the when subjected to prestressing. When used in pier caps,
concrete. post-tensioning causes a transverse Poisson tensile stress
resulting in a longitudinal stress in the steel girders.
• The Poisson effect.

The load factor for live load in Extreme Event Load A load factor for passive lateral earth pressure is not
ombination I, γEQ, shall be determined on a project- given in Table 3.4.1-2 because, strictly speaking, passive
specific basis. lateral earth pressure is a resistance and not a load. For
discussion of the selection of a passive lateral earth

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pressure resistance factor see Article 10.5.5.2.2.
Engineering judgment shall be exercised when Blast loads are considered an Extreme Event case of
applying blast loadings and when combining them with loading. However, not enough information exists at the
other loads. time of this writing to determine what other loads should be
combined with blast loads and the appropriate load factors.

3.4.2—Load Factors for Construction Loads

3.4.2.1—Evaluation at the Strength Limit State C3.4.2.1

All appropriate strength limit state load combinations The load factors presented here should not relieve the
in Table 3.4.1-1, modified as specified herein, shall be contractor of responsibility for safety and damage control
investigated. during construction.
When investigating Strength Load Combinations I and Construction loads are loads that act on the structure
III for maximum force effects during construction, load only during construction. Often the construction loads are
factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances, not accurately known at the time of design. Construction
DC and DW, shall not be less than 1.25. loads include but are not limited to the weight of materials,
Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, construction removable forms, personnel, and equipment such as deck
loads including dynamic effects (if applicable) shall be finishing machines or loads applied to the structure through
added in Strength Load Combination I with a load factor falsework or other temporary supports.
not less than 1.5 when investigating for maximum force The Owner may consider noting the construction loads
effects. assumed in the design on the contract documents. The
Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, the load weight of the wet concrete deck and any stay-in-place
factor for wind during construction in Strength Load forms should be considered as DC loads.
Combination III shall not be less than 1.25 when For steel superstructures, the use of higher-strength
investigating for maximum force effects. Any applicable steels, composite construction, and limit-states design
construction loads shall be included with a load factor not approaches in which smaller factors are applied to dead
less than 1.25. load force effects than in previous service-load design
Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, primary steel approaches have generally resulted in lighter members
superstructure components shall be investigated for overall.
maximum force effects during construction for an To ensure adequate stability and strength of primary
additional load combination consisting of the applicable steel superstructure components during construction, an
DC loads and any construction loads that are applied to the additional strength limit state load combination is specified
fully erected steelwork. For this additional load for the investigation of loads applied to the fully erected
combination, the load factor for DC and construction loads steelwork.

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 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 3-17

including dynamic effects (if applicable) shall not be less

than 1.4.

3.4.2.2—Evaluation of Deflection at the Service

Limit State

In the absence of special provisions to the contrary,

where evaluation of construction deflections are required
by the contract documents, Service Load Combination I
shall apply. Except for segmentally constructed bridges,
construction loads shall be added to the Service Load
Combination I with a load factor of 1.00. Appropriate load
combinations and allowable stresses for segmental bridges
are addressed in Article 5.14.2.3. The associated permitted
deflections shall be included in the contract documents.

3.4.3—Load Factors for Jacking and Post-

Forces

3.4.3.1—Jacking Forces

Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, the design

forces for jacking in service shall not be less than 1.3 times
the permanent load reaction at the bearing, adjacent to the
point of jacking.
Where the bridge will not be closed to traffic during
the jacking operation, the jacking load shall also contain a
live load reaction consistent with the maintenance of traffic
plan, multiplied by the load factor for live load.

3.4.3.2—Force for Post-Tensioning Anchorage

Zones

The design force for post-tensioning anchorage zones

shall be taken as 1.2 times the maximum jacking force.

3.4.4—Load Factors for Orthotropic Decks C3.4.4

The Fatigue I live load factor (γLL) shall be multiplied Evaluation of the maximum stress range in the rib-to-
by an additional factor of 1.5 when evaluating fatigue at the deck weld as well as in the vicinity of the cut-out for this type
welded rib-to-floorbeam cut-out detail and the rib-to-deck of detail has demonstrated that the use of a 1.5 load factor for
weld. LL is unconservative. For the rib-to-deck weld and when a
cut-out is used to relive the secondary stresses imparted by
the rotation of the rib relative to the floorbeam, the
appropriate γLL should be increased to 2.25 (Connor, 2002).
The increased Fatigue I load factor is based on stress range
spectra monitoring of orthotropic decks. Studies indicate that
the ratio of maximum stress range to effective stress range is
increased as compared to standard bridge girders. This is due
to a number of factors such as occasional heavy wheels and
reduced local load distribution that occurs in deck elements.
These Specifications produce a ratio that is consistent with
the original findings of NCHRP Report 299 (Moses et al.,
1987).

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