Classification of Nanomaterials
Classification of Nanomaterials
Classification of Nanomaterials
CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS
0D 1D 2D 3D
1 dimension of the
Nano-dimensions in 2 dimensions are All dimensions are
nanostructure will be
all the three outside the outside the Nano
outside the
directions nanometer range meter range
nanometer range
Nano films such as
Quantam dots Nanowires and
coatings and Nano Bulk materials
nanotubes.
sheets
Long (micrometer in large (several square
Spherical in size, length), but with micrometer),but the Blocks which are in
Diameter of these
particles (1-50 nm) diameter of only a thickness is always the nanometer scale
few nanometer. in Nano scale range
0D NANOMATERIALS : QUANTUM DOTS
Quantum dots are small devices that contain a tiny droplet of free electrons.
Typical dimensions are between nanometers to a few microns.
A quantum dot can have anything from a single electron to a collection of several thousands.
The size ,shape and number of electrons can be precisely controlled
Just as in an atom, the energy levels are quantized due to the confinement of electrons.
The 3D spatial confinement is observed in the quantum dots.
In quantum dots even if one electron leaves the structure there is a significant change in the properties.
Unlike atoms however, quantum dots can be easily connected to electrodes and are therefore excellent tools to study atomic-like properties.
The potential of nearby metal gate is changed.
The atomic structure might behave as a lead one minute and gold next minute
The fanciful idea of designer materials might be realized
0D Dendrimers 0D Fullerenes
Dendrimers are spherical polymeric In the mid-1980s carbon 60 (C60) was
molecules, formed through a nanoscale discovered. C60 is spherical molecules about
hierarchical self-assembly process. There are 1nm in diameter, comprising 60 carbon
atoms arranged as 20 hexagons and 12
many types of dendrimer; the smallest is
pentagons: the configuration of a football.
several nanometres in size. Dendrimers are The C60 species was named
used in conventional applications such as Buckminsterfullerene. In 1990, a technique
coatings and inks, but they also have a range to produce larger quantities of C60 was
of interesting properties which could lead to developed by resistively heating graphite
useful applications. For example, dendrimers rods in a helium atmosphere. Several
can act as nanoscale carrier molecules and as applications are envisaged for fullerenes,
such as miniature ball bearings to lubricate
such could be used in drug delivery.
surfaces, drug delivery vehicles and in
Environmental clean-up could be assisted by electronic circuits.
dendrimers as they can trap metal ions,
which could then be filtered out of water
with ultra-filtration techniques.
1D NANOMATERIALS: CARBON NANOTUBES
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were first observed by Sumio Iijima in 1991. CNTs are extended tubes of rolled graphene sheets. There are two types of CNT: single-walled (one tube) or multi-walled (several
concentric tubes) Both of these are typically a few nanometres in diameter and several micrometres (10-6m) to centimetres long. CNTs have assumed an important role in the context of nanomaterials,
because of their novel chemical and physical properties. They are mechanically very strong (their Youngs modulus is over 1 terapascal, making CNTs as stiff as diamond), flexible (about their axis), and
can conduct electricity extremely well (the helicity of the graphene sheet determines whether the CNT is a semiconductor or metallic). All of these remarkable properties give CNTs a range of potential
applications: for example, in reinforced composites, sensors, nanoelectronics and display devices.
1D NANOMATERIALS: NANOWIRES
Nanowires are ultrafine wires or linear arrays of dots, formed by self-assembly. They can be made from a wide range of materials. Semiconductor nanowires made of silicon, gallium nitride and indium
phosphide has demonstrated remarkable optical, electronic and magnetic characteristics. Nanowires have potential applications in high-density data storage; either as magnetic read heads or as patterned
storage media, and electronic and opto-electronic nanodevices, for metallic interconnects of quantum devices and nanodevices. The preparation of these nanowires relies on sophisticated growth
techniques, which include self-assembly processes, where atoms arrange themselves naturally on stepped surfaces, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) onto patterned substrates, electroplating or
molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).
One-dimensional structure Exhibits crystal structure Many different materials
Diameter: 1-100 nanometers Unlike quantum dots (0- Metals, semiconductors,
(10-9 m) dimensional) oxides
Length: microns (10-6 m)
FULLERENE ENGINEERING
Exohedral Fullerenes Endohedral Fullerenes Nanopeapods
Atoms, molecules, and Molecules are enclosed Fullerene molecules
complexes are attached to within the cage contained in carbon
the exterior of the cage nanotubes
EXOHEDRAL FULLERENES--APPLICATION FOR HYDROGEN STORAGE
Hydrogen storage for fuel-cell powered vehicles; USDOE says need 9 wt% hydrogen storage density
Organometallic molecules based upon C60 and boron-doped C48B12
Complexes of transition metals with hydrogen on pentadiene rings can store up to six dihydrogen species
o May polymerize when the hydrogen is removed, rendering the process irreversible.
Arranging the complexes on buckyballs, such as C60[ScH2]12 and C48B12[ScH]12, leads to stable species which can reversibly absorb additional hydrogen.
HYDROGEN STORAGE
Nearly 9 wt% can be retrieved reversibly and room temperature and near ambient pressure.
Doping with boron
Reduces the fullerene weight
Enhances the complexs stability by increasing the binding energy
Allows the binding of an additional H2 molecule per Sc, increasing the amount of retrievable H2
ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENES
Fullerene cages with encapsulated molecule have many potential applications. For example scientists believe they will be able to encage a radioactive tracer and inject that safely into the human body.
Currently various molecules can be encaged in the fullerene cage.
Metal (La@C82), noble gas (He@C60), multimetallofullerene (Sc2@C66)
Product yields are less than 2% in all cases
Endohedral fullerenes have presented a lot of new information to researchers.
For metallofullerenes there is a charge transfer between the cage and enclosed metal, Sc2@C66 stabilizing what may not be a stable cage alone.
TNT SYNTHESIS
Improved synthesis of endohedral formation came in 1999 by introducing nitrogen to conventional Krtschmer-Huffman generator
Sc3N@C80 trimetal nitride fullerene
Increased yields to ~5%
This new process was named trimetal nitride template (TNT) and applied to form a variety of products.
M3N@C80 where M=Sc, Y, Tb, Ho, and Er
Dunsch and co-workers enhanced the synthesis by using NH3 as the reactive gas in the generator. Endohedral fullerenes were formed as the major product for the first time.
C80 and Sc3N are not stable individually.
Very restricting, it can only apply to trimetal nitrides.
NANOPEAPODS
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) encapsulating C60
Conventional synthesis of nanopeapods had a lot of challenges. Reactions had to be run under very difficult conditions and were very restricting.
Vaporization of thermally stable fullerene molecules
At least 350C in high vacuum
Theoretical studies showed the activation barrier for this reaction to be only ~0.37eV.
The reaction should proceed at room temperature
VARIOUS NANOPEAPOD SYNTHESES
Khlobystov and group attempted numerous synthesis methods at or near room temperature (30-50C) with a yield <1%
Mechanical mixing
Adding SWNTs to concentrated solution of fullerenes
Adding fullerenes to SWNTs solution
Supercritical fluids, most important scCO2, was the next used in the process
SWNTs and fullerenes mixed in solvent, evaporated solvent, put in supercritical CO2 under high pressure for 10 days
Produced yields ~30%
scCO2 PROPERTIES
TYPES OF CNTS
Single Wall CNT (SWCNT)
Multiple Wall CNT (MWCNT)
Can be metallic or semiconducting depending on their geometry.
HOW TO ROLL THE NANOTUBE ?
1. A carbon nanotube is based on a two-dimensional graphene sheet.
2. The chiral vector is defined on the hexagonal lattice as Ch = n1 + m2
3. Chiral angle
4. Role/cap off
WHAT ARE THE MAIN PROPERTIES?
1. Diameter of nanotube 2. Chiral angle
Both depend on n and m. Diameter=length of chiral vector divided by 4 (has to do with the capping)
WHY SHOULD WE CARE?
Unique properties Material of the future seemingly infinite applications
Possible health issues
PROPERTIES
132,000,000:1 Length-To-Diameter Ratio Lengths in the millimeter range
Diameter of 3 to 9 nm Efficient electrical conductors
Can act as both thermal conductors and thermal insulators
CNT PROPERTIES
The strongest and most flexible molecular material because of C-C covalent bonding and seamless hexagonal network architecture.
Youngs Modulus of over 1 TPa vs 70 GPa for Aluminium , 700 GPa for C-fiber.
o Strength to weight ratio 500 time > for Al; similar improvements over steel and titanium; one order of magnitude improvement over graphite/epoxy
Maximum strain ~10% much higher than any material
Thermal conductivity ~3000 W/mK in the axial direction with small values in the radial direction.
Electrical conductivity six order OF MAGNITUDE HIGHER THAN COPPER
Can be metallic or semiconducting depending on chirality.
o Tunable band gap
o Electronic properties can be tailored through application of external magnetic field, application of mechanical deformation.
Very high current carrying capacity
Excellent field emitter; high aspect ratio and small tip radius of curvature are ideal for field emission.
Can be functionalized.
STRENGTH
SWNT compared to some common materials
ECAP
During ECA pressing a billet of material is multiple pressed through a special die. The angle of two channels intersection is usually 90 0, however, in the case of a hard-to- deform material, the angle may be
changed. Moreover, for processing of hardly deformed materials, ECA pressing can be conducted at elevated temperatures.
During ECAP the direction and number of billet passes through the channels are very important parameter for microstructure development.
TORSION
A method of torsion straining under high pressure can be used for fabrication of disk type samples. An ingot is held between anvils and strained in torsion under the applied pressure of several GPa. A lower
holder rotates and surface friction forces deform the
Sintering of nanoparticles
Thermodynamically, nanopowders are highly unstable. The sintering process is driven by the tendency to reduce the excessively large surface area per unit volume
Sintering process starts when powder is packed together and heated to high temperatures, typically about 2T melt/3. At this stage, diffusion becomes significant. The densification process consists of solid
particle bonding or neck formation followed by continuous closing of pores from a largely open porosity to a pore-free body.
Special methods of sintering
Microwave sintering has a rapid processing time, two to fifty times faster than conventional heating . There is also an acceleration of sintering and diffusion in the material because of high
electrical fields; thus densification can occur at lower temperatures.
field assisted sintering (FAS). Electric FAS is an emerging technology for the fabrication of metals, ceramics and their composites starting from powders. FAS often referred as spark plasma
sintering (SPS) or pulsed electric current sintering (PECS). All these methods are essentially identical in the application of a pulsed discharge and subsequent or simultaneous resistance sintering.
The consolidation process consists of two stages: an initial activation through the application of a pulsed voltage, and the subsequent heating and densification by using DC current.
Spark plasma sintering : The spark plasma, generated by spark discharge appears in the gap between the particles of a material, increases a local high temperature state of several to ten thousand
. This causes vaporization and the melting of the surfaces of the powder particles during the SPS process; constricted shapes or necks are formed around the contact area between the
particles. Since only the surface temperature of the particles rises rapidly by self-heating, particle growth of the starting powder materials is controlled. Therefore, a precision sintered compact is
manufactured in a shorter time
Mechanisms:
1.Adoption of Cu:(a) low solubility of carbon in Cu,
(b) surface diffusion of carbon atoms on Cu;
2.Absorption and de-absorption of hydrocarbon
molecules on Cu;
3.Decomposition of hydrocarbon to form carbon
atoms;
4.Aggregation of carbon atoms on Cu surface to form
graphene nucleation centers;
5.Diffusion and attachment of carbon atoms to
nucleation centers to form graphene film
Analysis (I): Hydrocarbon precursor and substrate
1. .Methane is a relatively stable hydrocarbon compound due to strong C-H bond, as a result, decomposition occurs at elevated temperature (>1200C)
2. Other hydrocarbon compounds such as ethane and acetylene are not suggested due to rapid decomposition at high temperature;
3. Other transition metal such as Fe, Co, and Ni are not preferred for mono or bilayer graphene growth due to their higher-than-desirable capacity to decompose hydrocarbons.
4. The low decomposition rate of methane on Cu allows the possibility of controlling the number of graphene layers.
Analysis (II): Decomposition of hydrocarbon
1. Cu foil: Cu foil is usually not single crystal possessing grain boundaries and steps;
2. The sites have much higher chemical activation energy than those of the flat regions of Cu; as a result, hydrocarbons prefer to decompose on the sites to form nucleation centers;
3. Cu foil with smooth surface is preferred: pre-polish and in-situ polish.
EPITAXIAL GROWTH
Steps:
hydrogen etching to produce atomically
flat surfaces;
(2) vacuum graphitization to produce an ultrathin
epitaxial graphite layer;
(3) application of metal contacts (Pd, Au),
(4) electron-beam patterning and
development;
(5) oxygen plasma etch to define graphite
structures;
(6) wire bonding.
When SiC substrates are
annealed at high temp., Si
atoms selectively desorb from
the surface and the C atoms
left behind naturally form FLG
(few-layer graphene)
Advantage: Patterned graphene structure
Drawback: Ultra-high vacuum, high cost
Based on the theoretical analysis, stability of the C
atoms on SiC substrate was investigated. At a C
coverage of 8/3 MLs, corresponding to 8 C atoms
on three SiC unit cells, C atoms form a graphene-
like two-dimensional sheet and are strongly
stabilized.@1
When more C atoms are added, they become highly
unstable on the buffer layer and prefer to reside
between the buffer layer and SiC substrate.
At a C coverage of 16/3 MLs, a new buffer layer is
formed at the interface and the original buffer layer
loses bonds with the substrate.
Growth processes
After annealing at 1060C, preferential nucleation of the buffer layer occurred at the atomic steps on the SiC surface, where 1/3 of the ML of Si adatoms(@1) was periodically arranged (Fig. 4(a)). After
annealing at a higher temperature (Fig. 4(b)), the whole surface was covered with the buffer layer and the surface steps eandered widely(@2).
At the initial stage of graphene growth, ML graphene preferentially formed near the substrate steps (Fig. 4(c)). When the annealing temperature was further increased, bilayer (BL) graphene appeared
before the buffer layer completely disappeared (Fig. 4(d)). This means that uniform ML graphene is difficult to grow in UHV.
1. The nanogap probe contains two Pt electrodes with a gap of 30 nm fabricated at the tip of the cantilever of an atomic force microscopy (AFM) apparatus.
2. An electrical conductivity map of BL graphene is shown in Fig. 5(c). Linear contrasts, which correspond to the substrate steps, reveal that the substrate steps modify the electrical conductivity.
3. The TEM image (Fig. 5a) depicted that FLG covered the substrate steps like a carpet. FLG was locally bent near the steps, and this bending could affect the carrier transport.
Limitations Advantages
Probe tip radius, high resolution microscope, capable of producing 3d images,
image processing speed, pre-treatment of samples is not necessary, vacuum chamber not
small image size required for some mode of operation
i. Contact mode
Used for scanning hard samples and resolution > 50 nanometres are required. The cantilever may be constructed from silicon or silicon nitride. Resonant frequencies of contact cantilevers around 50 KHz
and the force constant are below 1N/m.
ii. Non-contact mode
The cantilever is oscillated slightly above its resonant frequency; oscillation <10nm; tip doest not touch the sample. Instead, it oscillates above the adsorbed fluid layer. Constant oscillation amplitude is
maintained. The resonant frequency of the cantilever is decreased by the van der Waals forces which extend from 1-10 nm above the adsorbed fluid layer. This in turn changes the amplitude of oscillation.
iii. Tapping mode
A cantilever with attached tip is oscillated at its resonant frequency and scanned across the sample surface. Constant oscillation amplitude is maintained during scanning. Typical amplitudes are 20-
100nm. Forces can be 200 pN or less. The amplitude of the oscillations changes when the tip scans over bumps or depression on a surface.
In contact mode, the tip is usually In non-contact mode, the bottom-most point
maintained at constant force by moving the of each probe cycle is in the attractive
cantilever up and down as it scans region of the force-distance curve.
In non-contact mode or tapping mode, the In tapping and contact mode the bottom-
tip is driven up and down by an oscillator. most point is in the repulsive region.
Especially soft materials may be imaged by Variations in the measured oscillation
a magnetically-driven cantilever (MAC amplitude and phase in relation to the
ModeTM) driver frequency are indicators of the
surface-probe interaction.
RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY
When electromagnetic radiation passes through matter, most of the radiation continues in its original direction but a small fraction is scattered in other directions. Light that is scattered at the same
wavelength as the incoming light is called Rayleigh scattering. Light that is scattered in transparent solid due to vibrations (phnons) is called Brillouin scattering. It is typical shifted by 0.1 to 1 cm -1
from the incident light. Light that is scattered due to vibrations in molecules or optical phonons in solid is called Raman scattering. Its light is shifted by as much as 4000 cm-1 from the incident light.
Raman scattering is the measurement of the wavelength and intensity of in elastically scattered light from molecules. The Raman scattered occurs at wavelengths that are shifted from the incident light
by the energies of molecular vibrations. The mechanism of Raman scattering is different from that of infrared absorption, and Raman and IR spectra provide complementary information. Typical
applications are in structure determination, multicomponent qualitative analysis, and quantitative analysis.
Raman spectroscopy - Basic
Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used in condensed matter physics and chemistry to study vibrational, rotational and other low-frequency modes in a system. It relies on inelastic
scattering of monochromic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range.
Basic of RS
The Raman Effect occurs when light impinges upon a molecule and interacts with the electron cloud of the bonds of that molecule. The incident photon excites one of the electrons into a virtual state. For
the spontaneous Raman Effect, the molecule will be excited from the ground state to a virtual energy state, and relax into a vibrational excited state, which generates Stokes Raman scattering. If the
molecule was already in an elevated vibrational energy state, the Raman scattering is then called anti-Stokes Raman scattering. A molecular polarizability change or amount of deformation of the
electron cloud, with respect to the vibrational coordinate is required for the molecule to exhibit the Raman effect. The amount of polarizability change will determine the Raman scattering intensity,
whereas the Raman shift is equal to the vibrational level that is involved.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
X-ray diffraction associated to calculations is a powerful tool to study the:
Structure
Crystallinity
Particle size and size distribution
Particle shape
Homogeneity of the whole sample
ELECTRON ENERGY LOSS SPECTROSCOPY (EELS)
Inelastic scattering of an electron of the incident beam and atomic electron of the solid.
Transition from an inner-shell (K,L M) to an unoccupied energy level ( i.e. above Fermi level)
Transition of a valence electron across the energy gap ( insulator, semiconductor) or excitation of plasma resonance (mostly in metals).
CONCLUSIONS
TEM permits the structural characterization of a collection or isolated nanoparticles
Electron Diffraction structure of single or many particles
HRTEM structure, orientation, crystallinity, defaults
Image processing: fundamental tool for structural studies in electron microscopy
Spectroscopy: EELS,EDX local structure, band structure,composition
Do not permit to study properties of the whole sample Necessity to compare the results with other technique
CHALLENGES
Accurate characterization of nanoparticles is very critical to study their properties. Image analysis is very tedious and current methods are not robust, which reduces their compatibility. Faster, robust and
more accurate methods need to be developed.
GENERAL CONCERNS OF NANOSCALE VERSUS MICROSCALE MATERIALS
Higher exposure per unit mass
- Small size, large surface area, may result in increased ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Routes of exposure may differ due to smaller size
Different distribution to tissue by virtue of their different size of surface coating/chemistry.(E.g ability to move within the body)
Novel property of nanoscale material may translate into a new mode of action.
DIFFERENT TYPES
Fuel: hydrocarbons (also alcohols), hydrogen, etc
Oxidant: chlorine, chlorine dioxides, oxygen, etc..
Electrolyte: aqueous alkaline solution, polymer membrane, molten carbonate, ceramic solid oxide, etc..
Operational temperature: 50C - 1100C
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
High efficieny energy conversion (Theoretically 83% at 25C) /High power density/ Reliable/ Compact/ Lightweight
WHY HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS?
Also called Proton Exhange Membrane/ Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Durable, compact/ Low temperature (50C -100C)/ fast start-up
Hydrogen fuel economy- Especially transportation applications
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF PEMFC
1. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
2. Electrodes (Catalysts)
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
Conduct H+, but no e-
Ionomer-Polymer with ionic properties
Nafion-Teflon backbone with sulfonic groups
Transport through Membrane
Thin film (~20-100 m)
Hydrated (depends on temperature)
Water channel model (Inverted-micelle cylinders, Ionic groups line up in water channel, Protons hop from one acid site to another and Crystallites provide strength)
Challenges
Thermal balance: want to operate at higher temperature
Better cooling possible
Better heat recovery
Reduce CO poisoning (H2 reforming)
Problem: Water Management
Add Pt nanoparticles
Not sustain water, but generate it: self-humidifying
Pt-PDDA/ PTFE (Teflon)/ Nafion composite membrane
Pt particles ~3 nm
Permeating H2 and O2 generates water
Improving Conductivity
Add acidic nanoparticles (SiO2, TiO2, Zr(HPO4)2)
Increased water content/improved proton conductivity/ Operate at higher temperatures
Electrodes
Consist of Carbon, with Platinum catalyst
Anode (H2): fast oxidationm
Cathode (O2): slower reduction, critical component
Disadvantages:Cost& CO poisoning (H2 reforming)
Reduce cost: increase Pt utilization
Nanoparticles:
High-surface area: Carbon powder or Carbon nanotubes
Reduction of Pt-salt in solution
Nanoparticles attached to C backbone
Pt Nanowires- 1-D nanowires/ Lower surface area, but increased activity
Replace noble metals- Replace electrode with Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube arrays
Vertically aligned nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes (VA-NCNTs)
Prepared by pyrolysis of iron (II) phthalocyanine plus NH3 vapour
Self-assembly on quartz substrate
N2 induces increased O2 chemisorption
Increased performance
Increased catalysis (Air-saturated 0.1 M KOH)
Pt: 1.1 mAcm-2 at -0.29 V
VA-NCNTs: 4.1 mAcm-2 at -0.22 V
No CO poisoning
High-surface area, good electrical, mechanical and thermal properties
SUMMARY
Add nanoparticles to membrane
Improved performance, operational temperature
Increased cost
Nanostructured Pt electrodes, N2 doped CNTs
improved catalysis
Decreased cost
CONCLUSIONS
Interesting and growing field of research
Nanotechnology essential for future developments
Problems: Infrastructure (storage) and Sustainable H2 source
WHAT IS A NANOSENSOR?
Biological, chemical, or physical sensory points used to convey information about nanoparticles to the macroscopic world
WHY NANOSENSORS?
Smaller, require less power to run, greater sensitivity, better specificity
METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Top-down lithography - Starting out with larger blocks and carving out the desired form
Bottom up assembly - Starting with components such as molecules and atoms and placing them one-by-one into position to create the desired form
Molecular Self-Assembly (2 Methods)
Method 1:Using a piece of previously created or naturally formed nanostructure and immersing it in free atoms of its own kind, making it more prone to attract more molecules and captures free atoms
and continue creating more of itself, thus larger components of nanosensors.
Method 2: Starts with a complete set of components that would automatically assemble themselves into a finished product.
BLUE CRABS NANOSENSORS
A substance found in the shell, called chitosan, is a key component used in a nanosensor, a system on a chip at the nanoscale - developed at the University of Maryland
Detects minute quantities of explosives, bioagents, chemicals, and other dangerous materials in air and water. This could lead to security and safety developments for airports, hospitals, etc.
What is Chitosan?
A biological compound that readily binds to negatively charged surfaces
It can interact with a wide variety of substances and works well in complex, sensitive devices, such as nanosensors. Commonly used in weight loss supplements.
How the Blue Crab Sensor Works?
Multiple mini vibrating cantilevers, which resemble diving boards, are coated with the chitosan
Optical sensing technology is used to see when the cantilevers vibrations change
(Different cantilevers detect different substances and concentrations)
When the targeted substance enters the device from the air/water, the chitosan on a specific cantilever interacts with the substance and causes that cantilevers vibration to change (The optical sensing
system sees the vibration change and indicates that the substance has been detected)
TYPES OF SENSOR
Electrometer: Consists of a torsional mechanical resonator, a detection electrode, and a gate electrode used to couple charge to the mechanical element.
Chemical Sensor: Incorporates capacitive readout cantilevers and electronics for signal analysissensitive enough to detect single chemical and biological molecules.
APPLICATIONS OF NANOSENSORS
Transportation, Communications, Integrated Circuits, Building and Facilities, Medicine, Safety, National Security and Aerospace.
Biosensor
Nanowire sensors can detect chemicals and biologics
Biologics are defined as any therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, vaccine, virus, blood, blood component or derivative, allergenic product, or analogous product, or derivatives applicable to the prevention,
treatment, or cure of injuries or diseases of man.
Researchers are developing intra-cellular devices to sense pre-malignant cancerous changes in living cells
The devices are created from synthetic polymers, called dendrimers that are made layer-by-layer into spheres with diameters of less than 5nm
Nanosensor to detect asthma attacks up to 3 weeks in advance
DNA and other biomaterials can be sensed using encoded antibodies on Nanobarcode particles.
DNA molecules attach to the ends of vertical carbon nanotubes that are grown on a silicon chip. These detect specific types of DNA in an analyte.
Military / National Security
The SnifferSTAR is a nano-enabled chemical sensor that is integrated into a micro unmanned aerial vehicle.
A lightweight, portable chemical detection system combines a nanomaterial for sample collection and concentration with a MEM based chemical lab-on-a-chip detector.
Most likely to be used in defense and homeland security
Aerospace
Nanosensors can pass through membranes and into white blood cells, called lymphocytes, to detect early radiation damage or infection in astronauts
May be able to eventually be administered through the skin every few weeks, avoiding injections or IVs during space missions
This eliminates the need to draw and test blood
The Future
Could lead to tiny, low power, smart sensors manufactured cheaply in large quantities
Service areas could include:Situ sensing of structural materials, Sensor redundancy in systems, Size and weight constrained structures and Satellites and space platforms
Challenges
Reducing the cost of materials and devices
Improving reliability
Packaging the devices into useful products
Mass-producing (Methods are typically incompatible with those used in making electronics that amplify and process the signals the nanowires generate)
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION
Nanostructured Materials
Gaining control of materials at the nanoscale brings different laws of physics into play.
Traditional materials show radically enhanced properties when engineered at the nanoscale.
Material Needs in Building and Construction
Deterioration of the nations infrastructure:
Cost of repairs is estimated to exceed $2 trillion (NRC, ASCE).Housing is plagued with poor material quality and excessive fire losses that have led to premature failure and annual repair costs exceeding
$60 billion.
Nanotechnology offers tremendous potential for improving building materials.
Nanomaterials in Construction
Strong industry interest in use of nanostructured materials to improve service life and flammability performance of building materials
Lack of measurement science capability to predict service life and flammability performance of nanostructured materials.
Measurement science research is critical to enable U.S. construction industry to innovate and respond to global competition and new environmental regulations
Cement and Concrete
Nano silica and clinker used to increase densification and hence mechanical properties and durability of cementitious materials.
Service life can be doubled through the use of nano-additive viscosity enhancers which reduce diffusion of harmful agents in concrete (patent pending).
Photocatalytic TiO2 added to concrete to reduce carbon monoxide and NOx emissions on roadways.
Carbon Nanotubes
Heralded as one of the Top ten advances in materials science over the last 50 years, Materials Today, 2008.
Sales of carbon nanotubes projected to exceed $2B, >103 metric tons annually in the next 4-7 years.
Major use electronics and composites.(Enhanced strength, stiffness and toughness without added weight, Improved durability, increased functionality and reduced flammability)
Probes for microscopy and chemical ranging
Coatings Organic
Projected to make up 73 % of nanocomposites market by 2010.
Thin film, clear nanocomposites for improved scratch and mark properties.
Antimicrobial, self-cleaning surfaces.
Smart coatings: Sense pressure, impact, damage, chemicals, heat, light, etc.
Coatings Inorganic
Self-cleaning glass Nano-TiO2 coated
Photovoltaics
Predominant photovoltaic material is silicon, but an emerging technology involves the use of dye-sensitized nano-TiO2.
Large surface area of nano TiO2 greatly increases photovoltaic efficiency.
Also has potential for lower material and processing costs relative to conventional solar cells.
Nanoadditive Fire Retardants
Use of nanoadditive fire retardants prompted by bans on halogenated flame retardants enacted in many states.
Polymer nanocomposites filled with clay, CNTs, etc., possess improved flammability resistance while maintaining or improving mechanical properties.
Reduces heat release rate during fire event by formation of surface char which insulates underlying material.
Challenges
Techniques for dispersing nanofillers AND measuring degree of dispersion.
Measurement of adhesion and interfacial properties.
Chemical and mechanical measurements at the nanoscale.
Prediction of nanocomposite properties and service life over a wide range of length scales.
Unknown health and environmental effects virgin, released material.
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Liposome
Liposomes are currently investigated for a variety of additional therapeutic agents; anticancer drugs such as paclitaxel, camptothecin, cisplatin; antibiotic such as amikacin, vancomysin, ciprofloxacin;
biologics such as antisense oligonucleotides, DNA.
Pharmacy on A Chip
The drug released from the implanted microchip demonstrated similar measures of safety and therapeutic levels in blood to what is observed from standard, recommended multiple subcutaneous
injections.
Process of Drug Delivery
The first drug delivery microchip. Microchip-based implant wirelessly programmed to release drugs inside the body.
1. Reservoirs are filled with drugs. - Prior to implanting. Drugs are stored in an array of sealed microreservoirs.
2. Device is implanted. - Device with microchip is implanted under skin.
3. Device is activated.- When electrical current is applied, the membrane sealing the microreservoir melts.
4. Drug is released.- Releasing drug from reservoir.
5. Ongoing drug administration.- When drug reservoir is empty, the next dose can be delivered from another reservoir.
Ceramic in Bonds
The European Commission reports that ceramic nanocomposites developed in BIOKER could solve the problem of fracture failures in artificial joint implants. This would extend patient mobility and
eliminate the high cost of reparative surgery.
Point of Care Testing (POCT)
POCT can augment the capabilities of disaster medical assistance teams, and provide minimally-invasive monitoring in critical and emergency care environments.
ENERGY
Sun is natural energy.
Energy Source
Nanotechnologies provide essential improvement potentials for the development of both conventional energy sources (fossil and nuclear fuels) and renewable energy sources like geothermal energy,
sun, wind, water, tides or biomass.
Energy Distribution
Researchers at Rice University are working to develop wires containing carbon nanotubes that would have significantly lower resistance than the wires currently used in the electric transmission grid. The
so-called armchair quantum wire would be composed of carbon nanotubes woven into a cable.
Energy Storage
adding Li to H2 increase storage
If we add small amounts of lithium to hydrogen and if we keep the pressure at about one-fourth of a pressure (on which hydrogen turns into a metal) hydrogen transforms into a metal with
superconductivity properties.
NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY
Genetic Engineering
Enzyme/Cell Engineering
Nanotechnology
Bioinformatics
Nanobots
Nanobots swims in blood it is provided with microcamera,capacitor,payload and swimming tail. It reaches the targeted area and finds the unwanted growth or any tumor cell and ruputes the particular
diseased area.
ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY
Panel A Panel B
1. Concentrations of Ag+ ions built up 1. Ag+ ions from the silver nanoparticle
by elution from the silver nanoparticle coating did not result in Ag +concentrations
coating were high enough to kill bacteria. high enough to activate blood platelets.
2 and 3: Possible killing of bacteria by 2 and 3. Activation of blood platelets by
contact-dependent transfer of Ag+ ions contact-dependent transfer of Ag+ ions
following collision with the silver following collision with the silver
nanoparticle-containing surface. nanoparticle-containing surface
ENVIRONMENT
Global Warming
Polymers like thermosets, thermoplastics and elastomers reinforced with colloidal silica, nanoclay and nanotubes are promising candidate materials. Employing nano composites can lead to reduced
energy consumption in cars, with the impact of their use being likely to be even more dramatic in the aerospace sector. Hence the global warming can be reduced.
Percentage of Global Warming Caused by Various Sector
Transporation (Diesel Truck, Jet Airplane, Petrol Car) 28%
Industrial (Cement Plant, Chemical Factory) 20%
Residential and Commercial 11%
Electrio Power 34%
Agriculture 7%
Pollution (Water)
Nanoparticles is used to clean industrial water pollutants in ground water through chemical reactions that render them harmless, at much lower cost than methods that require pumping the water out of the
ground for treatment.
Researchers have developed a nanofabric "paper towel," woven from tiny wires of potassium manganese oxide, that can absorb 20 times its weight in oil for cleanup applications.
Cleaning Up Organic Polluting Ground Water
Iron nanoparticles can be effective in cleaning up organic solvents that are polluting groundwater. The iron nanoparticles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in
place. This method can be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require the water to be pumped out of the ground.
Food and Agriculture (Food Contaminant Detection)
In 2008, thousands of people, especially children, got sick as a result of melamine contamination in dairy products from China.
A quick and easy way to detect melamine in milk using gold nanoparticles. In the presence of melamine, the mixture changes from pink to blue.
Agriculture
Use of new biopesticides, sensor to monitor soil condition and agrichemical delivery the agriculture productivity can be increased.