Engineering Mechanics

Laboratory Manual

Structural Engineering Division

Department of Civil Engineering
National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences
Civil Engineering Department
FAST-NU, Lahore

Regd. No :

Name :

Section :

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Engineering Mechanics Lab Experiments

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Preface
This Laboratory Manual is intended to provide undergraduate engineering students an understanding
of basic concepts of Engineering Mechanics and apparatus covering all experiments related to the
first year level of the B.Sc. Civil Engineering at FAST-NUCES.

In this text, related theory is discussed with the help of photographs of apparatus to quickly grasp the
basic concepts. Blank spaces are provided for observations and calculations. The manual also
contains brief procedure for the experiments performed, precautions and blank spaces for writing
results and finally comments on results.

Any comments / suggestions by teachers / students will be highly appreciated.

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Task No.1
To Study the Layout of Engineering Mechanics Laboratory

1.1. Objective

To have an idea about location and function of different machines.

1.2. Lay Out

The plan view is of any object that shows the position of various components. In our case
layout gives an idea about the position of various apparatus installed/place in laboratory.

1.3. Layout of Laboratory

1.4. Details of Layout

i. Hanging rope Apparatus

ii. Verify Principle of Moment Apparatus
iii. Centre of Gravity Apparatus
iv. Jib crane Apparatus
v. Fly Wheel Apparatus

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vi. Beam Loading Apparatus

vii. Apparatus to find friction

1.5. Description of Laboratory Lay out:

1.5.1 Hanging rope Apparatus

This apparatus is used to determine the tension in various parts of hanging rope loaded at different
points.

1.5.2 Principle of Moment Apparatus

Moment apparatus is used to find out the effects and to verify the laws of moment via practical. This
apparatus uses clockwise forces and anti-clockwise forces and tell us about the rotating factor of the
force. It tells us how the forces produce turning effects in a structure and how it is nullified.

1.5.3 Centre of Gravity Apparatus

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This apparatus is used to determine center of gravity

(centroid) of an irregular shaped objects using plumb line and compare the centroid of various
objects using experimental and analytical values.

1.5.4 Jib crane Apparatus

Jib carne apparatus is used to find out the relation and effects of tension forces on the top and
compression forces at bottom of a load lifting cranes. Also it explains the forces action in the hanging
type parts of a structure.

1.5.5 Fly Wheel Apparatus

This apparatus is used to determine the angular acceleration ant toque of flywheel. This apparatus
is an introduction to the basic concepts of rotational dynamics.

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1.5.6 Beam Apparatus

Beam Apparatus is used to study different situations and the effects of forces on a beam on different
points. From this apparatus we can find out how to distribute the load when different loads are
subject to a beam at different points.

1.5.7 Apparatus to find a friction:

Resistance law apparatus is used to find friction between different surfaces and co-efficient of
friction.

1.6. Comments:

Task No.2

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To determine the surface area and volume of wooden/concrete cube, steel cabinet, in
CGS, MKS, FPS and SI units. Also determine the area of the Engr. Mech. Lab. In cm2, m2,
marla, kanal, acres and hectors

2.1. Objective

To understand concept of area, volume and different system of units and practical use of
system unit along with their conversion from one system to another system.

2.2. Apparatus

Measuring tape, wooden/concrete cube, and steel cabinet.

2.3. Procedure:

We measured the dimensions of a cube from its three faces and noted nine values, three from
each face using steel tape. Then we measured the dimensions of a steel cabinet, we took three
readings from each side and calculated their mean value and finally the length and width of
mechanics lab.

2.4. Conversion factors

Length

1m = 3.28 ft 1 yard = 3 ft 1mile = 1.61 km = 5280 ft = 8 furlong 1 furlong = 660 ft

Area

1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 hector = 100 m x 100 m = 10,000 m2 1 acre = 8 kanal 1 kanal

= 20 Marla

1 Marla = 272 ft2 (225 ft2 in Lahore)

Volume

1 m3 = 35.311 ft3 = 219.97 gallons UK = 264.17 gallons US

2.5. Observations and calculations

Steel cabinet Wooden/Concrete Cube

Quantity
CGS FPS SI CGS FPS SI
Length (L)
Width (W)

Height (H)
Area of side A
(LxH)

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Area of side B
(HxW)
Area of side C
(LxW)
Surface Area
[(A+B+C)x2]
Volume
(LxWxH)

Engr. Mech. Lab

Length (L) = Width (W) =

Area

Cm2 M2 Ft2 Marla Kanal Acres Hectors

2.6. Comments

Task No.3

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To Determine the Reactions of Simply Supported Beam by

Experimental Observations (Using Spring Balances)

Analytical Solution (Using Conditions of Equilibrium)

3.1. Objective

To understand different methods of reaction calculations.

3.2. Apparatus

Simply supported beam model, weights, hangers, spring balances, meter rod

3.3. Related theory:

3.3.1. Types of supports

i. Roller support

It transmits the compressive force normal to the supporting face.

ii. Fixed Support

It can provide support to the structure against any type of force (vertical, horizontal and
rotating).

iii. Hinge Support

It is capable of transmitting both horizontal and vertical forces.

3.3.2. Beam

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It is a structural member subjected to shear force and bending moments under the influence
of lateral and transverse load.

A structural member is desired to resist the forces acting transverse to its longitudinal axis is
called beam.

i. Statically determinate beams

Beam having three unknown are called statically determinate beam. E.g. cantilever and
simply supported beam etc.

ii. Statically indeterminate beam

Beams having more than three unknown reactions are called statically indeterminate beams.
E.g. propped cantilever beam.

iii. Built up beam

Beams which are fabricated or constructed with two or more pieces of material to form a
single beam are called built-up beams. E.g. I sections.

iv. Composite beam

Beams which are made up of more than one material are called composite beams. E.g. R.C.C.

v. Prismatic beam

If the beam has a uniform cross-sectional are throughout the length, its called prismatic
beam.

vi. Non prismatic beam

Beams having non uniform cross-sectional area throughout the length are known as non
prismatic beams.

3.3.3. Types of beams

i. Simply supported beam

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A beam in which a support is provided at the two ends of the beam is called simply
supported beam.

Three reactions (two vertical and one horizontal) are the minimum requirements for the stability.

ii. Over hanging beam

In this case one or both the ends are freely extended over the supports and when the load is
applied at the ends the maximum stress is at the middle of beam.

iii. Cantilever beam

A beam which is fixed only at one end and the other end is just in air without any support.

3.3.4. Types of load

i. Point load

It is applied over a very small area as compared with the area of the object on which load is
applied and is assumed to be applied at a single point (concentrated).

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ii. Uniformly distributed load

It is uniformly distributed over the area of the object. Self weight of the object is always
taken as UDL.

Varying distributed load

This type of load is not uniformly distributed over the area of an object but it is not
concentrated.

3.3.5. Conditions of equilibrium

1st condition

The sum of all forces exerted on the body is equal to zero.

i.e. Fx=0, Fy=0 and Fz=0

2nd condition

The sum of all the moments acting on the body is equal to zero. i.e. M=0

1st condition 2nd condition

3.4. Procedure:

Set the apparatus as shown in the fig. make sure that the beam is exactly horizontal. Note the
initial reading on the spring balance R1 and R2. Hang two equal weights W1 and W2 with the beam at

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equal distances from both ends. Also note the distance between the two weights. Now again note the
readings of the spring balances, subtract the initial reading from the noted value to get the required
value. Repeat the experiment by varying weights and distances.

Ra Rb

Fy = 0 Ra Rb = 0

Ma = 0 (Rb x l)-(P x a) = 0 Rb= P x a/l

Mb = 0 (Ra x l)-(P x b) = 0 Ra= P x b/l

Total length of the rod =

The reading shown by spring balance without adding the weight in hangers=

So the reading after putting weight in hangers will be taken as= (x- ) lbs where x is the reading
taken while doing experiment.

3.5. Observations and calculations:

No. of Weight Weight A B Reaction R1 (lbs) Reaction R2 (lbs)

obs W1 W2 (in) (in)

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N lbs N Lbs Exp Anal %Err Exp Anal %Err

1

% Error= [(Anal. Exp)x 100]/ Anal.

3.6. Comments

Task No.4
To Find the Forces in the Tie and Jib Crane

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4.1. Objective

To verify the forces in tie are tensile and forces in jib are compressive.

4.2. Apparatus

Jib crane, weights, weight hangers, spring balance, measuring steel tape/meter rod.

4.3. Related theory:

4.3.1. Force

The action of one body on another is called force. It is the agent which changes or tends to
change the state of rest or motion of a body which is already in rest or motion.

4.3.2. Equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if all the forces and moments applied on it are in balanced
condition i.e. F=0 and M=0

4.3.3. Conditions of equilibrium

There are three conditions of equilibrium.

Fx=0 Fy=0 and M=0

4.3.4. Trigonometric rules

Sine law

a/sin(x) = b/sin(y) = c/sin(z)

Cosine law

a2 = b + c- 2cos(x) (b)(c)

4.3.5. Graphical method

Head to tail rule

Vectors can be added by joining the head of 1st vector by the tail of 2nd vector and so on. The
resultant will be indicating by joining the tail of 1st vector with the head of 2nd vector.

Parallelogram method

If we have two components of a vector, draw two parallel lines to them such that they make a
parallelogram, the resultant will be the main diagonal.

4.4. Cranes

Cranes are machines used to lift heavy loads.

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Types

Jib crane, over head crane, gantry crane, crawler crane, hydraulic crane etc.

4.4.1. Jib crane

It has horizontal load supporting beam fastened to a rotating vertical column, attached to
wall.

4.4.2. Over head crane

It is used inside the building like factories or loading labs or in outside storage yards.

4.4.3.Gantry crane

It is used in ship yards.

4.4.4. Crawler crane

It is propelled crane that move on caterpillar treads.

4.4.5. Tower crane

It is a common fixture at construction sites. The rise hundreds of feet into air, used to lift
steel, concrete, generators and other building materials.

4.4.6. Hydraulic cranes

It is used to raise multi tower bridge beams on highway, heavy equipment in factories and
even lift beach front houses. I can lift thousands of pounds through fluid.

4.5. Procedure:

Set the apparatus according to the specified conditions.

Note down the zero error of the spring balance.
Apply the loads.
Note down the final reading of the spring balance.
Measure the length of tie and jib.

4.6. Precautions

Find zero error of the spring balance.

Find correct dimensions.

4.7. Comments

Task No.5

To Verify the Principle of Moment

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4.1. Objective

This apparatus is used to verify the principle of moment and second condition of
equilibrium (clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments)
This apparatus is also applicable to varignons theorem.

4.2. Apparatus

Moment balancing apparatus, Weights, balance, measuring tape.

4.3. Related theory

4.3.1. Moment

Rotating tendency of a force is known as moment. It is also referred as torque.

M = Fd

Moment is defined as the vector product of the perpendicular distance from line of action of
force to the axis of rotation and the force applied. i.e.

M=rxF

Axis of rotation

4.3.2. Principle of Moment

It states that sum of all the moments in clockwise direction is equal to sum of all the
moments in anticlockwise direction.

4.3.3. Scalar and vector approach

As the cross product of two vectors, the moment is a vector M perpendicular to the plane of
both force and the moment arm (r).

M=rxF

The sense of M depends on the direction in which F tends to rotate the body.

Here we use the Right Hand Rule. Which states that when the curl of finger of the right hand
are in direction of rotation (from 1st vector to 2nd one) the erected thumb points in the direction of M.

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Considering the angle between the two vectors, the perpendicular component is always taken
because it causes the moment. And the magnitude if

M = Fd (Scalar)

4.3.4. Units

From the formula we can see that its the product of force and length so the units used are:

SI: newton-meters (Nm) US customary: pound-feet (lb-ft)

4.3.5. Theorems

Varignons Theorem:-

This theorem states that The moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the
moments of the components of the force about the same point.

Mo = r x F

Let P and Q are non rectangular components of force F.

F = P + Q , Mo = r x (P + Q), Mo = r x F = r x P + r x Q

4.3.6. Procedure

Paste the graph paper on the rotating wheel of apparatus.

Put weight in hangers.

Attach the hangers with screws and attach them with apparatus by passing thread with the
pulley.

Wait for awhile until equilibrium is produced.

Calculate perpendicular distance from line of action of force to the center of moment.

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Direct the force in their respective direction.

Calculate the clockwise and counter clockwise moment. For the system of equilibrium,
clockwise and counter clock wise moment must be equal.

4.3.6. Observations and calculations

No. of App. Wt Wt of Total wt Moment Moment Remarks

obs (N) hanger (N) (N) Arm (m) (Nm)
1
2
3
4
5

4.3.7. Comments

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Task No.6
To Determine Centre of Gravity of Various Objects by Analytical Solution and
Experimental Observations

6.1. Objective
To determine the center of gravity (centroid) of an irregularly shaped objects using plumb
line and compare the centroid of various objects determined by experimental observation and
analytical result.

6.2. Apparatus
Center of gravity apparatus, Objects of various shapes, Graph Paper, Cutter, Stationary

6.3. Related Theory

6.3.1. Centre of Gravity

The center of gravity of a distribution of mass in space is
the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero.

6.3.2. Centroid
The Centroid can be said as the centre of area of the object (a geometric figure)
or a point where the distributed area equals to zero. It is also known as geometric center and
barycenter.

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6.3.3. Centroid of Geometric Shapes

Following are the centroid of some of the geometric
shapes.

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6.3.4. Centroid of Composite Areas

Figure 1:

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Coordinates of the centroid is at (2.34, 7.47).

Figure 2:

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answer

answer
Figure 3:

For the semicircle

For the shaded area

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answer

6.4. Procedure:

Fix the graph paper on the given object of any shape.

Hang the figure through its hole in the center of gravity apparatus.

Hang plumb bob with nail and draw line of action of the plumb bob.

Hang plumb bob at various positions and draw all line of action

Common point where all the line intersects is the center of gravity of given shape.

Repeat the same step to measure the center of gravity of various shape objects.

6.5. Observation and Calculation:

Measurement of Centroid by Analytical Method:

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Measurement of Centroid by Graphical Method:

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6.6. Precaution:

Paste the graph on the

object carefully and
allow the body to come in
static state.

Plumb line should be taken carefully and measure all the dimensions accurately.

6.7. Comments:

Task No.7

To Find out the Coefficients of Friction between Different Surfaces

7.1 Objective

The purpose of this apparatus is to find a friction between different surfaces and coefficient of
friction.

7.2. Apparatus
Friction apparatus, Weight, Hangers, Stationary

7.3. Related theory:

7.3.1 Friction
When two surface are in contact, longitudinal force, called frictional force, develop if one
attempts to move one surface w.r.t another
7.3.2. Type of friction
i. Dry friction:

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When two surface of different solid material object are attempted to move over one another,
the frication produce b/w this surface is called dry friction. For example, dry friction b/w wood and
steel surface
Note: dry friction is also known as coulombs friction
ii. Fluid friction
It develops b/w layers of fluid moving at different velocities e.g. the friction present
b/w the different layer of fluid passing through pipes
7.3.3. Factors affecting friction
i. Smoothness of contact surface
Friction partly depends upon the smooth of the contact surface. A greater force is
being needed to move two surface past one another if they are rough then if they are smooth
ii. Force holding two surfaces
When a body is moving on a horizontal surface, it presses down against the surface
with a force equal to its weight. Increase in weight increasing the friction

7.3.4. Coefficient of Friction

It is a measure of amount of resistance that a surface exerts.
=F /N

7.4. Formula

Component of load W parallel to the plane= Wsin

Component of load W perpendicular to the plane= Wcos

Fx = 0

f-F-Wsin = 0..(1)

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F=f-Wsin
Fy = 0

N=Wcos. (2)

From Equation (1) and (2)

Coefficient of friction,
F
= =(f Wsin )/Wcos
N

7.5. Procedure:

Attach one end of a string with a hanger and other with a wooden or metal mass.
Place it on the inclined surface.
Note the initial weight of hanger and box.
Add weight in the box to increase the moment force.
After that add weight in the hanger till box starts to slide.
Note the weight applied and repeat the process for other two boxes.

7.6. Observations and Calculations

Inclination Weight Box Hanger Weight Normal Friction F

=
Force N
Material
N N N N
Wood-Wood
Wood-Copper
Wood-Steel

7.7 Precautions

The plane should be clean and smooth.

The guide pulley should move freely.
Weight should be added gently in the hanger.
Direction of thread should be parallel to the plane.

7.8. Comments

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Task No.8

To Determine the Tension in Various Parts of Hanging Rope

8.1. Objective

To compare experimental and theoretical results and equilibrium of concurrent force

system.

8.2. Apparatus

Flexible hanging rope, spring balance, weights and hangers, meter rod, measuring
tape.

8.3. Related theory

8.3.1. Force

Action of one body on another body is called force. Its SI unit is newton (N), and in FPS, are
pounds (lb).

8.3.2. Equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if all the forces and moments applied on it are in a
balanced condition.

3 conditions of equilibrium are: Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Mz = 0

8.3.3. Concurrent force system

The system of forces in which all the forces are passing through same point is called
concurrent force system.

8.3.4. Categories of equilibrium

i. Equilibrium of collinear forces clearly requires only one force equation in the direction of
force (x direction or y direction), since all other equations are automatically satisfied.
ii. Equilibrium of forces which lie in a plane (x-y plane) and are concurrent at point O, require
the two force eq. only. Since the moment sum about O i.e. about z-axis through O is zero.
iii. Equilibrium of parallel forces in a plane requires the one force equation in the direction of
force (x direction) and one moment eq. through an axis (z axis) normal to the plane of the
force.

Categories of equilibrium in two dimensions:-

i. Collinear Fx = 0

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ii. Concurrent at a point Fx = 0 Fy = 0

iii. Parallel force system Fx = 0 Mz = 0

Fx = 0:-

T2 cos2 T1 cos1 = 0 T2 = T1 cos1 / cos2

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Fy = 0:-

T1 sin1 + T2 sin2 = W T1 sin1 + T1 cos1 sin2 / cos2 = W

T1 (sin1 + cos1 tan2) = W

T1 = W / (sin1 + cos1 tan2)

8.4. Procedure:

Attach a string of known length to the two hawks nailed in wall of some height at known
distance.
Find out zero error of both spring balances attached with the rope.
Apply weight in the centre of the string to measure the tension.
Measure the displaced height of rope from the height of hooks.
Note the readings of spring balance attached on both the ends of string.
Subtract the zero error from the obtained value.
Repeat the process by changing the weights.
Compare the experimental values with analytical values.

8.5. Observations and calculations:-

No W L1 L2 H 1 2 Zero err T1=lbs Zero err T2=lbs

of N lbs (in) (in) (in) Exp An. %diff Exp An. %diff
obs.
1
2
3
4

8.6. Comments

Task No.09

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To determine the angular acceleration () and torque (T) of Flywheel

9.1. Objective

To determine the angular acceleration and torque of flywheel.

9.2. Apparatus

Fly wheel, weight hanger, slotted weights, stop watch, meter scale.

9.3. Related theory

The flywheel consists of a heavy circular disc/massive wheel fitted with a strong axle projecting on
either side. The axle is mounted on ball bearings on two fixed supports. There is a small peg on the
axle. One end of a cord is loosely looped around the peg and its other end carries the weight-hanger.

Let "m" be the mass of the weight hanger and hanging rings (weight assembly).When the mass "m"
descends through a height "h", the loss in potential energy is

The resulting gain of kinetic energy in the rotating flywheel assembly (flywheel and axle) is

Where

I -moment of inertia of the flywheel assembly

-angular velocity at the instant the weight assembly touches the ground.

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9.3.1.
Torque of a flywheel

Consider a body which can be rotated. When we rotate a body, we are applying a turning force to it.
The turning effect depends not only on the force but also on the place where the force is applied. So
we can define the torque as,

Torque=force x perpendicular distance from the

axis to the line of action of force

So for a flywheel having radius of axle r and

having mass m attached to it the torque is given
by

The tendency of a moving body to change its state of motion is called inertia. If the inertia of
flywheel is high, considerable amount of torque is needed to be applied. The property of inertia is
applicable to every object since it is having mass. However the inertia of rotating body depends on
the distribution of its mass as well as the amount of mass.

9.3.2. Angular acceleration of a flywheel

When a torque is applied to body the angular acceleration is given by

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That is the angular acceleration depend not only on the torque but also on the moment of inertia I
of the body about the given axis which is determined by using the equation

Where, I = Moment of inertia of the flywheel assembly

N = Number of rotation of the flywheel before it stopped

m = mass of the rings

n = Number of windings of the string on the axle

g = Acceleration due to gravity of the environment.

h = Height of the weight assembly from the ground.

r = Radius of the axle.

9.4. Applications

Flywheels can be used to store energy and used to produce very high electric power pulses for
experiments, where drawing the power from the public electric network would produce unacceptable
spikes. A small motor can accelerate the flywheel between the pulses.

The phenomenon of precession has to be considered when using flywheels in moving vehicles.

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However in one modern application, a momentum wheel is a type of flywheel useful in satellite
pointing operations, in which the flywheels are used to point the satellite's instruments in the correct
directions without the use of thrusters rockets.

Flywheels are used in punching machines and riveting machines. For internal combustion engine
applications, the flywheel is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft. The main function of a
flywheel is to maintain a near constant angular velocity of the crankshaft.

9.5. Procedure for doing Real Lab

1. The length of the cord is carefully adjusted, so that when the weight-hanger just touches the
ground, the loop slips off the peg.
2. A suitable weight is placed in the weight hanger
3. A chalk mark is made on the rim so that it is against the pointer when the weight hanger just
touches the ground.
4. The other end of the cord is loosely looped around the peg keeping the weight hanger just
touching the ground.
5. The flywheel is given a suitable number (n) of rotation so that the cord is wound round the
axle without overlapping.
6. The height (h) of the weight hanger from the ground is measured.
7. The flywheel is released.
8. The weight hanger descends and the flywheel rotates.
9. The cord slips off from the peg when the weight hanger just touches the ground. By this time
the flywheel would have made n rotations.
10. A stop clock is started just when the weight hanger touches the ground.
11. The time taken by the flywheel to come to a stop is determined as t seconds.
12. The number of rotations (N) made by the flywheel during this interval is counted.
13. The experiment is repeated by changing the value of n and m.
14. From these values the moment of inertia of the flywheel is calculated using equation

9.7. Observations

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Mean value of moment of inertia, I =.........kgm2

9.8. Result

Moment of inertia of the fly wheel =.........kgm2

9.9. Comments

Task No.10

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Analysis of Beams and Trusses by MD-Solids Software

10.1. Objective

MD-Solids is an educational software package devoted to the introductory mechanics of materials

course. MD-Solids was developed with several objectives in mind:

Versatility: MD-Solids has routines pertaining to all of the topics taught in a typical
mechanics of materials course. These routines are grouped in modules, similar to typical
textbook chapters, and the modules can be accessed in any sequence.

Ease-of-Input: Ease-of-input is an essential aspect in the MD-Solids concept. Throughout

MD-Solids, graphic cues are provided to guide users in entering data. The illustrations can be
easily adjusted so that the MD-Solids input screen looks very similar to the textbook
illustration. Various units (e.g., stress units, length units) are available and internal conversion
factors are present to ensure dimensional consistency.

Visual Communication: Each MD-Solids routine features a picture, sketch, or plot that
graphically depicts important aspects of the problem. Sketches are used to show the direction
of internal stresses, applied loads, and reaction forces. Plots are given for a number of topics
including critical buckling stress, beam deflections, and shaft shearing stress.

Text-based Explanations: Many of the MD-Solids modules provide extra explanations to

describe in words how the calculations are performed. These explanations can help students
develop the thought processes used in solving mechanics of materials problems.

10.2. Software

MD-Solids 4.1.0

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FAST-NU, Lahore

10.3. Related theory

10.3.1. Features of MD-Solids Software

10.3.2. Truss Module

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FAST-NU, Lahore

10.3.3. Determinate Beam Module

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FAST-NU, Lahore

10.4. Conclusion

MD-Solids has become a valued component in Mechanics of Materials education in countries

around the world. Professors report that students of all ability levels benefit from MD-Solids
in their studies and that students respond positively to MD-Solids.
MD-Solids seemed to be a factor in the noticeable improvement in their students'
performance in several topic areas but especially in the construction of shear force and
bending moment diagrams.
MD-Solids as a tool in preparing class lectures and during class lectures, both for its visual
presentation and for the ability it provides to quickly examine various configurations and
loadings.
Taken as a whole, professors from a wide variety of schools and countries have found that
MD-Solids is a very useful addition to their teaching effort for Mechanics of Materials.

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