Design of Segmental Bridges for

Thermal Gradient
Thermocouple data from an instrumented prestressed concrete
segmental bridge (North Halawa Valley Viaduct) have been
efficiently reduced graphically to determine the critical positive and
negative thermal gradient. The results are compared with those
recommended by various AASHTO specifications. A simplification
to the computation procedure for the analysis of segmental bridges
for nonlinear thermal gradient is proposed. A fully worked numerical
design example is included to demonstrate how the analysis is
Kenneth W. Shushkewich greatly simplified, and to discuss the impact of the design thermal
Ph.D., P.E. gradient on the prestressing requirements.
Project Manager
T.Y. Lin Internation al
San Francisco, California

his article presents a state-of- proposed revision to an AASHTO

T the-art paper on practical seg-

mental bridge design for ther-
mal gradient. The evolution of the
specification. These results are particu-
larly timely because they validate the
proposed reduction of the negative
design positive and negative thermal thermal gradient by 40 percent and sub-
gradient in North America over the stantiate the use of the positive thermal
past 20 years is described. The recom- gradient. The general analysis of a seg-
mendations given by three current mental bridge for thermal gradient is
AASHTO specifications are reviewed discussed, and a simplification to the
and compared. The prestressed con- computation procedure is introduced.
crete segmental bridge shown in Fig. 1 A detailed numerical design exam-
(North Halawa Valley Viaduct in ple (North Halawa Valley Viaduct) is
Hawaii) has been extensively instru- included to demonstrate how the anal-
mented with thermocouples at a ysis is greatly simplified, and to dis-
midspan section and a pier section, cuss the impact of thermal gradient on
and readings are being taken over a prestressing requirements. Because
five-year period (1995-1999). thermal gradients act on all completed
The processing of thermocouple segmental bridges in a similar manner,
readings to-date reveals that the results it should be emphasized that the
correlate extremely well with the posi- method advocated in this paper applies
tive and negative thermal gradients in a equally to precast and cast-in-place
120 PCI JOURNAL
Fig. 1. North Halawa Valley Viaduct.

segmental bridges built by a variety of predicted by the New Zealand specifi- Potgieter and Gamble6 conducted a
construction methods (including bal- cation compared favorably with the comprehensive study of nonlinear
anced cantilever, span-by-span, incre- experimental results. They also found thermal gradients at various locations
mental launch, and others). that the stress at the bottom of the sec- in the United States. A finite differ-
tion could be made to agree with the ence heat flow computer model was
BACKGROUND experimental results if a temperature developed and the predicted thermal
The first breakthrough in the design differential of 36F (20C) were used results showed reasonable agreement
of segmental bridges for thermal gradi- with the PCI-PTI recommendations with experimental measurements
ent came when the recommendations instead of the specified l8F (10C). taken from a precast concrete segmen-
of the PCI-PTI (Prestressed Concrete Elbadry and Ghali 4 developed a fi- tal bridge (Kishwaukee River Bridge
Institute-Post-Tensioning Institute)' nite element computer program to de- in Illinois). The computer model was
and the New Zealand specification2 be- termine the nonlinear temperature dis- then used to compute probable tem-
came available 20 years ago. The PCI- tribution in concrete bridges and perature distributions at 26 SOLMET
PTI suggested a constant gradient over conducted a parametric study to evalu- stations across the United States.
the top slab with a temperature differ- ate the effect of various parameters Imbsen, Vandershaf, Schamber and
ential of l8 F (10 C). The New (solar radiation, wind speed, ambient Nutf built on the results of Potgieter
Zealand specification considered a temperature, deck surface cover) on and Gamble and produced a state-of-
fifth order parabola over a depth of thermal gradient. Cooke, Priestley and the-art report on thermal effects in
47.2 in. (1200 rnm) with a temperature Thurston' considered the thermal anal- concrete bridges. This document
differential of 57.6F (32C). ysis of partially prestressed concrete formed the basis of the AASHTO
Hoffman, McClure and West 3 con- bridges. Reasonable agreement was guide specification on thermal effects
ducted a thermal study on an experi- found when experimental results were in concrete bridges 8 as well as the
mental segmental bridge in Pennsylva- compared to the theory developed to AASHTO segmental guide specifica-
nia. They found that the stresses consider the influence of cracking. tions.9 These documents have been the

July-August 1998 121

 IAASHTO &9 1 IAASHTO 941 IAASHTO 98 1

4"h
8"t-
48"t-
"h
39.36"

I Positive Gradients I

20. 5"~
5. 5" F
43.20 "

INegat ive Gradients I

43.20"

Fig. 2. Comparison of thermal gradients.

basis for the design of segmental The positive gradient is the same in Each viaduct consists of three struc-
bridges for thermal gradient during the both the 94 and 98 documents. The tural units, with expansion joints at the
past 10 years. negative gradient is -0.50 times the end of each unit, two fixed piers in the
A few refinements have appeared in positive gradient in the 94 document, middle of each unit, and expansion
subsequent specifications. It is inter- and -0.30 times the positive gradient piers forming the remainder of the
esting to compare the positive and in the 98 document. Because the re- unit. The maximum span length is 360
negative thermal gradients (see Fig. 2) sults of the instrumentation study vali- ft (110 m). The viaduct cross section
in three AASHTO documents (for date the 98 gradient, it will be used in (see Fig. 4) has a width of 41 ft (12.50
Zone 3 and plain concrete surface): the remainder of this paper. m), which accommodates two lanes of
1. AASHTO Segmental Guide traffic plus shoulders. The depth of the
Specifications9 (AASHTO 89) DESCRIPTION OF section varies from 18 ft (5.5 m) at the
2. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design piers to 8 ft (2.4 m) at midspan.
NORTH HALAWA
Specifications'0 (AASHTO 94) The bridge was designed by T. Y.
3. AASHTO proposed Segmental VALLEY VIADUCT Lin International of San Francisco, Cal-
Guide Specifications'' (AASHTO 98) The North Halawa Valley Viaduct ifornia, in conjunction with Nakamura
The magnitude of the positive gradi- consists of twin prestressed concrete and Tyau of Honolulu, Hawaii. The
ent is the same for all three gradients segmental bridges on the island of bridge design process started in 1988
[i.e., 41 F, 11 F (22.8C, 6.1 C)]. The Oahu in Hawaii (see Fig. 3). The with the evaluation of seven different
magnitude of the negative gradient is project consists of a 5640 ft (1720 m) alternatives as part of the Major Struc-
roughly the same for the 89 and 94 gra- inbound viaduct that carries traffic to tures Report. This was followed by the
dients [i.e., 21 F, 6F (11.7C, 3.3C)] Honolu lu and a 5470 ft (1667 m) detailed design and construction of the
and reduced by 40 percent for the 98 outbound viaduct that carries traffic bridge. Kiewit Pacific was awarded the
gradient. Whereas the 89 positive and to Kaneohe. The viaducts are on a construction contract in early 1992 and
negative gradients have three pieces at horizontal curve with a radius of ap- given 990 calendar days to complete
the top and a peak at the bottom, the 94 proximately 9500 ft (2900 m), and the project. The bridge (and the entire
and 98 gradients have two pieces at the have a nearly constant grade of 6 H-3 Interstate system) opened to traffic
top and no peak at the bottom. percent. in December of 1997.

122 PCI JOURNAL

 IN8~ D VIADUCT

UNIT 2 18 , 1780'

UNIT I I 8 , 2050'

ELEVATION

Fig. 3. General pl an and elevati o n of viaduct.

This cast-in-place segmental bridge in combination with launching trusses with cast-in-place segmental construc-
was built using the balanced cantilever normally used in precast segmental tion. Additi onal info rmation on the
method of construction using form construction. This project represents design and construction of the bridge
travel ers normall y ass ociated with the first time in the United States that is given by Ingham, Manzanarez and
cast-in-place segmental construction la unch ing tru ss e s have bee n use d Cormier. 12

~BOX GIRDER

20'-6" 1 20'-6"

1'-6" 4'-0" 24'-0" ! 10-0" 1'-6"

SHOULDER ROADWAY SHOULDER

2" CONCRETE OVERLAY- I

C.! \ ~~ if
z
t- I
I
:i
1'-6"
0
I
X
I
Co I

I
.,,z
<Xl:i
""
::I
I
0
I
-+ I
I
f"\rr
~

I
- I
~~X
I<
'N:::I
-
11 '- 6" 11 '-6"

Fig. 4. Bridge cross secti o n.

July-August 1998 123

 P9 PIO
360 ft . 340 ft . 320 ft.

i~ /i
~pansion Piers

UNIT 2 INBOUND VIADUCT

Fig. 5 . Location of instrumented sections.

INSTRUMENTATION program are T. Y. Lin International, and monitoring setup is given by Lee
the University of Hawaii at Manoa, and Robertson. 13 Detailed results from
OF NORTH HALAWA and Construction Technology Labora- the instrumentation study are given by
VALLEY VIADUCT tories . Funding has been obtained Shushkewich, V o and Robertson. 14
T. Y . Lin International is presently from the State of Hawaii Department
involved in a five-year program of Transportation and the Federal Instrumentation Setup
(1995-1999) to instrument and moni- Highway Administration. Additional
An extensive system of instrumenta-
tor the bridge. The participants in this information on the instrumentation
tion was set up in Unit 2 Inbound (see
Fig. 5). This unit has span lengths of
200, 360, 340, 320, 320 and 240 ft
(61 , 110, 104, 98, 98 and 73 m) . In-
strumentation was placed at seven sec-
BOX GIRDER
tions . Sections A, D , E and G are
termed midspan sections (because
b they are near midspan), while Sections
I
B, C and F are termed support sections
"' SOUTH WEB
(because they are near supports).
Instrumentation was placed to mea-
sure concrete strains, prestressing
LfWill
forces, deflections and temperatures.
* THERIIOCOUPLE 11'-6" 11'-6"
Concrete strain was measured with vi-
~ THERMOCOUPlE 'TREE'
brating wire strain gauges, mechanical
THERMOCOUPLES AT SECTION E (DEMEC) strain gauges and electrical
resistance strain gauges. Prestressing
force was measured with load cells.
Horizontal deflections were measured
with extensometers, while vertical de-
flections were measured with baseline
(piano wire) systems. Rotations were
20 measured with tiltmeters. Tempera-
* 21
tures were measured (at Section E and
SOUTH WEB NORTH WEB F only) with thermocouples (as well as
* 22 with the thermistors that were used to
adjust the strain gauge data for tem-
* 2J
perature effects). Additional informa-
J2, J 1. 24, JO, 29
ALL RES tion on the instrumentation is given in
\ EXIT TO
OATALOGG(R
7-11 , 28
Ref. 13.
* 26 Sections E and F were extensively
LfWill instrumented with thermocouples (see
* THERIIOCOUPLE
~ THERIIOCOUPlE 'TREE'
11'-6. 11 '- 6"
I Fig. 6). Gauges 1 to 6 and 7 to 11 are
at the centerline of the box girder in
THERMOCOUPLES AT SECTION F the top and bottom slab, respectively.
Gauges 12 to 24 (or 26) are at the cen-
terline of the web and monitor the en-
Fig. 6. Thermocoup le locations . tire depth of the section. Additional
124 PCI JOUR NAL
 1995 Thennocouple Readings at Section E

1995 Thennocouple Readings at Section F

60.0
"'.!. "'t "' "'"' "' :
0>

~
Q.
..
:::;
"'
:;
~ ""' .
"'6. ..
.!,

... 1 :f ~
Date

Fig. 7. 1995 thermocouple read ings.

gauges are across the width of the web A reference thermistor provided in the the beginning of the study until Au-
(Gauges 25 and 26 for Section E and datalogger multiplexer box calibrated gust 22, 1995. At this time, it was felt
Gauges 29 to 32 for Section F). the thermocouple readings to record that too much information was being
The thermocouples used in the in- the temperatures directly in degrees collected (all instrumentation readings
strumentation were made using Celsius. (Note: F = 1.8 X oc + 32) were taken at the same 2-hour inter-
Teflon!Neoflon FEP insulated copper/ Thermocouple readings were first vals), and readings were then changed
constantin type-T wire obtained from recorded in late 1994 and will be to 6-hour intervals.
Omega Measurements. Thermocouple recorded through the end of 1999. The It became apparent on October 14,
"trees" made of PVC pipe with goal of the thermocouple instrumenta- 1997, that the peak critical positive
predrilled holes were used to correctly tion is to obtain critical positive and thermal gradient was being underesti-
maintain the location of closely spaced negative thermal gradients. Readings mated by taking readings at 6-hour in-
thermocouples during concrete pours. were taken at 2-hour intervals from tervals so the readings were then

July-August 1998 125

 1996 Thennocouple Readings at Section E

110.0

100.0

.
~
.c
c
! 90.0
.c
;.
!

.
ec."
E
80.0

...
70.0

60.0

1996 Thennocouple Readings at Section F

110.0

100.0

!c
! 90.0
.c

!!:.
!
~ 80.0
I 14F l
&
E
~

70.0

60.0
: !: s s 8Q. s 8;. s
ii. ..
;... ..).

:z"
g. tl
~
1 ~
Date
1. . "'0"
q
;;; .
z0
0 ;;;

Fig. 8. 1996 thermocoup le readings.

changed back to 2-hour intervals for A concrete topping 2 in. (50 mm) readings down by 2 in. (50 mm). This
the remainder of the study. Although thick was placed on the instrumented increases the overall number of gauges
the positive gradients were underesti- sections on October 7, 1996. (Note near the deck surface where gauge
mated somewhat during the 6-hour in- that asphalt topping was not used on readings are desirable.
terval period, the remainder of the this project and consequently the ef-
positive gradient readings are informa- fects of asphalt cannot be discussed in
tive. Negative gradient readings are this paper.) The net effect of placing Instrumentation Results
not nearly as sensitive to the time in- the concrete topping on the instru - There is an extremely large amount
terval , so all of the negative gradient mented sections is to add three addi- of data that has to be interpreted in an
readings are useful. The North Halawa tional thermocouple readings at the efficient man ner in order to obtain
Valley Viaduct has an excellent top, middle and bottom of the overlay critical positive and negative thermal
database of thermocouple readings . and shift the remai nder of the gauge gradients because the thermocouple

126 PCI JOURNAL

 July 95 Thermocouple Readings at Section E

110.0

100.0

E"

.c
c: 90.0
.
I!
.c
!!:.
I!!
r=El
"
~
. I ~
~
Q.
E
80.0

,A m ~n A \

70.0 \ ' ' '~~

' " ~~ ' '' ~ '
....

60.0
"'
0>
..!. "' "' "' "'
0>
..!.
..,
0>
..!.
0>
..!.
0>
..!. "'~ "'~ "'-5
0> 0>
..!.
.
"' "'-' "'-' "'"'-' "'~ "'"'-' "'~
0> "'"' "'"'....
..!. "'
~
~" d:" ~" ~" ~" " " 7 ~" :z" 7" ~" ~" J." " d:" ...~"
~
"' "' ~ "' "' "' ~
::: 1
*
Date
"'

July 95 Thermocouple Readings at Section F

110.0

100.0

~
.c
c:
I! 90.0
.
.c
!!:.
I!
=
i! I . a F14Fl
~
.
l 80.0
E
... u\ '\A Ul-~
.,A~ I ~ ~ ~ 17\ ~ l
70.0
"~ ~ ,,.\J" 11 ~ ~

60.0
.."' "' "'"' .., "'.... " "'7.... "' "'.... .., .., .., ..,." "'" "'" "'"
-5 .... ....
3 "' "'
..,
"'
"'..!.
..,
~
..,
~ ~
~ ~
..,
~
. ..... "' .
...."'"' "'...."'
" " " .., "
..,
-'
..,
-'
"' :ll
..,
~ "'
...
-' "'
-' "' -' "' "'
~ ;z :b" ~" ...~" ...]." 1!!'
..!.
..!.
3 3
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :b .... ~ ~ ~ ~ ... J.
"' "' ~
7
~ ~ ~ :::
7 ~ ].

* "'
N N N

Date

Fi g. 9. july 1995 thermocouple readings .

readings are taken every 2 hours for a mal gradients (positive and negative) This also helps to spot spurious results
5-year period at 58 gauges. (Section E are given in Ref. 14 and only repre- (moisture in the datalogger) and no re-
has 26 gauges while Section F has 32 sentative plots will be discussed here. sults (power fail ure). For instance,
gauges.) The method used to reduce Annual readings for 1995 (see Fig. January 1996 readings at Section Fare
the data has been to graphically re- 7) and 1996 (see Fig. 8) are reviewed neglected because there was moisture
view the thermocouple readings on: at Gauge 14 [2.5 in . (63 mm) below in the datalogger.
(1) a year-by-year basis; (2) a month- the deck surface] for Section E [8 ft Note that Gauge 14 is plotted be-
by-month basis; (3) a day-by-day basis (2.4 m) depth] and Section F [18 ft cause Gauge 13 (at the deck surface)
(for critical days); and, (4) a gradient- (5 .5 m) depth] . This gives the overall is not reliable. Examination of Fig. 7
by-gradient basis (at critical times for picture of the thermocouple readings reveals that July 1995 appears to have
critical days). Numerous plots of an- and what the relative high and low some very high temperatures . Note
nual, monthly, daily and critical ther- temperatures are in various months. that the peak readings at Gauge 14

July-August 1998 127

 1 July 95 Thermocouple Readings at Section E

-+-15E

--<>-22E

1 July 95 Thermocouple Reading& at Section F

--<>-14F

-<>-16F

--<>-22F

:I! :I! :I! :I!

.,...~
....
.0..
~

~
0..
.,...C!i
....
0..
.,...8
....
2" 2 2" 2"
Date1111d Tlme

Fig. 10. july 1, 1995, thermocouple read ings.

drop after August 22, 1995 , due to Gauge 14 is near the deck surface and are slightly lower for Section F than
the fact that the readings were gives daily peaks and valleys. Gauge for Section E. This is because Section
changed from 2-hour intervals to 6- 22 is near the middle of the section F [18ft (5.5 m) depth] has a higher
hour intervals. Furthermore, note that and is less influenced by daily fluctua- thermal inertia than Section E [8 ft
the peak readings at Gauge 14 drop tions. In general, large thermal gradi- (2.4 rn) depth].
even more after October 7, 1996, be- ents occur when the difference (posi- Daily readings (see Fig. 10) are re-
cause the concrete topping has been tive or negative) between readings at viewed at several gauges for July 1,
added and Gauge 14 is now reading a Gauges 14 and 22 is maximum. In- 1995 (which has the highest July read-
value 2 in. (50 rnm) lower on the spection of Fig. 9 indicates that July 1, ing). Reading s are plotted every 2
thermal gradient. 15 and 18 should have the largest pos- hours for Gauges 14, 15 and 16, which
Monthly readings (see Fig. 9) are re- itive thermal gradients. It is interesting have respective distances from the deck
viewed at Gauge 14 and at Gauge 22. to note that the readings for these days of 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 in. (63, 126 and 189
128 PCi JOURNAL
 1.Jul-95 04PM Positive Thennal Gradient at Section E

.. . -..-..-..:".':'..:":-:..-:,..,--~---,
-::!-!::-==-:::-;>:-:::-:::!~;:;:.:::c~-
96.0 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ - _ -....

84.0

72.0

60.0

g
5 48.0
a.
~
36.0

24.0

12.0

)_
0.0+-------r-----~--~~~-------r------~------+-----~
50.0 60.0 70.0 60.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0
Temperaturw (Fahrenheit)

1.Jui-95 04PM Positive Thennai Gradient at Section F

216.0

192.0

168.0

144.0

;[ 120.0
&.

.
1i.
Q 96.0

72.0

48.0

24.0

0.0
50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0
Temperaturw (Fahrenheit)

Fig. 11 . july 1, 1995, positive thermal gradients.

mm) as well as Gauge 22, which is in July 1, 1995. Readings are plotted for to the design gradient at both Section
the middle of the section. It can be seen gauges along the centerline of the web E and Section F. For the positive and
that the maximum positive thermal gra- as well as along the centerline of the top negative thermal gradient, top slab
dient occurs at 4 p.m. and the maxi- and bottom slab. These readings are readings are very close to the design
mum negative thermal gradient occurs compared to those in the 1998 proposed gradient, while web readings deviate
at 8 a.m. Again, note that the maximum second edition of the AASHTO seg- slightly from the design gradient.
positive thermal gradient appears to be mental guide specifications (AASHTO However, because there is much more
slightly lower for Section F than for 98). Similarly, the critical negative ther- slab area at the deck level than web
Section E (because Section F has a mal gradients (see Fig. 12) are reviewed area, it is very encouraging that the
higher thermal inertia than Section E). at 6 a.m. on May 7, 1995. slab values are so close to the pro-
The critical positive thermal gradients It is interesting to note that both the posed design gradient. These values
(see Fig. 11) are reviewed at 4 p.m. on web and top slab values are quite close and others in the report 14 should help

July-August 1998 129

 7 -May-95 O&AM Negative Thermal Gradient at Section E

84.0

72.0

60.0

s 48.0
~
36.0

24.0

12.0

0 . 0~------~----~~-----+------~------~------+-----~
50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0
Temperatura (Fahrenheit)

7-May-95 O&AM Negative Thermal Gradient at Section F

::::: r-------~..,..."'::JII::l'l::-:-.-
~ -------------------------------------,

168.0

144.0

~ 120.0

a
~ 96.0

72.0

48.0

24.0

L~
0 . 0+-------~--~~~-----+-------r------~------+-----~
50.0 60.0 70.0 60.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 120.0
Tomperatul'8 (Fahrenheit)

Fig. 12. May 7,1995, negative thermal gradients .

to validate the use of this proposed de- is jagged (and there is no gauge in the rotation , and not by temperature
sign gradient. web at the bottom). The proposed de- changes directly. Restraint is provided
Extrapolation should be used to de- sign gradients (AASHTO 98) also in- by the cross section and the support
termine the temperatures at the deck dicate that peaks at the bottom will conditions. The cross section induces
level (because readings for Gauge 13 occur but that they can be neglected. primary stresses that vary in the verti-
are unreliable). At Section F, the posi- cal direction but are constant in the
tive and negative thermal gradient both ANALYSIS OF NORTH longitudinal direction (if the section is
show a peak at the bottom of the sec- HALAWA VALLEY VIADUCT constant) . The support conditions in-
tion; the web and bottom slab values duce secondary stresses that vary in
are quite close to each other. At Sec- Analysis for Thermal Gradient the longitudinal direction.
tion E, the peak at the bottom is less In general, thermal stresses are in- For a positive thermal gradient (see
clearly defined; the bottom slab value duced by restraint to expansion and Fig . 13) , the compressive thermal

130 PCI JOURNAL

stress component can be considered as Fig. 13.
being equilibrated by a tensile resul- Positive
tant force Pat some distance e10 P from thermal
the top of the section. This resultant gradient and
equivalent
force is equivalent to a tensile axial
forces.
force NP and a negative bending mo-
ment MP at the location of the neutral Ytop
axis Ytop from the top of the section.
The primary stress (see Fig. 14) is
the superposition of the thermal com-
ponent f(y) with the axial component
NPIA and the flexural component
MPy II. The support conditions cause
redistribution to occur and create
compressive axial forces Ns and posi-
tive bending moments Ms. The sec-
ondary stress (see Fig. 14) is the su-
perposition of the axial component
NsiA and the flexural component
Msy II. The total stress is the superpo-
sition of the primary and secondary
stresses (see Fig. 14). (For more de-
tails see Refs. 7 and 8.)
The calculations can be simplified
substantially by recognizing that the
resultant axial force P and location
from the top e 10P due to the thermal
component are constant for segmental mary and secondary effects at any sec- calculations has to be made at each lo-
bridges (see Fig. 13). This is due to tion can be found by a simple manipu- cation because the depth of the section
the fact that the dimensions at the top lation of the section properties. and/or bottom slab thickness are nor-
of a segmental bridge are normally On the other hand, if the effects of mally variable.
constant and the thermal gradient acts the thermal component are taken about Expressions for the thermal compo-
near the top of the section. The net re- the neutral axis or the bottom of the nent f(y), axial force P, bending mo-
sult is that once P and e10p have been section (as has commonly been done ment about the top M and eccentricity
determined for one section, the pri- in the past), a completely new set of about the top e 10P are given as follows:

+ + +

f(y) Mp y Primary Ms Y Total

I I

Fig. 14. Stresses due to positive thermal grad ient.

July-August 1998 131

 f(y) =Eat(y) (1)

P = Ea Jt(y) b(y)dy (2)

b(lnl t <" F l
4" 2 I
M=Eaft(y)b(y)ydy (3) 41" Fl
erop = M/P (4)
480" 6" 417' II"F
y <In>
~--------~------~~ 5
where E is the modulus of elasticity, a 228""" 6" ~ s F
is the coefficient of thermal expan- 112.8"~
sion, and t(y) and b(y) are the thermal 36"
gradient and width of the section, re-
spectively, as a function of y which is
measured from the top of the section.
Once P and erap have been calculated
for one section, NP and MP can be de-
E <ks ll o <l F l t < Fl b< l nl d (JnlP<k> y<Tn l M< l n -kl
termined for all sections by simply I 4436 0. 000006 (4 I- I I l /2 = 15. 00 480.0 4.0 767 1. 33 10 22
working with the section properties as 2 4436 0. 000006 I I. 00 480.0 4.0 562 2.00 1124
3 4436 0.000006 ( I 1- 5.50 >12 =2. 75 480.0 6. 0 21 I 6 . 00 1265
follows : 4 4 436 0.000006 5.50 480.0 6. 0 422 7. 00 295 1
5 44 36 0.000006 5. 50/2 =2. 75 170.4 6.0 7512.00 89 8
(5) 20 36 7260

MP = P(yrap - erap) (6)

The primary effects at each section
can now be determined. The sec-
ondary effects can be determined by
using a plane frame computer program
(or by hand using the flexibility
method). Three methods can be used 36"
to input thermal data into a plane
132"
frame computer program:
1. Axial force and bending moment 276 " 1.___ _ _ ____.J
(Np and Mp) .
2. Equivalent uniform temperature
and linear gradient (Tunif and Tgrad ).
Fig. 15. Calculation of P and M.
3. Temperature at the top and bot-
tom of the section (Trap and Tbar ).
The method chosen depends on the given in this paper apply equally to For the remainder of this study, it is
capabilities of the program. Expres- precast and cast-in-place segmental worthwhile to compare thermal gradi-
sions for Tunif Tgrad Trap and Tbar are bridges. ent with live load becau se current
given as follows: Eqs. (1) to (4) are used to determine codes require serviceability to be con-
Tunif = Npi(EaA ) (7) P and erap at the midspan [8ft (2.4 m)] sidered for: (1) 100 percent thermal
section. Fig. 15 shows how a simple gradient without live load and (2) 50
Tgrad = Mpi(Eal) (8) piecewise integration can be made to percent thermal gradient with live
Ttop = Tunif+ TgradYtap (9) determine P and M. The right side of load. The HS20 design live load for
the plot shows t(y) while the left side this bridge corresponds to three lanes
Tbat = Tunif - TgradYbar (10) of the plot shows b(y). The table sum- loaded with a reduction factor of 0.9
where A and I are the section area and marizes the piecewise integration. and an impact factor of 10 percent.
moment of inertia, and Yrap and Ybar are Eqs. (5) to (10) are then used to deter- The bending moment diagram and
the distances from the neutral axis to mine NP, MP, Tunif Tgrad Trap and Tbar axial force diagram for thermal gradi-
the top and bottom of the section, at all sections. (Only the section prop- ent and live load are shown in Figs. 17
respectively. erties at each location along with P and 18, respectively. The positive ther-
and e 10P are required for this calcula- mal gradient (see Fig. 17) produces a
tion .) Once Trap and Tbar are deter- positive secondary moment diagram
Numerical Design Example mined at each section, the secondary whose maximum values are in the same
The North Halawa Valley Viaduct axial force and bending moment can order as those due to positive live load.
has been chosen as an example prob- be determined with a plane frame The negative thermal gradient produces
lem. The span layout is shown in Fig. computer program. Temperatures Trap a negative secondary moment diagram
5 and the cross section is shown in and Tb 01 for this bridge are shown in whose values are significantly less than
Fig. 4. The AASHTO 98 thermal gra- Fig. 16. Note that Trap and Tbar have those due to negative live load.
dient is used in this example. It should larger values at midspan and smaller The positive thermal gradient (see
be emphasized again that the methods values at the support. Fig . 18) produces a uniform com-

132 PCI JOURNAL

 10.00

..
E"
J:
c
7.50 --Ttop
e -+-Toot
.
J:
!:.
5.00
e
~..
.
Q.
E 2.50
1-

0.00

-2.50

X Distance

Fig. 16. Temperatures for equivalent linear thermal gradient.

300000000

200000000

100000000

0
-TG+
.,.
:a --TG-
~ \ - - - LL+
.
c
E
0
-100000000
\
I \ /
- - LL-

::E
Cll
c -200000000 \
.
'6
c
\

..
.,
I
Ul
-300000000 \ I
I
I
\:
I .
',f .,
I.

\ I '.I
-400000000 ..
I

-500000000

-600000000
X Distance

Fig. 17. Bending moment diagram for thermal gradient and live load.

pressive axial force in Span 9-10, and variable tensile axial force in prestressing is required to keep values
which has fixed piers at both ends . Span 9-10. within allowable limits; compressive
The corresponding variable compres- The stresses at the top and bottom of stresses are also of interest but normally
sive axial force due to positive live the section due to thermal gradient and not a problem because there is usually a
load is also shown. The negative live load are shown in Figs. 19 and 20, sufficient reserve of compression.
thermal gradient and negative live respectively. Tensile stresses are of pri- The negative thermal gradient (see
load, respectively, produce a uniform mary importance here because additional Fig. 19) causes approximately uniform
July-August 1998 133
 500000

1.
400000 ; I
. .I
f

300000 I

200000 ; I
f - T G+
--TG-
100000 I - -LL+
!.. I_ I
I
. .I
.
- - LL-
\:
1:!
....0
:!
0 .. . - I
.\
\
\

1 80
~ -100000 I
/

-200000
'-
I
I I
-300000 .. I

..,_,
I I
-400000

-500000
X Distance

Fig. 18. Axial force di agram for thermal gradient and live load .

400

/
' / '

200 /

' '
\

\
/
\
-- "' ' ..-
/ . . . . .. ""

' -- .. /
.- - ' '-
/

0
...
\
' '\ /
... ;

\
' ' ... / " ' I
/
'\ I ' \
- - T G+
-TG-
;;
-200 \ _/ I
' ,_ / \

...,
I
\
I - -- LL+
...
\
S: -.../ \
J \
I - - LL-
'-" \"
-400
!:
(I)
Q.

.....0
-600

-BOO

-1000

- 1200~---~-----~------~-----~-----~---~

X Distance

Fi g. 19. Top stress diagram fo r therma l grad ient and live load .

tension to occur at the top . The tendons) may have to be increased at dient stress to live load stress is 78
amount of tension varies from a mini- midspan to accommodate this tension. percent for Span 8-9, 84 percent for
mum of 220 psi (1.52 MPa) at the Both positive thermal gradient (see Span 9- 10, 60 percent for Span 10-11
ends of the bridge to a maximum of Fig. 20) and positive live load cause and 64 percent for Span 11 -12. Thus,
305 psi (2.10 MPa) at midspan of variable tension at the bottom, which the stress due to thermal gradient can
Span 8-9 [360 ft (110 m) span] . The is maximum at midspan. For the four be of the same order (60 to 80 percent)
amount of prestressing (top continuity interior spans, the ratio of thermal gra- as that due to live load. The amount of
134 PCI JOURNAL
 800

600
I
\
I 'I
I \ I I
I I
400 I
I
. . .. I
I \ I
-TG+
I \ I I
200 --TG-
'iii
a --Ll+
- . - Ll-
!:
II)
0
E 0
0
.\
~ /
m -200 / I
r ,
\ ....
' .. /
I
.....
/ '- ..... ~ . - " ' "' ' ,/
:
-400

-600

-600
X Distance

Fig. 20. Bottom stress diagram for thermal gradient and live load .

' \

' ,_6.00t
\ I
, I .
s.oor:
. ,, ..... tty)
.. .. .. Np/A
... i '
4.00
,. I ,
+ \ ...... Mpy/1
- - N5 /A

I - . - Msy/1
_3.00 + -tola)

2.00 T
I
Ii
1.00 +
I '
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 BOO
Stress (psi)

Fig. 21. Thermal stresses at midspan of Span 8-9 for positive thermal gradient.

prestressing (bottom continuity ten- compressive thermal componentf(y) is moment component Msy ll. The net re-
dons) has to be increased to accommo- equilibrated by a tensile primary axial sult of these five effects is a tensile
date the case of live load plus 50 per- force component NPIA and a negative stress of 374 psi (2.58 MPa) at the bot-
cent thermal gradient. primary bending moment component tom with a corresponding compressive
Thermal stresses at midspan of Span Mp y II. Analysis for secondary effects stress of 1026 psi (7.07 MPa) at the top.
8-9 [360ft span (110m)] for a positive gives a zero secondary axial force com- Thermal stresses at Pier 12 for a
gradient are show n in Fig. 21. The ponent N,IA and a positive bending negative gradient are shown in Fig. 22.
July-August 1998 135
 ~ -~ -;
16.00 1
-~
'
I
: . 14.00
I
I
12.00

. I .. f(y)
.. Np/A
g 10.00'. /
Mpy/1
&.

c
.
Q.
s.oq .
; .. - - N5 /A
... -- M5 y/1
-total

~'oo
:
I
; 4.00

I/ 2.00
r"
'
I;
200 150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200
Stress (psil

Fig. 22 . Thermal stresses at Pier 12 for negative thermal gradient.

The tensile thermal component f(y) is simplified by recognizing that the re- CONCLUSIONS
equilibrated by a compressive primary sultant axial force P and distance from
1. A comparison of the positive and
axial force component NP /A and a pos- the top e10P due to the thermal compo-
negative thermal gradient in various
itive primary bending moment compo- nent are constant for segmental
AASHTO documents has been made.
nent MPy /l. Analysis for secondary ef- bridges. This is due to the fact that the
fect s gives a zero secondary axial dimensions at the top of a segmental 2. A prestressed concrete segmental
force component N5 /A and a negative bridge are normally constant and the bridge (North Halawa Valley Viaduct)
bending moment component M 5 y /I. thermal gradient acts only near the top has been instrumented and large
The net result of these five effects is a of the section. The net result is that amounts of thermocouple data have
tensile stress of 280 psi (1.93 MPa) at once P and e10 P have been determined been efficiently reduced graphically to
the top with a corresponding compres- for one section, the primary and sec- determine the critical positive and
sive stress of 21 psi (0.14 MPa) at the ondary effects at any section can be negative thermal gradient.
bottom. found by a simple manipulation of the 3. The results validate the use of the
section properties. positive and negative thermal gradient
These simplified computation pro- in the proposed 1998 AASHTO Seg-
SUMMARY OF mental Guide Specifications as well as
cedures are illustrated using the
SIGNIFICANT RESULTS North Halawa Valley Viaduct as an the 1994 AASHTO LRFD Bridge De-
Large amounts of thermocouple data example problem. A simple hand cal- sign Specifications.
from an instrumented prestressed con- culation is used to determine P and 4. The results are very timely be-
crete segmental bridge (North Halawa erop at one section. This allows the cause they substantiate the reduction
Valley Viaduct) have been efficiently primary and secondary effects to be of the negative thermal gradient from
reduced graphically to determine the easily determined at any section. A -0.5 to -0.3 times the positive thermal
critical positive and negative thermal comparison of the effects of thermal gradient. This reduction is currently
gradients. The results validate the use of gradient and live load is made with being considered in the proposed
the positive and negative thermal gradi- respect to the prestressing require- 1998 AASHTO Segmental Guide
ent in the proposed 1998 AASHTO ments. Additional prestressing is re- Specifications.
Segmental Guide Specifications (which quired at the bottom near midspan 5. The computation procedures for
is similar for positive gradient and re- for the case of live load plus 50 per- nonlinear thermal gradient have been
duced by 40 percent for negative gradi- cent positive thermal gradient. Addi- shown to be greatly simplified by rec-
ent from the 1994 AASHTO LRFD tional prestressing may also be re- ognizing that the resultant axial force P
Bridge Design Specifications). quired at the top near midspan to and location from the top e rop due to
The computation procedures for a accommodate the negative thermal the thermal component are constant for
nonlinear thermal gradient are greatly gradient. most segmental bridges. Once P and
136 PCI JOURNAL
etop have been determined for one sec- near midspan for the case of live load the Federal Highway Administration,
tion, the primary and secondary effects plus 50 percent positive thermal gradi- is greatly appreciated.
at any section can be found by a simple ent. Additional prestressing may also The author also wishes to acknowl-
manipulation of the section properties. be required at the top near midspan to edge Scott Hunter ofT. Y. Lin Interna-
6. A numerical example for the accommodate the negative thermal tional and Ian Robertson of the Univer-
analysis of a segmental bridge for gradient. sity of Hawaii at Manoa who initiated
thermal gradient has been included. A the instrumentation study and were re-
simple hand calculation is used to de- sponsible for its successful execution.
termine P and e10P at one section. This ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The overall guidance of Karen Cormier
allows the primary and secondary ef- The instrumentation program of the ofT. Y. Lin International and Henry
fects to be determined at all sections. North Halawa Valley Viaduct was Russell, Engineering Consultant, dur-
7. The numerical example includes conducted under the sponsorship of ing the course of the instrumentation
a comparison of forces and stresses the Hawaii Department of Transporta- program has been extremely valuable.
due to thermal gradient and live load. tion and the Federal Highway Admin- The contents of this paper reflect the
This allows a comparison of the pre- istration. The interest and encourage- views of the author and do not neces-
stressing requirements. Additional ment of the sponsors, and especially sarily reflect the views or policies of
prestressing is required at the bottom James Hoblitzell and Roland Nimis of the sponsors.

REFERENCES
1. Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual, Published crete Bridge Superstructures, First Edition, American Associ-
jointly by the Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, Illinois, ation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Wash-
and Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1978, pp. 41-44. ington, D.C., 1989.
2. Priestley, M. J. N., "Design of Concrete Bridges for Tempera- 9. AASHTO, Guide Specifications for Design and Construction
ture Gradients," ACI Journal, V. 75, No. 5, May 1978, pp. of Segmental Concrete Bridges, First Edition, American Asso-
209-217. ciation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Wash-
3. Hoffman, P. C., McClure, R. M., and West, H. H., "Tempera- ington, D.C., 1989.
ture Study of an Experimental Segmental Bridge," PCI JOUR- 10. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, First Edition,
NAL, V. 28, No.2, March-April1983, pp. 78-97. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
4. Elbadry, M. M., and Ghali, A., "Temperature Variations in Officials, Washington, D.C., 1994.
Concrete Bridges," Journal of Structural Engineering, V. 20, II. AASHTO, Guide Specifications for Design and Construction
No. 10, October 1983, pp. 2355-2374. of Segmental Concrete Bridges, Proposed Second Edition,
5. Cooke, N., Priestley, M. J. N., and Thurston, S. J., "Analysis American Association of State Highway and Transportation
and Design of Partially Prestressed Concrete Bridges Under Officials, Washington, D.C., 1998.
Thermal Loading," PCI JOURNAL, V. 29, No. 3, May-June 12. Ingham, T. J., Manzanarez, R., and Cormier, K., "Design and
1984, pp. 94-115. Construction of North Halawa Valley Viaduct," Proceedings
6. Potgieter, I. C., and Gamble, W. L., "Nonlinear Temperature of Fourth International Bridge Engineering Conference, San
Distributions in Bridges at Different Locations in the United Francisco, CA, 1995, pp. 176-184.
States," PCI JOURNAL, V. 34, No.4, July-August 1989, pp. 13. Lee, A., and Robertson, I. N., "Instrumentation and Long-
80-103. Term Monitoring of the North Halawa Valley Viaduct," Uni-
7. Imbsen, R. A., Vandershaf, D. E., Schamber, R. A., and Nutt versity of Hawaii at Manoa, Department of Civil Engineering
R. V., "Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures," Report UHM/CE/95-08, 1995.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276, 14. Shushkewich, K. W., Vo, N. T., and Robertson, I. N., "Instru-
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., September mentation of the North Halawa Valley Viaduct- Oahu,
1985, 99 pp. Hawaii," Progress Report to Hawaii Department of Trans-
8. AASHTO, Guide Specifications - Thennal Effects in Con- portation and Federal Highway Administration, 1998.

APPENDIX- NOTATION
a= coefficient of thermal expansion Ns = secondary axial force
A = section area P = axial force resisting thermal stress component
b(y) =width of section as a function of y Tbat = temperature at bottom of section
E = modulus of elasticity Tgrad = linear gradient
e10p = eccentricity of thermal stress component about top T10P = temperature at top of section
f(y) =thermal stress component as a function ofy Tunif = uniform temperature
I= section moment of inertia t(y) =thermal gradient as a function of y
M = bending moment resisting thermal stress component y = distance measured from top of section
MP = primary bending moment Ybat = distance from neutral axis to bottom of section
Ms = secondary bending moment Ytap = distance from neutral axis to top of section
NP =primary axial force
July-August 1998 137