Nuclear Physics: James T. Shipman Jerry D. Wilson Charles A. Higgins, Jr. Omar Torres

James T.
Shipman
Jerry D. Wilson
Charles A. Higgins, Jr.
Omar Torres
Chapter 1
Nuclear Physics
© 2016 Cengage Learning

Nuclear Physics
• The characteristics of the atomic nucleus are important to our
modern society
• Diagnosis and treatment of cancer and other diseases
• Geological and archeological dating
• Chemical analysis
• Nuclear energy and nuclear disposal
• Formation of new elements
• Radiation of solar energy
• Generation of electricity

Intro
Early Thoughts about Elements
• The Greek philosophers (600–200 BCE) were the first
people to speculate about the basic substances of
matter
• Aristotle speculated that all matter on Earth is
composed of only four elements: earth, air, fire, and
water
• He was wrong on all counts!

Section 10.1
Symbols of the Elements
• Swedish chemist,
Jons Jakob
Berzelius (early
1800’s) used one
or two letters of
the Latin name to
designate each
element

Section 10.1
Symbols of the Elements
• Since Berzelius’ time most elements have been
symbolized by the first one or two letters of the
English name.
• You are expected to know the names and symbols of
the 35 elements listed on Table 10.2

Section 10.1
Names and Symbols
of Common Elements

Section 10.1
The Atom
• All matter is composed of atoms
• An atom is composed of three subatomic particles:
electrons (–), protons (+), and neutrons (neutral)
• The nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the
neutrons (also called nucleons)
• The electrons surround (orbit) the nucleus
• Electrons and protons have equal but opposite charges

Section 10.2
Major Constituents of an Atom

Section 10.2
The Atomic Nucleus
• Protons and neutrons have nearly the same
mass and are 2000 times more massive
than an electron
• Discovery – electron (J.J. Thomson in
1897), proton (Ernest Rutherford in 1918),
and neutron (James Chadwick in 1932)

Section 10.2
Rutherford’s Alpha-Particle
Scattering Experiment
• J.J. Thomson’s “plum pudding” model predicted the
alpha particles would pass through the evenly
distributed positive charges in the gold atoms
a particle = helium nucleus

Section 10.2
Rutherford’s Alpha-Particle
Scattering Experiment
• Only 1 out of 20,000 alpha particles bounced back
• Rutherford could only explain this by assuming that each
gold atom had its positive charge concentrated in a very
small “nucleus”
• Diameter of nucleus = about 10–14 m
• Electron orbit diameter = about 10–10 m
• Atomic Mass is concentrated in the nucleus
(> 99.97%)
Section 10.2
Atomic Mass is
Concentrated in the Nucleus!
• Therefore the volume (or size) of an atom is
determined by the orbiting electrons
– The diameter of an atom is approximately 10,000 times the
diameter of the nucleus
• If only nuclear material (protons and neutrons) could
be closely packed into a sphere the size of a Ping-
Pong ball it would have the incredible mass of 2.5
billion metric tons!

Section 10.2
Visual Representation of a Nucleus
• Tightly packed
protons and
neutrons

Section 10.2
Atomic Designations
• Atomic Number (Z) – the # of protons in the nucleus
(“defines” the element – the # of protons is always the same
for a given element)
• Atomic Number also designates the number of electrons in
an element
• If an element either gains or loses electrons, the resulting
particle is called and ion
• For example, if a sodium atom (Na) loses an electron it
becomes a sodium ion (Na+)

Section 10.2
More Atomic Designations
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons, or the total
number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons vary in the
nucleus of a given element (always same number of
protons)
• Only 118 chemical elements
are known, but the total number
of isotopes is about 3000
Section 10.2
Isotopes
• Some elements have several isotopes (like carbon –
12C, 13C, 14C)
• Isotopes of a single element have the ’same’ chemical

properties (due to same number of electrons), but
they have different masses (due to varying number of
neutrons)
• Due to their various masses isotopes behave slightly
differently during reactions

Section 10.2
Three Isotopes of Hydrogen
• In naturally occurring Hydrogen 1 atom in 6000 is deuterium and 1 in 10,000,000 is

tritium
• Heavy water = D2O

Section 10.2
Determining the
Composition of an Atom – Example
• Determine the number of protons, electrons,
and neutrons in the fluorine atom 199 F.
• Atomic Number (Z) = 9
•  protons = 9 & electrons = 9
• Mass Number (A) = 19
• A = N + Z {N = neutron number}
•  N = A – Z = 19 – 9 = 10
• neutrons = 10

Section 10.2
Atomic Review
• Protons & Neutrons – in nucleus
• Electrons – orbit around nucleus
• Mass Number (A) = protons + neutrons
• Atomic Number (Z) = # of protons
• Neutron Number (N) = # of neutrons
• Isotope – an element with different # of neutrons
(same # of protons)

Section 10.2
Atomic Mass
• The weighted average mass of an atom of the element
in a naturally occurring sample
• The Atomic Mass is measured in atomic mass units
(u) – basically the weight of a proton or neutron
• The 12C atom is used as the standard, and is assigned
the Atomic Mass of exactly 12 u
• The weighted average mass of all carbon is slightly
higher than 12 (12.011) because some is 13C and 14C
Section 10.2
Fundamental Forces of Nature –
Review
• We have previously discussed two fundamental forces of
nature – gravitational and electromagnetic
• The electromagnetic force between a proton (+) and an
electron (–) is 1039 greater than the gravitational forces
between the two particles
• Therefore the electromagnetic forces are the only
important forces on electrons and are responsible for the
structure of atoms, molecules, and all matter in general

Section 10.2
The (Strong) Nuclear Force
• Remember that the nucleus of any atom is extremely small and
packed with a combination of neutrons and protons (+)
• According to Coulomb’s Law like charges repel each other
– Therefore the repulsive forces in a nucleus are huge and the
nucleus should fly apart
• There must exist a third fundamental force that somehow holds the
nucleus together
• This is the strong force which is attractive at distances less than
about 10–14 m

Section 10.2
Large Nucleus & the Nuclear Force
• For a large nucleus the forces are complicated
• An individual proton is only attracted by the 6 or 7
closest nucleons, but is repelled by all the other
protons
• When the # of protons exceeds 83, the electrical
repulsion overcomes the nuclear force, and the
nucleus is unstable
• Spontaneous disintegration
or decay occurs to adjust for
the neutron-proton
imbalance
Section 10.2
Standard Model
• Physicists have also identified a weak nuclear force within
an atom
– This is a very short-range force that reveals itself principally in
beta decay
– It is weaker than the strong force and the electromagnetic force
• Physicists have organized three of the known atomic
forces (electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear)
into a single unifying theory called the standard model

Section 10.2
Atomic Review
• Mass Number (A) – protons + neutrons, or the total
number of nucleons
• Isotope – when the number of neutrons vary in the
nucleus of a given element (always same number of
protons)
• Atomic Number (Z)
– number of protons

Section 10.2
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity (radioactive decay) – the spontaneous process
of nuclei undergoing a change by emitting particles or rays
• Nuclide – a specific type of nucleus: 238U or 14C
• Radionuclides (radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes) –
nuclides whose nuclei undergo spontaneous decay
(disintegration)
• Substances that give off such radiation are said to be
radioactive

Section 10.3
Radioactive Decay
• Parent nucleus – the original nucleus before decay
• Daughter nucleus (or daughter product) – the
resulting nucleus after decay
• Radioactive nuclei can decay (disintegrate) in three
common ways
– Alpha decay
– Beta decay
– Gamma decay

Section 10.3
Radioactive Decay (Disintegration)
• Alpha decay – disintegration of a nucleus into a nucleus of
another element, w/ the emission of an alpha particle ()
– a helium nucleus 
He  4
2
• Beta decay – a neutron is transformed into a proton, w/ the

emission of a beta particle ()
– an electron  0
1 e
• Gamma decay – occurs when a nucleus emits a gamma ray
() and becomes a less energetic form of the same nucleus
Section 10.3
Three Components
of Radiation from Radionuclides
Alpha(), Beta(), Gamma()

Section 10.3
Nuclear Decay Equations – Examples
• Alpha decay:
232
9Th  228
88 Ra  24 He
• Beta decay:
14
6 C  14
7 N  0
1 e
 82 Pb  
204 * 204
• Gamma decay: 82 Pb
• In a nuclear decay equation, the sums of the

mass numbers (A) and the sums of the atomic
numbers (Z) will be equivalent on each side
Section 10.3
The Products of Alpha Decay –
Example
238
• 92 U undergoes alpha decay. Write the equation for the process.
•
•
238
92 U?
•
238
92 U  ?  24 He
234
238
92 U 90 ?  42 He
• Must determine the mass number (A), the atomic number (Z), and the
chemical symbol for the daughter product
•
238
92 U 234
90 Th  42 He

Section 10.3
Five Common Forms
of Nuclear Radiations

Section 10.3
Decay Series of
Uranium-238 to Lead-206

Section 10.3
Identifying Radionuclides
• Which nuclides are unstable (radioactive) and which are stable?
• An interesting pattern emerges:
– Most stable nuclides have an even number of both protons and neutrons (even-
even nuclides)
– Most unstable nuclides have an odd number of both protons and neutrons
(odd-odd nuclides)
• A nuclide will be radioactive if:
– Its atomic number (Z) is > than 83
– n < p (except for) 1 3
1 H and 2 He
– It is an odd-odd nuclide
2 6 10 14
H, Li, B, and N
(except for 1 3 5 7
)
Section 10.3
Identifying Radionuclides – Example
• Identify the radionuclide in each pair, and state your
reasoning.
208 222
a) 82 Pb and 86 He  Z above 83
19 20
b) 10 Ne and 10 Ne  fewer n than p
63 64
c) 29 Cu and 29 Cu  odd-odd

Section 10.3
The Pairing Effect in Stabilizing Nuclei

Section 10.3
A Plot of Number of Neutrons (N) Versus
Number of Protons (Z) for the Nuclides
• Showing “band of
stability” (red dots)
• Small blue dots represent
known radioisotopes

Section 10.3
Half-Life of a Radionuclide
• Half-Life – the time it takes for half of the nuclei of a
given sample to decay
• In other words – after one half-life has expired, only
one-half of the original amount of radionuclide
remains undecayed
• After 2 half-lives only one-quarter (½ of ½) of the
original amount of the radionuclide remains
undecayed

Section 10.3
HALF LIFE

Decay of Thorium-234 over Two Half-Lives
Thorium-234 has a half-life of 24 days

Section 10.3
Decay Curve for Any Radionuclide
Section 10.3

Finding the Number of
Half-Lives and the Final Amount
• What fraction and mass of a 40 mg sample of iodine-
131 (half-life = 8 d) will remain in 24d?
• Step 1 – find the number of half-lives that have passed
in 24 days: 24 days
 3 half-lives
8 d/half-life
• Step 2 – Start with the given amount N0 = 40 mg, and half it 3 times (3 half-lives)
– Once  N0/2 = 20 mg (after 8 days)
– Twice  N0/4 = 10 mg (after 16 days)
– Thrice  N0/8 = 5 mg (after 24 days)

Section 10.3
Finding the Number of Half-Lives and the
Final Amount – Confidence Exercise
• What fraction of strontium-90 produced in 1963
(half-life = 29 y) will remain in 2021?
• Step 1 – find the number of half-lives that have
passed in 58 years: 58 years
 2 half-lives
29 y/half-life
• Step 2 – Start with the given amount = N0
– After 1 half-life  N0/2 = (after 29 years)
– After 2 half-lives  N0 /4 = (after 58 years)
 One fourth of the original strontium-90 remains

Section 10.3
Finding the Elapsed Time – Example
• How long would it take a sample of 14C to decay to
one-fourth its original activity? (half-life of 14C is
5730 years).
• Solution: N0  N0/2  N0/4  14C would need to
decay for two half-lives in order to be reduced to ¼
its original activity.
• (2 half-lives)(5730 y/half-life) = 11,460 years

Section 10.3
Determining the Half-Live of a
Radioactive Isotope (Radionuclide)
• In order to determine the half-life of a particular
radionuclide, we must monitor the activity of a
known amount in the laboratory
• Activity – the rate of emission of the decay particles
(usually in counts per minute, cpm)
• When (time) the initial activity rate has fallen to one-
half – we have reached one half-life
• Measured with a Geiger counter
Section 10.3
Geiger Counter
When a high-energy particle from a radioactive source
enters the window it ionizes an argon atom, giving off a
small pulse of current, which is counted & amplified
into the familiar “clicks”.

Section 10.3
Radioactive Dating
• Because of their constant decay rates, radioisotopes
can be used as nuclear “clocks”
• Scientists can determine the age of objects that
contain radioisotopes

Section 10.3
Carbon-14 (14C) Dating
• An important dating procedure in archeology
• Used on materials that were once part of living things
– wood, bones, parchment, etc.
• 14C is formed naturally in the upper atmosphere and is
dispersed by atmospheric mixing
• All living matter contains about the same level of 14C
or an activity level of 16 counts/min per gram of total
carbon
Section 10.3
Carbon-14 Dating
• Once an organism dies, it ceases to take in 14C, and
the 14C present at death starts to undergo radioactive
decay
• Therefore, the longer an organism has been dead, the
lower is the radioactively of each gram of carbon (the
12C and 13C are stable) in its remains

Section 10.3
Carbon-14 Dating
Section 10.3

Section 10.3
Limits to Carbon-14 Dating
• After about 10 half-lives, very little 14C remains, and
it is therefore barely measurable
• The limit of radiocarbon dating depends on the ability
to measure very low activity in old samples
• 40,000–50,000 years is the current limit of age-dating
using 14C

Section 10.3
Carbon 14 Dating – Example
• An old scroll is found in a cave that has a carbon-14 activity of 4
counts/min per gram of total carbon. Approximately how old is the scroll?
• The plant from which the scroll was made originally had an activity level
of 16 counts/min per gram of carbon.
• To get to 4 cts/min
• 16 cts → (t1/2) 8 cts → (t1/2) 4 cts or 2 half-lives
• 14C has a half life of 5730 yrs
• 2×5730 = 11,460 yrs
• The scroll is between 11,000 and 12,000 years old.

Section 10.3
Nuclear Reactions
• We know that radioactive nuclei can spontaneously
change into nuclei of other elements, a process called
transmutation
• Scientists wondered if the reverse was possible
• Could a particle (proton or neutron) be added to a
nucleus to change it into another element?
• The answer is “yes,” and this process is called a
nuclear reaction
Section 10.4
Nuclear Reactions
• In 1919 Ernest Rutherford produced the first nuclear
reaction by bombarding 14N with alpha particles
• The result was an artificial transmutation of a
nitrogen isotope into an oxygen isotope
• 42 He  147 N  178 O  11 H

Section 10.4
Nuclear Reaction – General Form
• 4
2 He  14
7 N  17
8 O  1
1H
• Note that the conservation of mass number and conservation of
atomic number holds in nuclear reactions, just like in nuclear decay
– 18 = total mass # on each side
– 9 = total atomic # on each side
• The general form for a nuclear reaction is
a+AB+b
– a is the particle that bombards A to form nucleus B and emitted particle b

Section 10.4
Common Particles Encountered in
Nuclear Reactions
• In addition to the particles in the table below, protons,
 1
deuterons
1 H  1 
2
,and tritons
H  1H
3
are commonly
encountered in nuclear reactions

Section 10.4
Completing an Equation for a
Nuclear Reaction – Example
• Complete the equation for the proton bombardment
of lithium-7.
1
1 H  73 Li  ?  01 n
••Note, the sum of the mass #’s on left = 8.
• The mass # on the right must also = 8, therefore the missing
particle must have a mass # = 7.
• The sum of the atomic #’s on left = 4
• Therefore the sum of the atomic #’s on right must also equal 4.

Section 10.4
Completing an Equation for a
Nuclear Reaction – Example (cont.)
•
1
1 H  73 Li  ?  01 n
• The missing particle must have an atomic number = 4
• Therefore the missing particle has a mass number of 7
and an atomic number of 4.
• This element is 74Be (beryllium).
• Completed equation  1 H  7 Li  7 Be  1 n
1 3 4 0

Section 10.4
Completing an Equation for a Nuclear
Reaction – Confidence Exercise
• Complete the equation for the deuteron bombardment of aluminum-27.
•
2
1 H 27
13 Al  ?  42 He
• Note the sum of the mass #’s on left = 29.
• The mass # on the right must also = 29, therefore the missing
particle must have a mass # = 25.
• The sum of the atomic #’s on left = 14.
• Therefore the sum of the atomic #’s on right must also equal
14.
Section 10.4
Completing an Equation for a Nuclear
Reaction – Confidence Exercise (cont.)
•
2
1 H 27
13 Al  ?  42 He
• The missing particle must have an atomic number =
12
• Therefore the missing particle has a mass number of
25 and an atomic number of 12.
• This element is 12
25
Mg (magnesium).
• Completed equation  21 H  27 13 Al  25
12 Mg  4
2 He

Section 10.4
Nuclear Reactions
• Rutherford’s discovery of the transmutation of 14N
into 17O was actually an accident!
– But the implications of this discovery were enormous!
• One element could now be changed into another
completely different element!

Section 10.4
Nuclear Reactions
• The age-old dream of the alchemists had come true
– It was now possible to actually make gold (Au) from other
more common elements!
1
1 H  200
80 Hg  197
79 Au  4
2 He
• Unfortunately, the above process to make gold is VERY expensive.
– More than $1,000,000 per ounce!

Section 10.4
Nuclear Reactions
• Neutrons produced in nuclear reactions can be used to
induce other nuclear reactions
– Hence, a “chain reaction” is possible
• Since neutrons have an electrical charge, they are
particularly efficient in penetrating the nucleus and
inducing a reaction
– Without an electrical charge neutrons are not influenced by
positive and negative atomic charges

Section 10.4
Transuranium Elements
• Transuranium Elements – those with atomic number
greater than 92
– All of these elements are synthetic.
– Created in the lab by bombarding a lighter nucleus with
alpha particles or neutrons
– For Example … 01 n  238 92 U  239
93 Np  0
1 e
58
26 Fe  209
83 Bi  266
109 Mt  01 n

Section 10.4
Nucleosynthesis
• H, He, and Li are thought to have formed in the Big
Bang
• Be up to Fe were likely made in the cores of stars by
fusion
• Atoms heavier then Fe are thought to have formed
during supernova explosions of stars, when there was
an abundance of neutrons and medium-sized atoms

Section 10.4
Uses of Radionuclides
• Radionuclides have many uses in medicine,
chemistry, biology, geology, agriculture, and industry
• One medical use involves a radioactive isotope of
iodine, 123I, it is used in a diagnostic measurement of
the thyroid gland
• Americum-241, a synthetic transuranium
radionuclide, is used in most common home smoke
detectors

Section 10.4
Smoke Detector
• A weak radioactive source ionizes the air and sets up a small
current
– If smoke particles enter, the current is reduced, causing an alarm

Section 10.4
Uses of Radionuclides
• In both chemistry and biology, radioactive “tracers”
(14C & 3H) are used to “tag” an atom within a molecule
– In this way the reaction pathways of drugs & hormones may
be determined
• In geology, the predictable decay rate of radioactive
elements in rocks and minerals allow age determination
• In industry, tracer radionuclides help manufacturers test
durability

Section 10.4
Nuclear Fission
• Fission – the process in which a large nucleus “splits”
into two intermediate-size nuclei
– with the emission of neutrons and …
– the conversion of mass into energy
• For example, 236U fissions into two smaller nuclei,
emits several neutrons, and releases energy:
236
92 U 140
54 Xe  94
38 Sr  01 n
236
92 U 132
50 Sn  101
42 Mo  3 1
0n

Section 10.5
Completing the Equation for Fission –
Example
• Complete the following equation for fission.
236
92 U 88
36 Kr  144
56 Ba  ?
• Atomic #’s are balanced, 92 on both sides

• Therefore the atomic # for the unknown is 0.
• Mass #’s are not balanced.
– 236 on the left & 232 on the right
• Therefore 4 additional units of mass are needed on the right.

Section 10.5
Completing the Equation for Fission –
Example (cont.)
• 236
92 U 88
36 Kr  144
56 Ba  ?
• The missing particle must have:

– an atomic number of 0
– a mass number of 4
• But no single particle exists with those properties
• Therefore the missing “particle” is actually 4 neutrons.
236
92 U 88
36 Kr  144
56 Ba  4 1
0n

Section 10.5
Completing the Equation
for Fission – Confidence Exercise
• Complete the following equation for fission.
236
92 U 90
38 Sr  ?  2 01 n
• Atomic #’s are not balanced.

– The atomic # for the unknown must be 54.
• Mass #’s are not balanced.
• The mass # for the unknown must be 144.
144
• The unknown must be 54 Xe.
236
92 U 90
38 Sr  144
54 Xe  2 1
0n
Nuclear Fission –
Three Important Features
• The products of fission are always radioactive
– Some of the products have half-lives of thousands of years
– Nuclear waste disposal problems
• Relatively large amounts of energy are produced
• Neutrons are released

Section 10.5
Chain Reaction
• In an expanding chain reaction, one initial reaction
triggers a growing number of subsequent reactions
• In the case of 236U each fission emits two neutrons
– Each of these two neutrons can hit another 235U, resulting
in the fission of two additional 235U nuclei and the release
of energy and four neutrons
• As the chain expands, the number of neutrons emitted
and the energy output increases

Section 10.5
Fission
• U absorbs a neutron, initially changes into 236U and
235
then immediately undergoes fission, releasing two

neutrons and energy

Section 10.5
Chain Reaction
• If all of the emitted neutrons hit another 235U nucleus,
this results in an increasing number of emitted
neutrons, fission reactions, and energy release
• An expanding chain reaction occurs

Section 10.5
Self-Sustaining Chain Reaction
• A steady release of energy can be attained when each fission
event causes only one more fission event – a self-sustaining chain
reaction
• For a self-sustaining chain reaction to proceed, the correct amount
and concentration of fissionable material (235U) must be present
• If there is too much fissionable material present an expanding
chain reaction occurs
• If there is too little fissionable material present the chain reaction
will stop

Section 10.5
Critical Mass
• Critical Mass – the minimum amount of fissionable
material necessary to sustain a chain reaction
– About 4 kg (baseball size) of pure 235U
• Subcritical Mass – no chain reaction occurs
• Supercritical Mass – an expanding chain reaction
occurs

Section 10.5
Subcritical and Supercritical Masses

Section 10.5
Uranium
• Natural uranium contains 99.3% 238U and only 0.7% is the
fissionable 235U isotope
• Therefore, the 235U must be concentrated or “enriched” in
order to create either a self-sustaining or expanding chain
reaction
• In U.S. nuclear reactors the 235U has been enriched to about
3%, enough for a self-sustaining chain reaction
• In contrast, nuclear weapons require an enrichment of 90%
or more 235U, enough for a sudden release of energy

Section 10.5
Atomic Bomb
• In order to create a fission bomb (“atomic bomb”), a
supercritical mass of fissionable material must be formed and
held together
• Subcritical portions of the fissionable material are held apart
until detonation
• A conventional explosion brings the subcritical segments
together to create a supercritical mass capable of a explosive
release of energy
– This energy sudden energy release is due to an expanding chain
reaction of the fissionable material

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactors
• Nuclear reactors must have a controlled and continual release of
fission energy
• Within the reactor core, long fuel rods and control rods are placed
• The fuel rods contain the fissionable material.
– This is the heat source
• The control rods contain neutron-absorbing material, such as B or
Cd
– These rods “control” the rate of nuclear fission and thereby the amount of
heat produced

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactor Vessel
Section 10.6

Nuclear Reactors
• Since the fission rate in the fuel rods cannot be directly
controlled …
• The control rods are inserted or withdrawn from between the
fuel rods to control the number of neutrons being absorbed
• The reactor core is basically a heat source
– The heat is continually removed by the coolant (H 2O) flowing
through the core
• This heat is used to generate steam in the steam generator
– The steam turns a generator – producing electricity

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactor
Note that the hot water
circuit is completely
“contained,” thereby
allowing no radioactive
contamination.
Hot water
circuit

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactors – Coolant
• The reactors coolant (H2O) performs two critical functions:
1) The coolant transfers the heat from the reactor core to
the steam generator
2) The coolant serves as a moderator
– The neutrons that are initially emitted from the fuel rods are
moving too fast to cause 235U fission efficiently
– After colliding with several H2O molecules the neutrons have
slowed enough to induce 235U fission more efficiently

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactors – Potential Dangers
• Potential dangers exist with a continuous-fission chain
reaction
• The amount of heat generated must be controlled
– The fission rate is controlled through the insertion (slow down)
or withdrawal (speed up) of the control rods between the fuel
rods
• The heat generated must be continually removed from the
core
– The heat is removed by the circulation of the coolant

Section 10.5
Nuclear Reactors – Potential Dangers
• Improper control or removal of core generated heat can
result in the fusing or “meltdown” of the fuel rods
• The uncontrolled fissioning mass will become
extremely hot and will literally melt through the floor
of the containment structure
– At this point, the extremely hot and uncontrollable
radioactive material will enter the outside environment
(ground, water, atmosphere)

Section 10.5
Nuclear Accidents
• Three nuclear accidents have occurred:
– Three Mile Island (TMI) Pennsylvania in 1979
– Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986
– Fukushima Daiichi generating facility, Japan, in 2011
• At TMI, an accidental shutdown of the coolant led to a partial meltdown
– This resulted in very little escape of radioactive gases
• At Chernobyl, a complete meltdown occurred due to poor human judgment and design problems
– This resulted in an explosion & fire in the reactor core and significant regional contamination
• At Fukushima, a severe earthquake caused power loss and tsunami waves disabled backup
generators
– This resulted in a partial exposure of three reactor cores, causing a hydrogen-gas buildup,
which exploded, releasing radioactive material

Section 10.5
Breeder Reactor
• Besides 235U, another fissionable nuclide is 239Pu
• 239Pu is produced by the bombardment of 238U (the
non-fissionable U) with “fast” neutrons during the
normal operation of a nuclear reactor
• In a breeder reactor the production of 239Pu is
promoted
• The 239Pu is later separated and may be used in an
ordinary nuclear reactor or in weapons
Section 10.5
Breeder Reactor
• Therefore 239Pu is a natural by-product of a nuclear
reactor
• 20 breeder reactors running for a full year produce
enough 239Pu to run another reactor for a full year
• Breeder reactors run at a higher temperature than
conventional reactors and use liquid sodium as a
coolant

Section 10.5
Pebble-Bed Gas Reactor
• Possible next generation of nuclear reactors
• Use graphite-uranium pebbles instead of fuel rods
• Reactor is cooled by nonexplosive helium gas instead of
water
– Helium is inert and doesn’t become radioactive
– Graphite is a good moderator, slowing down the fission neutrons
• Designed to dissipate heat on their own and may be shut
down by removing pellets
– No meltdown

Section 10.5
Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion – the process in which smaller nuclei combine
to form larger nuclei
– along with the release of energy
– does not require a critical mass
• Fusion is the source of energy for the Sun and other
stars
• In the Sun,
4 11 Hthe
fusion
4
2 He process
2 produces a helium
1 e  energy
1
nucleus from four protons (hydrogen nuclei)

Section 10.6
Examples of Fusion Reactions
H 
2 10.6
Section
• 1
2
1 H  3
1 H  1
1H
• Two deuterons fuse to form a triton and a proton.

– Termed a D-D (deuteron-deuteron) reaction
•
2
1H  31 H  24 He  01 n
• One deuteron and a tritium form an alpha

particle and a neutron
– Termed a D-T (deuteron-tritium) reaction
D-T Fusion Reaction

Section 10.6
Nuclear Fusion – Technical Hurdles
• The repulsive force between two positively charged
nuclei is very great
• To overcome these strong repulsive forces and
initiate fusion, the particles must be heated to extreme
temperatures (100 million K)
• At these extreme temperatures the H atoms exist as a
plasma
– A plasma is gas of electrons and nucleons

Section 10.6
Nuclear Fusion – Technical Hurdles
• The plasma must also be confined at a high enough
density for protons to frequently collide
• Even with today’s technology, it is a significant
challenge to reach the necessary temperature and
confinement requirements

Section 10.6
Nuclear Fusion – Inertial Confinement
• Inertial Confinement – simultaneous high-energy
laser pulses from all sides cause a fuel pellet of D &
T to implode, resulting in compression and high
temperatures
• If the pellet can be made to stay intact for a sufficient
time, fusion is initiated
• Research into this method is being conducted at Los
Alamos and Lawrence Livermore labs

Section 10.6
Nuclear Fusion – Magnetic
Confinement
• Magnetic Confinement – a doughnut-shaped magnetic
field holds the plasma, while electric currents raise the
temperature of the plasma
• Magnetic and electric fields are useful since a plasma gas
is a gas of charged particles
– Charged particles can be controlled and manipulated with
electric and magnetic fields
• The leading labs for fusion research using magnetic
confinement are MIT and Princeton

Section 10.6
Fusion Advantages over Fission
• Low cost and abundance of deuterium
– Deuterium can be extracted inexpensively from water
• Dramatically reduced nuclear waste disposal
– Relatively few radioactive by-products with relatively
short half-lives
• Fusion reactors cannot get out of control
– In the event of a system failure, quick cool down
– Not dependent on a critical mass

Section 10.6
Nuclear Reactions and Energy
• In 1905 Einstein published his special theory of
relativity
• This work deals with the changes that occur in mass,
length, and time as an object’s speed approaches the
speed of light (c)
• This theory predicts the mass (m) and energy (E) are
not separate entities but rather related by his famous
equation E = mc2

Section 10.6
• Einstein’s predictions have proved correct
• Scientists have been able to change mass into energy and, on a
very small scale, energy into mass
• For example, using Einstein’s equation what is the equivalent
energy of 1 gram mass?
• E = mc2 = (0.001 kg)(3.00×108 m/s2)
• = 90×1012 J = 90 trillion joules
• 90 trillion joules = same amount of energy released by 20,000
tons of TNT

Section 10.6
• Calculations with Einstein’s formula, E=mc2, have
convinced many scientists that small amounts of mass that
are “lost” in nuclear reactions could be a tremendous
source of energy
• To determine the change in mass in a nuclear reaction, we
simply add up the masses of all the reactants and subtract
the masses of all the products
• Generally during a nuclear reaction mass is either gained
or lost
Section 10.6
Mass Defect
• MeV = Mega electron volts = 1.60×10–13 J
• Endoergic – an increase in mass has taken place during
the reaction
– Absorbs energy by the number of atomic mass units times 931
MeV/u
• Exoergic – a decrease in mass has taken place during the
reaction
– Releases energy by the number of atomic mass units times 931
MeV/u

Section 10.6
Calculating Mass and Energy Changes
in Nuclear Reactions – Example
• Calculate the mass defect and the corresponding energy
released during this typical fission reaction (using the masses
of the atoms.)
236
92 U  88
36 Kr  144
56 Ba  4 1
0n
• (236.04556 u)  (87.91445 u) + (143.92284 u) + (4×1.00867 u)

• Total mass on left side = 236.04556 u
• Total mass on right side = 235.87197 u
• Difference of 0.17359 u = mass defect
• (0.17359 u)(931 MeV/u) = 162 MeV of energy released
Section 10.6
Calculating Mass and Energy Changes in
D-T Fusion Reaction – Confidence Exercise
• Calculate the mass defect and the corresponding
energy released during a D-T fusion reaction.
2
1 H  3
1 H  4
2 He  1
0n
• (2.0140 u) + (3.0161 u)  (4.0026 u) + (1.0087 u)

• Total mass on left side = 5.0301 u
• Total mass on right side = 5.0113 u
• Difference of 0.0188 u = mass defect
• (0.0188 u)(931 MeV/u) = 17.5 MeV of energy released

Fusion vs. Fission
• On a kilogram-for-kilogram comparison, more
energy comes from fusion than from fission
• The fission of 1 kg of 235U provides energy equal to
the burning of 2 million kg of coal
• The fusion of 1 kg of deuterium releases energy equal
to the burning of 40 million kg of coal

Section 10.6
Energy Release in Both
Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Any reaction that leads upward on the curve releases energy

because such a reaction is accompanied by a mass defect.
Section 10.6
Energy Release in Both Nuclear
Fission and Fusion (cont.)
• Fission proceeds from right to left.

• Fusion proceeds from left to right.
• Note that at the top of the curve is 56Fe. No net energy will be released by either splitting 56Fe or by fusing several
56Fe.

Section 10.6
Biological Effects of Radiation
• Ionizing Radiation – radiation that is strong enough
to knock electrons off atoms and form ions
• Ionizing Radiation includes: alpha particles, beta
particles, gamma particles, neutrons, gamma rays,
and X-rays
• These types of radiation can also harm or kill living
cells, and are especially harmful if they affect
molecules involved in cell reproduction

Section 10.7
Effects of Radiation on Living
Organisms
• Ionizing radiation cannot be seen, smelled, felt, or tasted
• Film badges worn by workers is commonly used to measure
radiation exposure
• The effects of radiation on living organisms can be classified
into two categories:
• Somatic Effects – short- and long-term effects on the recipient
of the radiation
• Genetic Effects – defects in the recipient’s subsequent
offspring

Section 10.7
Radiation Units
• The rem (roentgen equivalent for man) is the unit
used to discuss biological effects of radiation
• This unit takes into consideration the relative ionizing
power of each type of radiation and its affects on
humans
• The average U.S. citizens receives 0.2 rem per year,
from a number of different sources (both natural and
anthropogenic)

Section 10.7
Sources of Exposure to Radiation
• 0.2 rem –
average annual
radiation
exposure for
person in U.S.

Section 10.7
Radiation Sources
• Natural Sources – cosmic radiation (high altitude areas),
bedrock, radionuclides that are ingested (carbon-14,
potassium-40)
– Radon gas, from bedrock, varies greatly with location, but is
thought to cause from 10,000 to 130,000 lung cancers deaths
per year in the U.S.
• Anthropogenic Sources – medical X-rays and treatment,
TV’s, tobacco smoke, nuclear waste, certain household
products
Section 10.7
Long-Term Somatic Effects
• Long-term cumulative effects of radiation exposure
are not fully understood
• Without a doubt the most common long-term somatic
effect is an increased likelihood of developing cancer
• Many early workers of radionuclides died of cancer –
these scientists were generally exposed to small doses
for many years

Section 10.7
Penetration of Radiation
• But – there does not
appear to be any lower
limit, below which the
effects are negligible
•  any exposure to
radiation should be
taken seriously
• Alpha and beta particles are electrically charged and can be easily stopped.
• Gamma rays, X-rays, and neutrons are more difficult to stop because they
are not charged particles
Section 10.7
Elementary Particles
• By the 1930s, scientists identified 4 subatomic
particles: electron, proton, neutron, photon
• More than 200 elementary particles – mostly from
within the nucleus
• Example: exchange particles responsible for the 4
fundamental interactions: electromagnetic, strong,
weak, and gravitational

Section 10.8
Particle Accelerators
• Used to study elementary particles
• LHC – Large Hadron Collider – near Geneva
– Became operational in 2010 after almost 20 years of building
– Largest particle accelerator built so far

Section 10.8
Higgs Boson
• There is an inconsistency in the standard model due to large mass
difference between exchange particles
• This lead to the proposal of the Higgs boson
– It would explain why particles have mass
• In 2012, a new particle was discovered consistent with the Higgs
boson

Section 10.8
Antimatter
• Every particle has its antiparticle
• The antiparticle for the electron is the positron  0
1 e
• When particles and antiparticles mix they annihilate each

other and release energy

Section 10.8
Chapter 10 - Important Equations
• N = A – Z Neutron Number = Mass Number –
Atomic Number
• E = mc2 Mass-Energy relationship

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a particle = helium nucleus

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• Isotopes of a single element have the ’same’ chemical

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• In naturally occurring Hydrogen 1 atom in 6000 is deuterium and 1 in 10,000,000 is

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• Beta decay – a neutron is transformed into a proton, w/ the

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• In a nuclear decay equation, the sums of the

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