Lecture 

40

Prof. G L Sivakumar Babu
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Acknowledgments: Manohar and  Abhinay Kumar
1.Introduction
General
2. The science and technology of Nanotechnology
How Nanotechnology works
What nanotechnology can do
3. Application of nanotechnology
4. Site Remediation
General
Background
Technology overview
Remedial application
Case studies
Limitations
5. Further research needs
6. Cost
7. Implementation in India
1.Introduction
General
 In 1959, Richard Feynman, a professor at Cal Tech, introduced the to
the world, the concept of nanotechnology in his lecture, “Plenty of
Room at the Bottom,” (Feynman 1959).
 Nanotechnology is an emerging field. It is an interdisciplinary science
whose potential has been widely touted for well over a decade.
 Nanotechnology, which deals with understanding and control of
matter at dimension of roughly 100 nm and below, has cross-sectoral
applications and orientations.
 At the commercial level, the impact of nanotechnology, is evident in
three major industry sectors, viz., materials and manufacturing
(coatings and composites for products like automobiles and
buildings), electronics (displays and batteries) and health care and
life sciences (pharmaceutical applications).
 A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter. A single
human hair is about 80,000 nm wide, a red blood cell is
approximately 7,000 nm wide, a DNA molecule 2 to 2.5 nm, and a
water molecule almost 0.3 nm.
2. The Science and Technology of Nanotechnology
2.1 How Nanotechnology Works
 Nanotechnology is a technology for making things by placing
atoms precisely where they are supposed to go.
 By organizing individual atoms and molecules into particular
configurations, these molecular machines are able to create
works of astonishing complexity and size, such as the human
brain, a coral reef, or a redwood tree.
 Nature shows that molecules can serve as machines because
living things work by means of such machinery.
 Enzymes are molecular machines that make, break, and
rearrange the bonds holding other molecules together.
 The key to the application of nanotechnology will be the
development of processes that control placement of individual
atoms to form products of great complexity at extremely small
scale.
 2.2 What Nanotechnology Can Do

 Full-fledged nanotechnology promises nothing less than complete

control over the physical structure of matter.
 Known as “assemblers,” these tiny devices would be capable of
manipulating individual molecules very rapidly and precisely.
 According to a programmed set of instructions, a nanotechnological
approach would be able to produce substances that conventional
biotechnology could not.
 After performing their tasks, the devices may be induced to self-
destruct, or remain in a surveillance mode, or, in some cases, integrate
themselves into the body’s cells. Such devices would have dramatic
implications for the practice of medicine, and for society as a whole.
3.Application of Nanotechnology
 The automotive industry will certainly be influenced by the development and
implementation of nanotechnology. Due to the small size of nano-materials,
their physical / chemical properties (e.g. stability, hardness, conductivity,
reactivity, optical sensitivity, melting point, etc.) can be manipulated to
improve the overall properties of conventional materials.
 Coolants utilize nanoparticles and nano-powders to increase the efficiency of
heat transfer and potentially reduce the size of the automotive cooling
equipment.
 Metal nanoparticles are being considered for potential use in catalytic
converters since the catalytic reactivity would be significantly enhanced due
to the increased surface area of the metal.
 Some manufacturers are currently using nano-magnetic fluids in shock
absorbers to increase vibration control efficiency.
 Wear-resistant, hard-surface nano-coatings are being investigated for
applications in bearings, cylinders, valves, and other highly stressed
components.
 High efficiency nano-layers of semiconducting materials provide electronic
components and systems with a longer lifetime.
(contd..)
 Sensors based on nano-layer structures find applications in engine
control, airbag, anti-lock brake and electronic stability program systems.
 Nanoparticles may also assist in the optimization of conventional
components like batteries, catalysts, solar cells or fuel cells.
3.1 In Civil Engineering
(a) Concrete
Addition of nanoscale materials into cement could improve its performance,
 Li (2004) found that nano-SiO2 could significantly increase the
compressive for concrete, containing large volume fly ash, at early age
and improve pore size distribution by filling the pores between large fly
ash and cement particles at nanoscale.
 It has also been reported that adding small amount of carbon nanotube
(1%) by weight could increase both compressive and flexural strength
(Mann S, 2006).
 When the microcapsules are broken by a crack, the healing agent is
released into the crack and contact with the catalyst. The polymerization
happens and bond the crack faces.
 The selfhealing polymer could be especially applicable to fix the
microcracking in bridge piers and columns. But it requires costly epoxy
injection.
(b) Structural composites
 Sandvik NanoflexTM (NanoflexTM is new stainless steel
with ultra-high strength, good formability, and a good
surface finish developed by Sandvik Nanoflex Materials
technology) is suitable for application which requires
lightweight and rigid designs.
 Its good corrosion and wear resistance can keep life-cycle
costs low. Attractive or wear resistant surfaces can be
achieved by various treatments.
Applications in geotechnical 
engineering
 Although never considering themselves nanotechnologists, soil 
scientists and engineers, with their interest in the study of clay‐
size particles (< 0.002 mm), are among the earliest workers in 
the field of nanotechnology.
 Most material types and properties change with scale. For 
example, soil particles change in composition and shape from 
predominantly bulky quartz and feldspar to platy mica and clay 
over the range of particle sizes from sand and gravel down to silt 
and clay.
 A central challenge in geotechnical engineering is to understand 
the changes in properties and behavior in moving from large to 
small, whereas a central theme in nanotechnology is to take 
advantage of this transition and attain novel material 
performance through nanostructuring of new materials.
 Among the challenges to be met in introducing 
nanotechnology into geotechnical engineering is to be able 
to upscale the nano‐level phenomena and process 
descriptions to the macroscale behavior, materials, and 
structures that are the usual end points of the engineer’s 
efforts.
 The fundamental behavior of clays is a nanomechanics
problem, suggesting that concepts and models developed 
in nanotechnology can provide new insights and enhanced 
understanding of the behavior of clay‐size particles and, 
even more important, new means to manipulate or modify 
this behavior.
 Soil and rock are the world’s most abundant and lowest‐cost construction 
materials. In some states (e.g., dense, dry, and cohesive) they are strong 
and durable. In others (e.g., loose, wet, and soft) they are weak and 
unsuitable. Is it possible or even conceivable that new knowledge and the 
development of processes at the nanoscale may someday transform these 
materials in ways that can make them even more useful and economical?
 Developments in nanotechnology can aid in understanding the 
fundamental behavior of fine‐grain soil at the particle level and lead to the 
development of engineered fine‐grain soils. Readily available atomic force 
microscopes are now being used in mineral studies to explore local mineral 
variations in clays, such as surface charge and local hydrophobicity on 
mineral surfaces.
 Nanoparticles might also be engineered to act as functional nanosensors
and devices that can be extensively mixed in the soil mass or used as smart 
tracers for in situ chemical analysis, characterization of groundwater flow, 
and determination of fracture connectivity, among other field applications.
 Two categories of soils have been investigated‐ 1. Normal Soil; 2. 
Nano‐soil.
 Nano‐soil: A product of milling of natural soil in which a greater 
portion of its particles are pulverized into nano sizes (1–100 nm)
 Additives are added to soft‐clays and peat for soil stabilization 
because construction is impossible on these soils.
 Two criteria should be satisfied by any candidate material for soil 
improvement, viz. it should be inexpensive and non‐toxic. Nano‐
soil satisfies both.
 Findings of laboratory experiments (carried out in accordance to 
BS 1377‐1990) (‘O’ – Original soil; ‘M’ = Milled soil):
Test Samples considered Result when nano-
soil is used

Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit Increases
100%O 98%O + 2%M
Plastic Limit Increases
Plasticity index Decreases
Specific surface See Fig. 1 Increases
Compressive See Fig. 2 Increases
strength
Study demonstrates that even a small addition of nano particles will show 
marked enhancement in soil behavior.
Reduction in Plasticity index has important implication in geotechnical 
engineering. This is because compaction of high plastic soils will generally 
results in high shrinkage upon drying. 
Strength of soil‐cement mixture almost doubled when 1% nano‐soil was added. 
Additionally, the soil with cement and nano‐soil will have lower tendency for 
volume change and Plasticity Index in addition to increase in load bearing 
capacity. 
4. Site Remediation 
4.1 General
 For the next few decades, at the very least, many countries
will be faced with serious issues regarding the cleanup of
contaminated sites across the country.
 A number of contaminated areas await remedial action, and
many still await identification.
 In the past ten years, emerging technologies such as
phytoremediation, bioremediation, and permeable reactive
barriers have become popular new tools. These novel
treatments have begun to compete with more established
technologies such as solidification/ stabilization, soil vapor
extraction, and thermal desorption for soil, and pump and
treat systems for groundwater (USEPA 2004).
 At the very forefront of these emerging technologies lies the
development of nanotechnology for site remediation.
(contd..)
 One emerging nanotechnology, nanosized zero valent iron and its
derivatives, has reached the commercial market for field-scale
remediation and studies.
4.2 Background
 Over the years, the field of remediation has grown and evolved,
continually developing and adopting new technologies in attempts
to improve the remediation process.
 In the early 1990s, the reducing capabilities of metallic substances,
such as zero-valent iron (ZVI), began to be examined for their
ability to treat a wide range of contaminants in hazardous
waste/water (Zhang 2003).
 The most common deployment of ZVI has been in the form of
permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) designed to intercept plumes
in the subsurface and subsequently remediate them (USEPA
1998b).
 The first full-scale commercial PRB was approved for use in the
State of California by the San Francisco Regional Water Quality
Control Board (RWQCB) in 1994.
4.3 Technology overview
 Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) and Reactive Nanoscale
Iron Product (RNIP) comprise the most basic form of the
nano iron technology (Zhang 2003, Okinaka 2004).
 Particles of nZVI may range from 10 to 100 nanometers in
diameter or slightly larger. Figure 1 shows transmission
electron microscope (TEM) images of nZVI.
 The most common route to nZVI synthesis employs sodium
borohydride as the key reductant .
 By mixing sodium borohydride (NaBH4) with FeCl3·6H2O,
Fe3+ is reduced according to the reaction scheme below:
Fe(H2O)63+ + 3BH4 + 3H2O Fe0 + 3B(OH)3 + 10.5H2
(Wang 1997)
Figure 1: Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
images of iron nanoparticles (Zhang, 2006b)
(contd…)
 Following the reaction, the reduced particles of iron (Fe0)
created could be directly used for contaminant destruction.
 The stoichiometry of the reduction of trichloroethene (TCE) to
ethane, a typical decontamination reaction, would proceed as
follow:
C2HCl3 + 4Fe0 + 5H+ C2H6 + 4Fe2+ + 3Cl- (Elliott 2001)
 A recent study by Liu et al. compared the efficiency and
degradation capabilities of nZVI synthesized using sodium
borohydride reduction and the RNIP particles produced from
ferrous sulfate.
 It was concluded, though, that the presence of boron and the
shell thickness were the most likely explanations for observed
differences in reactivity. The nZVI particles demonstrated rapid
dechlorination of TCE and no deactivation; however rapid H2
evolution was observed.
(contd..)
 Other methods of producing nanosized iron particles also
have been developed.
 Ball milling represents another technique. In this process,
micron-size iron powder is reduced to the nanoscale
through an attrition or abrasion process using a ball mill
(Liles 2004).
 A vacuum/gas condensation process also has been used to
produce nanosized iron and other metals (Canano
Technologies 2005).
 As with the addition of metal catalysts to nZVI particles, the
formation of emulsified zero valent iron (EZVI) also
represents an enhancement to the existing nZVI technology.
4.5 Remedial application
 The small particle size and high surface area to mass ratio
make iron nanoparticles highly reactive and extremely
versatile.
 The high surface area and surface reactivity compared with
granular forms enable the nanoparticles to remediate more
material at a higher rate and with a lower generation of
hazardous byproducts .
 The ability of the nanoparticles to act as strong reducers also
enables the remediation of an extremely wide range of
contaminants.
 Table 1 lists many of the pollutants potentially remediated by
nano iron.
Table 1. Contaminants remediated by nanoscale iron (Zhang 
2003) 
(contd..)
 In conjunction with nano iron’s diverse group of target
contaminants, the field scale deployment of the particles can be
achieved in a variety of ways.
 Nanoparticles can be mixed with water to form a slurry that can be
injected using pressure or gravity into a contaminated plume .
 Once injected, the particles remain in suspension, forming a
treatment zone. Particles of iron also can be used in ex situ slurry
reactors to treat soil, sediment, and solid waste.
 The injection of nano iron into the
ground represents the most common
deployment of this technology thus far.
 Overall the process provides a number of
remedial benefits.
 Most importantly, this technique
facilitates source zone remediation,
a clear benefit for site cleanup.

Site remediation through 
inject process
4.6 Case Studies of Fate & Transport of Nanoparticles for Site
Remediation
 Manufacturing Plant, Trenton, NJ 
 This manufacturing plant synthesizes bimetallic particles , In
order to achieve the bimetallic catalytic effect, iron and
palladium are combined in a weight ratio of 1:300.
 The reactive catalyst coating is applied via the following
reaction:
Fe0 + Pd2+ → Fe2+ + Pd0
 BNP material is introduced to the contaminated ground-water
plume via injection wells, and the reactive agent is distributed
throughout the target area via simple suspension in ground
water.
 Monitoring at the piezometers suggests a significant
discrepancy in migration rates of the plumes after BNP injection.
Klockner Road Site, Hamilton Township, NJ 
 A patented BNP-based product known as NanoFe Plus™,
developed by PARS Environmental, Inc., is used for remediation
at the Klockner Road Site.
 PARS Environmental, Inc., reports that the reactive agent is
administered in a water-based slurry containing one pound of
reactive material in each 3.994 gallons of solution.
 Currently, little information is available on the fate and transport
of NanoFe Plus particles in the subsurface environment at this
site.
 The injection phases and quantities of the injections are known,
and two monitoring sessions are scheduled to take place after
two injection phases.
 Monitoring will be conducted to determine the amount of dense
nonaqueous-phase liquid reduced by the nanoscale iron
 NASA Launch Complex 34, Cape Canaveral, FL 
 This site is well known for its historical use as a launch pad for
shuttle craft and other space-bound vehicles using rocket
propulsion.
 Typical with the use of rocket fuel, chlorinated compounds such as
TCE (trichloroethylene) exist in the site’s ground water, soil, and
sediment.
 Three methods of administering NZVI will be field-tested at Launch
Complex 34 as alternatives to the direct-injection method:
 Pressure pulsing : Pressure pulsing involves forced administration
of NZVI particles to various and relatively predictable subsurface
depths.
 Pneumatic fracturing : Pneumatic fracturing employs compressed
air to create subsurface crevices and small pathways that facilitate
distribution of the reactive medium.
(contd..)
 Hydraulic fracturing : In a way similar to pneumatic
fracturing, hydraulic fracturing uses high-pressure liquids to
enhance reagent distribution in the subsurface.
 Typical changes in concentration reductions in the area of
NZVI injections are shown in Figures,

(a)NAPL injected
(contd..)

(b) Two weeks post injection
(c) Four weeks post injection

USEPA  (2004)
4.7 Understanding the results
 Preliminary results in the case studies indicate that
NZVI-based technology has potential as a means of site
remediation.
 When accompanied by sound environmental
safeguarding, the technology may prove to be safe and
reliable.
 Remediation technology developers need to recognize
that the release of synthesized materials with complex
multi-molecular nanoscale structures will generate
questions concerning potential ecological and
environmental threats.
 Based on the information available, the current methods
of nanoscale site remediation do not appear to pose a
threat to humans and the environment (Beshoy Latif).
4.8 Limitations
 Site-specific conditions such as the site location and layout,
geologic conditions, concentration of contaminants, and types of
contaminants maylimit the effectiveness of nanoparticles.
 The research conducted for two sites that have used
nanoparticles in fractured bedrock, although several pilot studies
have been undertaken (Macé, 2006).
 Prior to injection of nanoparticles, geologic, hydrogeologic, and
subsurface conditions should be evaluated to determine whether
injected particles would have adequate subsurface infiltration.
 Factors that affect subsurface mobility include composition of the
soil matrix, ionic strength of the groundwater, hydraulic properties
of the aquifer, depth to the water table, and geochemical
properties.
 Studies have shown that nanoparticles may not achieve
widespread distribution in the subsurface due to
agglomeration prior to complete dispersion within the soil or
groundwater matrix, limiting the radius of influence.
5. Further Research Needs 
 Specific research is needed to:
 Assess the extent to which nanotechnology implications
reach soil and water systems beyond immediate
application areas.
 Evaluate the potential impact of nanoparticles of specific
and immediate environmental media.
 Determine whether, and the degree to which, nanoparticles
may travel through the food chain; preliminary research
already indicates that some nanoparticles may be taken up
by bacteria in trace amounts.
 Examine the uptake of nanoparticles in animal species.
6. Cost
 Factors contributing to the costs include site type, type of
contaminants, concentrations of contaminants, and any
challenges that may have occurred during remediation.
 Additional factors that may increase the total cost of
nanoparticles application may include operational
requirements connected with any contamination found
underneath a building, or the need to treat or dispose
extracted fluids (Wilson, 2004).
7. Implementation in India
 Nanotechnology in India is a government led initiative.
Industry participation has very recently originated.
 Enabling energy storage, production and conversion within
renewable energy frameworks (solar heater).
 Enhancement of agricultural productivity through pesticides.
 Nanotechnology is slowly implementing in medical field,
textile industry.
 Sectors such as health, energy and environment have
received greater attention by various technology
departments in the government (DST, DBT and SERC).
Conclusions
 Though the implementation in field is difficult(depends on
site condition), but nanotechnology promises as safe and
fast site remediation process.
 When accompanied by sound environment safeguarding,
the technology may prove to be safe and reliable.
 Nanotechnological approach would be able to produce
substances that conventional biotechnology could not.
• This technique facilitates source zone remediation, a clear
benefit for site cleanup.
References
 Wilson G. 2004. Demonstration of in situ dehalogenation of
DNAPL through injection of emulsified zero-valent iron at launch
complex 34 in Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, FL. Presented at
the Battelle Conference on Nanotechnology Applications for
Remediation: Cost- Effective and Rapid Technologies Removal of
Contaminants From Soil, Groundwater and Aqueous
Environments. September 10, 2004.
 Zhang W-X. Nanoscale iron particles for environmental
remediation: an overview. J Nanopart Res. 2003; 5:323-332.
 Zhang W-X, Elliot DW. Applications of iron nanoparticles for
groundwater remediation. Remediation. 2006; 16(2).
 Zhang W-X, Durant N, Elliott D. A. In situ remediation using
nanoscale zero-valent iron: fundamentals and field applications.
Presented at the Battelle Conference on Remediation of
Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey California.
May 22-25, 2006.
(contd..)
 U.S. EPA. Science Policy Council. Nanotechnology white paper. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. February 2007. Available at:
http://es.epa.gov/ncer/nano/publications/ whitepaper12022005.pdf.
Accessed September 25, 2008.
 Li, G., “Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete Incorporating Nano-
SiO2.” Cement and Concrete Research, vol.34, p.1043-1049, 2004.
 Mann, S. (2006). “Nanotechnology and Construction,” Nanoforum
Report. www.nanoforum.org, May 30, 2008.
 Okinaka, Kenji, Andreas Jasdanian, Hisashi Shimizu, Tomoko Okita, Koji
Kakuya. 2004. Treatment of 1,1,1- Trichloroethane with Reactive
Nanoscale Iron Products in Simulated Groundwater. Proceedings of the
Fourth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and
Recalcitrant Compounds. Paper 2E-01.
 Wang, Chuan-Bao, WeiXian Zhang. 1997. Synthesizing Nanoscale Iron
Particles for Rapid and Complete Dechlorination of TCE and PCBs.
Environmental Science and Technology 31(7):2154-2156.
Thanks to  NPTEL, IISc, students of my classes, 
colleagues from industry who contributed in the 
development of the course.

THANK U.