IEEE Guide For The Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed Power Transformers

IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and
Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed

Power Transformers
IEEE Power Engineering Society

Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.140-2006
New York, NY 10016-5997, USA
27 April 2007
Authorized licensed use limited to: Boston College. Downloaded on January 08,2015 at 03:39:17 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.140-2006

Power Transformers
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society
Approved 16 November 2006

IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: This guide includes guidelines for the following: insulating oil maintenance and
diagnostics, oil reclamation, testing methods for the determination of remaining insulation (paper)
life, and upgrades of auxiliary equipment such as bushings, gauges, deenergized tap changers
(DETCs), load tap changers (LTCs) (where applicable), and coil reclamping. The goal of this guide is
to assist the user in extending the useful life of a transformer.
Keywords: evaluation, life extension, reconditioning, risk assessment
_________________________
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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Copyright 2007 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.140-2006, IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid
Immersed Power Transformers.
At the turn of the century, approximately one half of all transformers used in the electric utility industry
reached their 30 yr design life. Because of todays economics, many of these transformers will be called upon
to supply reliable service for an additional 20 yr to 30 yr. Any transformer owner intending to significantly
extend the life should address three key areas: economics, inspection and diagnostics, and materials and
design.
A comprehensive economic study should be carried out before the investment of significant resources. This
study involves load forecasts, reserve margins, new capacity plans, cost-benefit analyses, operating costs,
capital costs, and continued reliability and availability.
Once a financial decision to extend the transformer life is made, an inspection and diagnostic strategy should
be determined. This evaluation should include the following: manufacturer, size, age, operating history,
thermal load, electrical tests, maintenance history, and failure history.
New materials, major component replacement, and other design changes may also affect the life extension
decision. The development of better core steel and better solid insulation has been ongoing for a number of
years. The better operating efficiency of new materials may make life extension uneconomical.
Notice to users
Errata
Errata, if any, for this and all other standards can be accessed at the following URL: http://
standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/updates/errata/index.html. Users are encouraged to check this URL for errata
periodically.
Interpretations
Current interpretations can be accessed at the following URL: http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/
index.html.
Patents
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this guide may require use of subject matter
covered by patent rights. By publication of this guide, no position is taken with respect to the existence or
validity of any patent rights in connection therewith. The IEEE shall not be responsible for identifying patents
or patent applications for which a license may be required to implement an IEEE standard or for conducting
inquiries into the legal validity or scope of those patents that are brought to its attention.
iv
Copyright 2007 IEEE All rights reserved
Participants
This guide was prepared by the Guide for the Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed Power
Transformers Working Group, with guidance from the Power Transformer Subcommittee. At the time this
guide was completed, the working group had the following membership:
Rowland James, Chair

William Bartley, Co-Chair & Secretary
Richard Amos Hamish Hayward Paul Pillitteri

Carlo Arpino Gary Hoffman John Progar
Javier Arteaga Mike Horning Jeewan Puri
Mike Barnes Joe Kelly Mark Rivers
Tom Bassett Mike Lau Don W. Rose
Claude Beauchemin Stan Lindgren Hem Shertukde
William Bergman Tom Lundquist Brian Sparling
Jerry Corkran Andre Lux Tom Spitzer
James Cross Mike Martin Mark Teetsel
John Crouse John Matthews Malcolm Thaden
Alan Darwin Phil McClure Juan Thierry
Ron Daubert Susan McNelly Robert Thompson
Eric Davis Patrick McShane Roger Verdolin
Joseph Foldi T. V. Oommen David Wallach
Robert Ganser Bipin Patel Barry Ward
Joseph Garza Paulette Payne Joe Watson
Michael Havener Mark Perkins Roger Wicks
Don Platts
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Ballotters may have voted
for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
William J. Ackerman Jerry L. Corkran Gary R. Hoffman

Samuel H. Aguirre John C. Crouse Michael E. Horning
David A. Aho Jorge E. Fernandez Daher Dennis Horwitz
Paul R. Ahrens Frank L. DAmico James D. Huddleston III
Steven C. Alexanderson Alan W. Darwin David W. Jackson
I. J. Antweiler Eric J. Davis Rowland James
David A. Barnard J. P. Disciullo Paul R Johnson, Jr.
Paul D. Barnhart Dieter Dohnal C. J. Kalra
William Bartley Randall L. Dotson Joseph J. Kelly
Thomas W. Bassett Mark M. Drabkin Gael Kennedy
Martin Baur Donald G. Dunn Morteza Khodaie
Barry L. Beaster Gary R. Engmann J. L. Koepfinger
W. J. (Bill) Bergman Donald J. Fallon Stanley J. Kostyal
Wallace B. Binder, Jr. Robert B. Fisher Neil J. Kranich II
Thomas H. Bishop Rabiz N. Foda Jim Kulchisky
Thomas H. Blair Bruce I. Forsyth Saumen K. Kundu
W. E. Boettger Marcel Fortin John G. Lackey
Paul E. Boman Carl J. Fredericks Stephen R. Lambert
Harvey L. Bowles Shawn M. Galbraith Thomas W. La Rose
Troy D. Bredemeier Robert G. Ganser Michael Y. Lau
Steven R. Brockschink Eduardo W. Garcia Solomon Lee
Chris Brooks James M. Gardner Boyd R. Leuenberger
Paul A. Buchanan Saurabh Ghosh Maurice Linker
Carl L. Bush Harry D. Gianakouros Lisardo Lourido
Jim Y. Cai Randall C. Groves William G. Lowe
Antonio Cardoso Ajit K. Gwal Thomas G. Lundquist
Donald J. Cash Kenneth S. Hanus G. L. Luri
Bill Chiu Robert H. Hartgrove Keith N. Malmedal
C. Clair Claiborne Gary A. Heuston J. Dennis Marlow
Tommy P. Cooper Scott J. Hietpas John W. Matthews
v
Omar S. Mazzoni Mark D. Perkins William W. Terry
William M. Mcdermid Donald W. Platts Malcolm V. Thaden, Jr.
Mark F. McGranaghan Gustav H. Preininger S. Thamilarasan
Susan J. McNelly Jeffrey L. Ray Juan L. Thierry
Jose C. Mendes Timothy Charles Raymond Robert S. Thompson
Gary L. Michel Ryland B. Revelle T. P. Traub
Jerry R. Murphy Johannes Rickmann Michael S. Tucker
Krste Najdenkoski Michael A. Roberts David J. Wallach
Michael S. Newman Oleg Roizman Barry H. Ward
Van Nhi Nguyen John R. Rossetti Joe D. Watson
Raymond W. Nicholas Dinesh Pranathy Sankarakurup William R. Wessman
Joe W. Nims Devki N. Sharma D. A. Wiegand
Dhiru S. Patel Charles E. Simmons James W. Wilson, Jr.
Wesley F. Patterson James E. Smith Roland E. Youngberg
J. M. Patton Brian D. Sparling Kipp J. Yule
Paulette A. Payne Thomas W. Spitzer Donald W. Zipse
Allan D. St. Peter
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 16 November 2006, it had the following
membership:
Steve M. Mills, Chair

Richard H. Hulett, Vice Chair
Don Wright, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Mark D. Bowman William B. Hopf T. W. Olsen

Dennis B. Brophy Lowell G. Johnson Glenn Parsons
Joseph Bruder Herman Koch Ronald C. Petersen
Richard Cox Joseph L. Koepfinger* Gary S. Robinson
Bob Davis David J. Law Frank Stone
Julian Forster* Daleep C. Mohla Malcolm V. Thaden
Joanna N. Guenin Paul Nikolich Richard L. Townsend
Mark S. Halpin Joe D. Watson
Raymond Hapeman Howard L. Wolfman
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Alan H. Cookson, NIST Representative
Don Messina
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
vi
Contents
1. Overview................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Scope ............................................................................................................................................1

1.2. Purpose .........................................................................................................................................1
2. Normative references .............................................................................................................................1
3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations..............................................................................................2
3.1. Definitions....................................................................................................................................2
3.2. Acronyms and abbreviations ........................................................................................................3
4. Risk assessment .....................................................................................................................................3
4.1. Impact on the system....................................................................................................................4

4.2. Vintage .........................................................................................................................................5
4.3. Vacuum withstand capability .......................................................................................................5
4.4. Paper and pressboard....................................................................................................................5
4.5. Accessibility and spare parts availability .....................................................................................6
4.6. Operational history .......................................................................................................................6
4.7. Type of construction.....................................................................................................................7
4.8. Failure history ..............................................................................................................................7
4.9. Grounding.....................................................................................................................................7
4.10. Operating environment.................................................................................................................8
4.11. Failure mechanisms ......................................................................................................................8
4.12. Problems with determining component failure probability as function of condition assessment.8
4.13. Modified event tree matrix and fault tree diagram .......................................................................9
5. Diagnostic tests ....................................................................................................................................15
5.1. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)....................................................................................................15

5.2. Oil quality assessment (physical tests) .......................................................................................16
5.3. Furan analysis.............................................................................................................................17
5.4. Power factor ...............................................................................................................................18
5.5. Frequency response analysis (FRA) ...........................................................................................19
5.6. Partial discharge (PD) detection .................................................................................................19
5.7. Infrared inspection......................................................................................................................21
5.8. Degree of polymerization (DP) ..................................................................................................23
5.9. Vibration and noise ....................................................................................................................25
6. Condition assessment and reconditioning ............................................................................................26
6.1. Core and coil assembly...............................................................................................................27

6.2. Tap changers ..............................................................................................................................41
6.3. Bushings and arresters................................................................................................................44
6.4. Tanks, gaskets, etc......................................................................................................................47
6.5. Gauges, indicators, and relays ....................................................................................................50
6.6. Controls, alarms, and annunciators.............................................................................................54
6.7. Pumps .........................................................................................................................................56
6.8. Radiators, coolers, and fans........................................................................................................58
vii
7. Degassing and moisture removal .........................................................................................................59
7.1. Recirculation method .................................................................................................................59

7.2. On-line oil dryout method ..........................................................................................................63
7.3. Refrigeration method..................................................................................................................64
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ..........................................................................................................65
viii
Power Transformers
1. Overview
1.1. Scope
This guide includes guidelines for the following: insulating oil maintenance and diagnostics, oil reclamation,
testing methods for the determination of remaining insulation (paper) life, and upgrades of auxiliary
equipment such as bushings, gauges, deenergized tap changers (DETCs), load tap changers (LTCs) (where
applicable), and coil reclamping. The goal of this guide is to assist the user in extending the useful life of a
transformer.
1.2. Purpose
Up to now, there have been no formal guidelines for evaluation and reconditioning of transformers. Users
that do have evaluation and reconditioning programs may have only specific practices they use, but may not
be aware of other activities and processes that are available to them. The purpose of this guide is to develop a
comprehensive document that will aid users in selecting the proper direction for their unique needs.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this guide. For dated references,
only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including
any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
ASTM D395, Standard Test Methods for Rubber PropertyCompression Set. 1
ASTM D1933, Standard Specification for Nitrogen Gas as an Electrical Insulating Material.
ASTM D4243, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Average Viscometric Degree of Polymerization of
New and Aged Electrical Papers and Boards.
ASTM D5387, Standard Guide for Elements of a Complete Data Set for Non-Cohesive Sediments.
1
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken,
PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).
1
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed Power Transformers
IEC 60099-5, Surge ArrestersPart 5: Selection and Application Recommendation. 2
IEC 60450, Measurement of the Average Viscometric Degree of Polymerization of New and Aged Cellulosic
Electrically Insulating Materials.
IEEE PC57.139, DRAFT IEEE Guide for Dissolved Gas Analysis of Load Tap Changers. 3, 4 , 5
IEEE PC57.143, DRAFT IEEE Guide for Application of Monitoring to Liquid-Immersed Transformers and
Components.
IEEE Std C57.12.00, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.90, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.91, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.93, IEEE Guide for Installation of Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.104, IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers
(withdrawn). 6
IEEE Std C57.106 , IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Oil in Equipment.
IEEE Std C62.1, IEEE Standard for Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits.
IEEE Std C62.11, IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits (>1 kV).
IEEE Std C62.22, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for Alternating-Current
Systems.
IEEE Std 62, IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power ApparatusPart 1: Oil Filled
Power Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors.
3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

For the purposes of this guide, the following terms and definitions apply. The Authoritative Dictionary of
IEEE Standards Terms [B17] 7 should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.
3.1. Definitions
3.1.1 degree of polymerization (DP): A test used as a measure of the degradation of the paper insulation
used in transformers, cables, and capacitors, based on the average number of glucose molecules contained in
the cellulose chains.
2
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, Case Postale 131, 3, rue
de Varemb, CH-1211, Genve 20, Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States
from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
3
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
(http://standards.ieee.org/).
4
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
5
Numbers preceded by P are IEEE authorized standards projects that were not approved by the IEEE-SA Standards Board at the time
this publication went to press. For information about obtaining drafts, contact the IEEE.
6
This IEEE guide has been withdrawn; however, copies can be obtained from Global Engineering, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood,
CO 80112-5704, USA (http://global.ihs.com/).
7
Numbers in brackets correspond to the numbers in the bibliography in Annex A.
2
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
3.1.2 furanic compound: A family of molecules created by the thermal degradation of cellulose. Furanic
compounds are derived from a heterocyclic five-member hydrocarbon that includes oxygen and two double
bonds.
3.1.3 gas chromatography: A process in which the material sample is vaporized and injected into a stream
of carrier gas (as nitrogen or helium) moving through a column containing a stationary phase composed of a
liquid or particulate solid. The material is then separated into its component compounds according to their
affinity for the stationary phase.
3.1.4 static electrification (oil-immersed transformers): A surface charge imbalance caused by solid
insulation in contact with flowing oil. This imbalance results in a charge accumulation in oil that increases
potential-producing electrical discharge.
3.2. Acronyms and abbreviations
BIL basic impulse level

DETC deenergized tap changer
DGA dissolved gas analysis
DP degree of polymerization
FAL furfural
FRA frequency response analysis
LTC load tap changer
LTI liquid temperature indicator
MSD molecular sponge dryout
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
PD partial discharge
RIV radio influence voltage
RPRR rapid pressure rise relay
WTI winding temperature indicator
4. Risk assessment
For the purpose of this guide, the term failure is defined as any unscheduled event on or in the transformer
that requires the transformer to be removed from service for corrective action. A failure of an ancillary
component might cause a relay to trip the transformer for reasons not relating to the transformer itself, and
such a trip does not constitute a transformer failure according to the intentions of this guide. Because the
decision to remove a transformer from service will vary with different users, users should create their own
specific models based on the general models in this clause.
The term fault as used in this clause is not restricted to the traditional electric utility usage, i.e., an
unintentional phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase dielectric failure. Instead, in this clause, the term fault may
refer to a broader definition, such as a malfunction, defect, or indication of deterioration of a component.
Evaluating and reconditioning of large liquid-filled transformers are obviously not trivial exercises. Dual
objectives of meeting the growing demand of the electric power grid and maintaining system reliability may
require significant changes in the way an owner operates and cares for its transformers. An emerging industry
strategy is a life-cycle management program that sets loading priorities and provides strategic direction for all
of an owners transformer assets. For the owner that has many transformers, it is usually not economically
feasible to subject every aging transformer to a rigorous inspection and extensive testing. Thus, this asset
management approach is typically a three-step process:
a) Priority screening of transformer fleet

b) Diagnostic testing
c) Condition assessment of individual transformers
3
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
In order to identify and prioritize a long list of aging transformers, a screening process is often used. The
screening could be as simple as ranking the transformers by age. However, a more comprehensive screening
can be accomplished with a risk assessment method. There are many different risk assessment methods and
strategies available to the utility industry for a large family of power transformers. The method discussed
here is a simple procedure called fault tree analysis, which can help identify the transformers that need
additional condition assessment, additional testing, and/or other actions for the purpose of bringing the entire
population up to an acceptable risk level. Each transformer in a group can have its risk index compared, or
ranked, to all other transformers on the companys balance sheet.
The risk-based screening process uses statistical methods to identify and prioritize the transformers that
represent the highest risk for the owner. But this step does not identify the actual condition or the
vulnerability of the individual transformers. Once the screening process has established a priority list, the
next two steps in the process, diagnostic testing (see Clause 5) and condition assessment and evaluation (see
Clause 6), can help the owner establish a detailed asset management strategy. However, the list of variables
and the individual utility circumstances that govern the technical and financial decision making are such that
it is impossible to establish an industry-wide set of rules or standards for managing the life cycle of aging
transformers.
The cost of a failure can vary greatly. Any analysis of potential costs of a failure should consider the possible
repair or replacement costs of the transformer or failed component, environmental impact and clean-up costs,
damage to adjacent equipment, lost revenues and litigation costs, as well as any other site-specific potential
costs. There is also a large variability in the possible scope of the failure. A component failure may simply
cause a momentary outage and require only a component replacement, or it could lead to a catastrophic
failure with an insulating fluid spill and/or a large fire. The relative probability of each type of failure needs
to be considered in the calculation of risk.
The next eleven subclauses (4.1 through 4.11) describe key issues that affect the risk of failure. In the most
general sense, risk is defined as futures uncertainty and has two basic components: the frequency or
probability of undesirable events (i.e., how often undesirable events occur) and the severity or consequences
of those events (i.e., how much the failure will cost). Obviously, many of these issues address the probability
of failure, but some of them affect the severity of the failure. Risk-based methods generally use the product
of both the frequency and severity of events together in the analysis process. Regardless of whether the
frequency and severity data are subjective, qualitative, or quantitative, a risk-based decision process provides
a logical framework to capture and portray several layers of complex data in one cohesive, easily interpreted
format.
4.1. Impact on the system
To conduct a risk assessment of all the transformers in a users system, one of the severity factors that should
be addressed is the particular transformers current and future value in its service position. System operating
requirements may have changed since each particular transformer was originally installed. Consideration
should be given to the functionality of each individual transformer with respect to the strategic impact of the
system. Some questions that should be addressed include the following:
Will the transformer meet future load projections?

Is there any change in impedance needed to limit fault duty or improve regulation?
Does transformer design quality impact system reliability?
Although somewhat subjective, answers to such questions will help to define the consequences for a
particular transformer failure.
System reliability will influence the decision of whether to invest in extending transformer useful life.
Transformer rating may necessitate up-rating, if feasible, to meet anticipated transformer-loading
4
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
requirements. A change in impedance may be required of a redesigned transformer to limit fault duty or
improve reactive power performance and/or improve voltage regulation to acceptable levels.
Economic considerations may include cost of transformer losses, maintenance, and undelivered energy when
the loss of the transformer results in a loss of ability to supply load on the system and costs associated with
failure including customer incentives.
4.2. Vintage
Manufacturer and vintage can be a factor of transformer quality, material, and component condition.
Transformers manufactured in the United States before 1967 were likely designed without the use of
computers. Being conservatively rated, these transformers may have higher loading capability. However,
they may lack adequate provision for leakage flux, have a higher probability of localized hot spots, and have
high core losses (due to the quality of core steel available at the time of manufacture). The use of improved
quality core steel has reduced the core losses significantly in many of the transformers built since the
mid-1980s. Modern core cutting and stacking techniques have also resulted in reducing core losses.
Thermally upgraded paper was first introduced in the 1950s, but not widely used by transformer
manufacturers until the 1960s. Care must be taken to evaluate temperature-related characteristics of older
transformers that do not contain thermally upgraded cellulose insulation (based on a rated temperature rise of
55 C) as compared to those with the upgraded insulation (a rated temperature rise of 65 C). Such aspects of
original product quality should be assessed.
Insulation defects may result from improper assembly, inherent material defects (such as a burr on the
conductor), a rough edge on a brazed connection, or damage to the conductor insulation. Defects could be
intensified by coil vibration caused during shipment and normal operation. This situation can be monitored
by conducting a frequency response analysis (FRA) test and leakage reactance test. Results of these two tests
may be kept as a record and compared with future results when these two tests are performed again
periodically.
In evaluating the suitability for intended service, the original intended duty and specification should be
compared to the anticipated loading and system condition (e.g., fault duty, regulation, stability) as these
requirements could exceed the original intended capabilities of the transformer. Caution needs to be taken
that an existing unit auxiliary transformer or station transformer may not be used as a generator transformer
unless there is ample verification of its withstand capability to the new load pattern.
4.3. Vacuum withstand capability
Filling a non-vacuum-rated transformer from the bottom with degassed oil may reduce the chance of
problems once the transformer has been placed in service. But the method of processing oil and filling the
tank may introduce tiny bubbles into the insulation. The presence of bubbles in the insulation significantly
reduces the dielectric strength of the insulation. The practice of allowing a transformer to stand idle for a
specified time, before energizing, will help compensate for the absence of a vacuum by allowing time for
bubble dissipation. Allowable time for bubble dissipation will depend on the rate of flow of oil during filling
of the transformer and also basic insulation levels (BIL) of the unit. A specific number for any time frame is
not recommended by this guide because this value will depend on site situations.
4.4. Paper and pressboard
4.4.1. Thermally upgraded versus nonthermally upgraded paper
Paper insulation is subject to degradation from oxidation, hydrolysis, and pyrolysis. Thermally upgraded
paper has been chemically treated to reduce the tendency for hydrolysis and has reduced thermal degradation
at normal operating temperatures compared to nonthermally upgraded paper.
5
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
4.4.2. Low-density versus high-density paper and pressboard
In the mid-1960s, with the exact date depending on the manufacturer, there was a shift to the utilization of
precompressed, high-density pressboard from low-density calendared pressboard for spacer material within
the windings. High-density pressboard has superior compression characteristics in comparison with low-
density pressboard. Transformers that have windings manufactured with high-density pressboard will tend to
retain higher levels of the clamping pressure applied in the factory than earlier vintage transformers that
utilized low-density spacer material. Transformers with higher clamping pressure (tighter windings) have an
increased chance to withstand through faults without significant damage to the windings.
4.5. Accessibility and spare parts availability
Site-specific contingency plans should indicate the physical limitations regarding accessibility for
transformer removal and installation and the availability of spares. Plans should include predetermined
solutions for the impediments to a timely installation of the spare transformer.
Evaluation of spare parts availability should focus on lead time and options for replacement, restoration, or
remanufacture of obsolete parts. A contingency plan should be developed in the event replacement parts
significantly delay restoration of the transformer to service. For critical transformers, such as generator step-
up applications, it may be justified to predesign and premanufacture critical parts and assemblies for adapting
a spare transformer.
4.6. Operational history
Loading philosophy should be reviewed and compared to the original design philosophy and any limitations
noted. The operational loading experience and/or loading philosophy of the transformer are important.
Extended periods of overload (or full load with excessive ambient) or partial cooling may result in sustained
high temperatures thereby degrading the windings.
The fan and pump energization temperature settings are an important factor in how rapidly the transformer
insulation ages. Cooler fan energization temperature settings will reduce the rate of aging and allow a higher
overload with the same loss of life. Suggested fan energization temperature settings should result in fan
operation for temperatures within 30 C of maximum full load operating temperatures. For example, with a
65 rise rating and a 30 C normal ambient temperature, the fans should run for top oil temperatures
exceeding 65 C or winding hot spot temperatures exceeding 80 C. The cooler temperatures, which result by
turning the fans and pumps on sooner, will typically lower the winding losses sufficiently, resulting in less
total energy usage than at the higher temperatures without the fans and pumps running.
For large power transformers with forced-oil, directed-flow (ODAF) cooling with voltage ratings of 345 kV
and more, care must be taken to avoid operating too many pumps when the oil is cold (e.g., at startup).
Automatic control from winding/oil temperature should be used to minimize risk of catastrophic failure due
to static electrification. This recommendation applies to core-form and shell-form transformers.
Anticipated loading conditions may subject the transformer to operating conditions beyond original design
capability. Risk should be assessed to determine the impact of any design limitations on the remaining useful
life.
Voltage rating and winding insulation are also important factors to consider. Since the 1970s, some of the
transmission line voltage levels have seen a shift in their nominal voltage levels. For example, 110 kV lines
are now 115 kV lines. The transformers placed in service prior to this shift were coordinated with lower
operating voltages and BILs. Several of these transformers are still in service and require evaluation to ensure
the continuation of reliable operation in todays operating conditions.
Short-circuit duty and the number of through faults experienced by the transformer should be reviewed, and
provisions made to protect the transformer from forces in excess of design limitations. In the late 1960s,
6
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
industry standards were revised to invoke more stringent short-circuit duty, which earlier designs might not
meet.
Lightning protection and lightning arrester operation history should be reviewed to determine whether a
change in the protection is needed to ensure proper protection coordination and integrity.
Condition of coolers is an equally important consideration in assessing transformers. Replacement of coolers

and/or pumps with modern cooling equipment could be a justifiable alternative in enhancing transformer
performance.
4.7. Type of construction
Medium and large power transformers are either core-form or shell-form construction. The primary
difference between the two designs is the physical geometry of the cores and the coils. The core-form
construction includes concentric high-voltage and low-voltage coils placed over one or more core legs. In
most instances, core-form construction lends itself to internal inspections of the core and coil assembly
including most of the leads, lead support structure, DETCs, oil side of bushings, core, and clamping
structure. If the outer coil is not wrapped, the outer coil may be visible.
The shell-form construction is characterized by a set of pancake coils stacked and assembled into a phase
pack. The phase packs are placed into a lower tank section and supported while the core is then stacked
around the phase packs and through a core window in each phase pack. The shell-form construction generally
provides a more compact design for transformers; hence it lends itself more readily to larger power
transformer applications. The shell-form construction is such that internal visual inspection beyond the oil
side of bushings, leads, upper bridge structure, DETCs, and top side of the phase packs is not practical.
Evidence of problems below the top of each phase pack and top of the core stack (e.g., loose paper, metallic
particles) may be available during internal inspection but requires careful analysis.
Awareness of the type of construction will aid in risk analysis as some problems are constrained to a certain
type of construction, such as T-beam heating found in shell-form designs. Other issues, such as susceptibility
to static electrification, may be more common in one type of construction than another, but are not limited to
a certain construction type. The transformer manufacturer may be able to provide valuable insights to the end
user into past risks associated with a given type of construction and design approaches used during
construction.
4.8. Failure history
A review of transformer failure/trouble history should be conducted to identify similar occurrences for the
transformer being evaluated as well as failure and trouble trends of the transformer population. Industry data
for similar types or makes of transformers can supplement failure analysis, particularly when the transformer
population is small. Records of repair history and maintenance can indicate isolated or reoccurring incidents.
Documentation of any field inspections and maintenance reports of the transformer should be reviewed as it
may indicate the need for increased maintenance frequency for a suspect condition or known defect.
4.9. Grounding
Grounding is an important part of transformer protection. In the event of a ground fault on one phase, a
solidly grounded system can minimize overvoltage conditions on the unfaulted phases and reduce overall
stress on the insulation. A phase-to-ground fault may result in a short-circuit current that exceeds the three-
phase short-circuit duty and may, therefore, necessitate grounding the transformer through an impedance in
order to limit fault current. However, the transformer neutral insulation level would need to be checked
against elevated voltages in the case of impedance grounding.
7
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
4.10. Operating environment
Loading, service conditions, protection schemes, number of through faults, maintenance, and protection
against overstressing and contamination all influence transformer useful life. The level of exposure to
through faults may be an indication of thermal and/or mechanical degradation of the transformer. Overhead
line exposure increases the likelihood of a fault occurrence. Mechanical overstressing, overloads, short
circuits, and in-rush currents impose electromagnetic forces that could result in winding displacement or
dielectric breakdown. Winding displacement can also be caused by vibration from transportation shocks or
resonance phenomena. Electrical overstress, such as switching and impulse overvoltages and winding
resonance, can also lead to dielectric breakdown.
If the transformer was stored for a significant period of time between periods of service, the conditions of
storage should be noted for possible implications relating to condition. A regular inspection program is
recommended for such storage periods, and an inspection log should be kept. The condition of the oil
(assuming the transformer is oil filled during storage) would be of interest. For more information on storage,
see IEEE Std C57.93. 8
4.11. Failure mechanisms
Analysis of test data may indicate the need for increased frequency of testing and/or maintenance to monitor
or manage a suspect condition or known defect.
Failure mechanisms in transformers include excessive moisture and oxygen in the insulating oil and paper,
creep, fatigue, corrosion, erosion, mechanical wear, and thermal and dielectric breakdown.
Moisture in the insulating oil and paper reduces the dielectric strength of these components.
Oxygen and moisture in the oil and paper increases the rate of degradation of both components.
Creep is a loss of electrical insulation strength along a surface between components at different electrical
potential.
Fatigue relates to structural metal fracture in a brittle manner.
Corrosion results as a chemical reaction to the surrounding environment, whereas erosion forms surface
deterioration and results in increased leakage current or partial discharge (PD).
Mechanical wear results from severe or prolonged material stress.
Dielectric breakdown is the failure of an insulating system to prevent destructive unintended current
flow across the insulating space between live parts or between a live part and ground. Dielectric failure
is a common failure occurrence and can have a profound effect on useful life. Contamination, thermal
aging, repetitive excessive voltage stress, and mechanical deformation hasten dielectric breakdown.
Contamination and thermal aging can be monitored through diagnostic testing. Voltage stress can be
controlled by design of transformer protection and operating philosophy. Severe or excessive voltage
stress can lead to dielectric breakdown of the insulation.
4.12. Problems with determining component failure probability as function of

condition assessment
The statistically correct method of determining a systems reliability, based on assessments of the systems
components, is to construct a model of the system that will accurately weigh the effect of each components
reliability on the reliability of the entire system. The assessment of the components then leads to a
determination of the values for the components reliabilities, and these values are used in the model to
calculate the system reliability.
8
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
8
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
The most accurate failure probability data include consideration for equipment of the same manufacturer,
age, and design and are calculated from a large population over a long time period. Users may have data on
their own equipment that improves accuracy of failure probability values. Methods of calculating these data
are explained in Lewis [B25], Billington and Allan [B5], and Pukite and Pukite [B35]. Risk assessments and
failure probabilities are most accurate when applied to large populations of equipment where the positive and
negative error range tends to average and cancel out.
4.13. Modified event tree matrix and fault tree diagram
The modified event tree matrix in Table 1 shows how a typical power transformer can be modeled to help
identify the root causes of failures. This matrix can then produce a fault tree diagram for system average
failure probabilities. The typical event tree breaks the equipment down into components and sub-
components, and then lists the failure modes and causes. This modified event tree also contains the
Symptoms and Tests or Tools to detect the individual sub-component failures.
The fault tree diagram (Figure 1) shows a general transformer model. The user should evaluate the design of
the transformer in question to determine the components utilized on its equipment before constructing the
fault tree model and should add or subtract components or systems and subsystems as required.
The fault tree model in this guide uses three levels for each system. The first levels list the possible systems
that could cause a transformer failure. The second levels list subsystems that could fail, with that failure
leading to a system failure. The third levels list the potential root causes of the subsystem failures. The user
can add more layers to any of the branches if more detail is desired.
The probability of occurrence for each root cause should be determined from a condition assessment or
inspection of the transformer. When any component is found to be in a deteriorated condition, the
components failure probability should be revised in the model, and a new system (transformer) failure
probability calculated.
The calculation of failure probabilities in the fault tree model, where any component can lead to a
transformer failure, is shown in Equation (1).
n
Pf = 1 Ri (1)
i =1
where
Pf is the probability of failure

Ri is the reliability (1-failure rate) of each component or subcomponent
For example, the fault tree lists two possible events that could lead to an insulating fluid failure in a bushing:
loss of oil and oil contamination. Also, there are three subcomponents that can lead to a bushing failure: the
condenser core, oil, and shields. In this example, there are seven bushings on the transformer, and all but one
bushing is found to be in normal condition. One bushing is found to have deteriorated gaskets, and the
probability of a critical loss of insulating fluid is determined to be 33%. The risk of insulating fluid
contamination is determined to be 0.1%. The probability of a failure of the bushings insulating fluid is
calculated as follows:
Pf = 1 (1 .33)(1 .001) = .33067
9
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Furthermore, it is assumed that similar calculations have determined that the probability of a condenser
failure is 0.3%, and the probability of a shield failure is 0.1%. Using the same procedures, the probability of a
failure of this bushing is calculated as follows:
Pf = 1 (1 .003)(1 .001)(1 .33067 ) = .3333
Assuming that each of the other bushings has a failure probability of 0.1%, the probability of a failure of any
bushing is calculated as follows:
Pf = 1 (1 .3333)(1 .001) 6 = .3374
The failure probability of each component/system (e.g., bushing, oil preservation, LTC, DETC, core, tank
and fittings, radiators and coolers, windings and conductors, and relay protection) is also combined using the
same techniques to calculate the probability of a transformer failure.
If the user creates a model with redundant systems, the failure probability of both systems would be
calculated as in Equation (2).
n
Pf = P
i =1
fi
(2)
For example, the failure probability of all coolers on a lightly loaded ODAF transformer with two cooler
banks, each with a 1% failure probability, where a failure of one cooler would not require an unscheduled
outage would be calculated as follows:
Pf = (.01)(.01) = .0001
10
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Table 1Event tree
Tests and Condition Assessment Tools
Component/
System Subcomponent Failure Root Causes Symptom
Turns Ratio
Insulation Resistance
Winding Resistance
Exciting Current
FRA
Power Factor/
Capacitance
Oil DGA
Visual
Alarms
PD Monitoring
Fault Recorder
Infrared Scan
Bushing Condenser Insulation Breakdown Overvoltage/Elevated Operating Increased Power Factor X

Temperatures Increased Capacitance X
Material/Workmanship Defects Increased Power Factor X
Increased Capacitance X
Oil Loss of Oil Gasket/Seal Failure/Vandalism Loss of Oil X
Oil Contamination Gasket/Seal Failure/Vandalism Moisture Intrusion X X
Corona Shields Shields Not In Place Workmanship Gassing X
PD X X
Windings/ Winding/Conductor Turn-Turn Fault Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X X
Conductors PD X X
Coil-Coil Fault Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X X
Short-Circuit Current X X
PD X X
Coil-Ground Fault Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X X X
PD X X
Lead-Lead Fault Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X X X X
PD X X
Lead-Ground Fault Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X
PD X X
Insulation Insulation Breakdown Through Fault/Overvoltage/Design Flaw Gassing X X X X X
Short-Circuit Current X
PD X X
Material/Workmanship Defects or Gassing X X X X X
Deterioration with age, Short-Circuit Current X
PD X X
Static Electrification Intermittent DC Discharges X X
Core Core Steel Lamination Insulation Material/Workmanship Defects Gassing X
Breakdown
Core Steel Joint Opening Design/Workmanship Defects Gassing X
Insulation Insulation Breakdown Flux Heating/Structural Overstress Elevated Temperatures X
Gassing X
Core Ground Contamination/Mechanical Insulation Gassing X X
Damage/Thermal Insulation Damage PD X X X
11
Copyright 2007 IEEE All rights reserved.
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Table 1Event tree (continued)
Component/
Turns Ratio
Winding Resistance
Exciting Current
FRA
Power Factor/
Capacitance
Oil DGA
Visual
Alarms
PD Monitoring
Fault Recorder
Infred Scan
Oil and Oil Oil Moisture Intrusion Contamination Introduced Reduced Dielectric Strength X X X
Preservation Gasket/Seal Failure
Systems Oxidation Sludge Elevated Temperatures X
Conservator Bladder Failure Processing Error Reduced Oil Dielectric X X
Strength
Material or Workmanship Defects Reduced Oil Dielectric X X
Strength
Oil Level Gauge Error X
Oil Inside Bladder X
Piping Incorrect Valve Position(s) Human Error Pressure Relief Action X X
Oil Containment Failure Improper Painting/Improper Oil Leaks X
Assembly/Gasket Failure
Material/Workmanship Defects Oil Leaks X
Radiator/ Pump Motor Failure Elevated Operating Temperatures/ Loss of Oil Flow X X
Cooler Wearout
Bearing Failure Wearout/Design Defect Noisy Operation, Oil X X
Contamination
Loss of Power Circuit Failure/Unreliable Power Supply Loss of Supply Voltage X
Fans Motor Failure Elevated Operating Temperatures/ Loss of Oil Flow X
Wearout
Bearing Failure Wearout/Design Defect Noisy Operation, Oil X X
Contamination
Loss of Power Circuit Failure/Unreliable Power Supply Loss of Supply Voltage X
Radiator Plates Weld Failure Improper Welding/Materials Oil Leaks X
Rust/Corrosion Defective or Poorly Maintained Paint Rust/Corrosion/Oil Leaks X
System
Coolers/Tubesheets Rust/Corrosion Defective or Poorly Maintained Paint Rust/Corrosion/Oil Leaks X
System
Cooler Case Rust/Corrosion Defective or Poorly Maintained Paint Rust/Corrosion X
System
Deenergized Contacts Contact Burning/Arcing Material/Workmanship Defects Gassing X
Tap Changer Drive Shaft Loss of Control Material/Workmanship Defects Inability to Change Taps X
(DETC)
12
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Table 1Event tree (continued)
Component/
Turns Ratio
Winding Resistance
Exciting Current
FRA
Power Factor/
Capacitance
Oil DGA
Visual
Alarms
PD Monitoring
Fault Recorder
Infred Scan
Load Tap Contacts Contact Burning/Arcing Material/Workmanship Defects Gassing X

Changer Drive Shaft Loss of Control Material/Workmanship Defects Inability to Change Taps X
(LTC) Control Circuitry Loss of Control Relay/Component Failure Inability to Control X X
Isolation Board Cracks/Oil Containment Processing Error Gas in Main Tank Oil X
Failure Material or Workmanship Defects Gas in Main Tank Oil X
Gaskets Loss of Oil Containment Material or Workmanship Defects, or Oil Leaks X
Aging
Relay Relay Components False Trip/Alarm Design/Material/Workmanship Relay/Alarm Action X
Protection Circuitry/Plugs/Ter False Trip/Alarm Design/Material/Workmanship Relay/Alarm Action X
System minals
Tank Gaskets Loss of Oil Containment Material or Workmanship Defects, or Oil Leaks X
Aging
Piping Loss of Oil Containment Material or Workmanship Defects Oil Leaks X
Structural Steel Structural Failure Design/Material/Workmanship Tank/Structure Distortion X
Flux Heating Design/Material Defect Elevated Tank Temperatures X
Gassing X
13
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
TRANSFORMER FAILURE
CORE FAILURE TANK AND FITTINGS FAILURE

BUSHING FAILURE
CONDENSOR SHIELD CORE STEEL INSULATION GASKET PIPING STRUCTURAL

OIL FAILURE
FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE STEEL FAILURE
LAMINATION CORE
INSULATION OIL INSULATION CORE
LOSS OF SHIELDS INSULATION STEEL LOSS OF OIL LOSS OF OIL STRUCTURAL FLUX
BREAK- CONTAMIN- BREAK- GROUND FAILURE
OIL NOT IN BREAK- JOINT CONTAINMENT CONTAINMENT HEATING
DOWN ATION OPENING DOWN
PLACE DOWN
OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEM FAILURE RADIATOR/COOLER FAILURE
RADIATOR PLATE COOLER COLD COOLER CASE

OIL FAILURE CONSERVATOR PIPING FAILURE PUMP FAILURE FAN FAILURE FAILURE TUBE FAILURE FAILURE
INCORRECT OIL
MOISTURE OXIDATION BLADDER VALVE MOTOR BEARING LOSS OF MOTOR BEARING LOSS OF WELD RUST & RUST & RUST &
CONTAINMENT
INTRUSION FAILURE POSITION FAILURE FAILURE POWER FAILURE POWER FAILURE CORROSION CORROSION
FAILURE FAILURE CORROSION
DE-ENERGIZED TAP RELAY PROTECTION

LOAD TAP CHANGER FAILURE WINDING CONDUCTOR FAILURE CHANGER FAILURE FAILURE
DRIVE CONTROL ISOLATION GASKET INSULATION RELAY CIRCUIT/PLUG

CONTACT CONDUCTOR CONTACT DRIVE TERMINAL
SHAFT CIRCUITRY BOARD FAILURE WINDING SYSTEM FAILURE
FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE
FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE
CONTACT CRACKS/OIL LEAD- CONTACT FALSE

LOSS OF CONTAINMENT LOSS OF OIL TURN-TURN COIL-COIL COIL- LEAD- INSULATION LOSS OF FALSE
BURNING/ GROUND BURNING/ TRIP/
CONTROL FAILURE CONTAINMENT FAULT FAULT GROUND LEAD BREAKDOWN CONTROL TRIP/
ARCING FAULT FAULT ARCING ALARM
FAULT ALARM
Figure 1Transformer fault tree
14
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
5. Diagnostic tests
This clause describes modern diagnostic tests and inspection techniques that are conducted in the field on
electrical equipment. Interpretive discussions are also included to provide guidance on acceptance criteria.
These activities may help identify existing weaknesses or faults and also give some indication of expected
service reliability and remaining life. No single electrical test can assure continued operation. Only the
careful recording and plotting of the test results makes it possible to get the full information out of a test and
to compare the values with those of previously conducted tests. It should be noted that several assessments
might have to be interpreted together to diagnose a problem. The manufacturers acceptance criteria should
also be consulted because it may take precedence over the criteria in this guide.
CAUTION
Bushing current transformers should always be shorted and grounded whenever testing is done on a
transformer.
5.1. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
Significant information regarding the condition of the insulation system of a transformer can be obtained
from oil testing and correct interpretation of the oil analysis. It is beyond the scope of this guide to provide
detailed technical information on all oil analysis and testing; however, it is recommended that the reader refer
to the bibliography for references on oil testing and analysis (specifically, Chendong [B8], Dominelli et al.
[B11], Horning et al. [B16], Pruente [B34], Vogel et al. [B44], and Wilson et al. [B45]).
DGA using oil has proven to be a valuable and reliable diagnostic technique for the detection of incipient
fault conditions within liquid-immersed transformers by detecting certain key gases. DGA has been widely
used throughout the industry as the primary diagnostic tool for transformer maintenance, and it is of major
importance in a transformer owners loss prevention program.
Data have been acquired from the analysis of samples from electrical equipment in the factory, laboratory,
and field installations over the years. A large body of information relating certain fault conditions to the
various gases that can be detected and easily quantified by gas chromatography has been developed. The
gases that are generally measured and their significance are shown in Table 2, based on IEEE Std C57.104.
Methods for interpreting fault conditions associated with various gas concentration levels and combinations
of these gases are also provided in IEEE Std C57.104.
Table 2Gases typically found in transformer insulating liquid under fault conditions
Gas Chemical formula Predominant source

Nitrogen N2 Inert gas blanket, atmosphere
Oxygen O2 Atmosphere
Hydrogena H2 PD, overheated oil adjacent to hot metal (core or windings)
Carbon dioxide CO2 Overheated cellulose, air pollution

Natural degradation product of cellulose aging which may be
accelerated by heat
Carbon monoxidea CO Overheated cellulose, air pollution

Natural degradation product of cellulose aging which may be
accelerated by heat
Methanea CH4 Overheated oil adjacent to hot metal, or PD
15
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Table 2Gases typically found in transformer insulating liquid under fault conditions
(continued)
Gas Chemical formula Predominant source

Ethanea C2H6 Overheated oil adjacent to hot metal
a
Ethylene C2H4 Overheated oil adjacent to hot metal
Acetylenea C2H2 Arcing in oil

a
Denotes combustible gas. Overheating can be caused both by high temperatures and by unusual or abnormal
electrical stress.
Laboratory-based DGA programs are typically conducted on a periodic basis dictated by the application or
transformer type. Some problems with rapidly increasing gas levels may go undetected between normal
laboratory test intervals. Installation of continuous gas-in-oil monitors may detect the start of incipient failure
conditions that might allow confirmation of the presence of a suspected fault through laboratory DGA
testing. This early warning may allow the user to plan necessary steps required to identify the fault and
implement corrective actions where possible. Present technology exists that can determine gas type,
concentration, trending, and production rates of generated gases. The rate of change of gases dissolved in oil
is a valuable diagnostic tool in terms of determining the severity of the developing fault. A conventional
unscheduled gas-in-oil analysis is typically performed after an alarm condition has been reported. The
application of on-line dissolved gas monitoring may considerably reduce the risk of missing detection or of
prolonged delay in detecting fault initialization due to long on-site sampling intervals (see IEEE PC57.143).
Laboratory-based sampling and analysis that is frequent enough to sufficiently obtain real-time feedback
becomes impractical and too expensive. For critical transformers, on-line gas-in-oil monitors can provide
timely and continuous information in a manner that permits load adjustments to prevent excessive gassing
from thermal-type faults. This approach can keep a transformer operating for many months while ensuring
safety limits are observed.
The review of all of the DGA history for a unit is of high importance for determining the operating condition
of the transformer and needs to be done when considering life extension options for the unit.
5.2. Oil quality assessment (physical tests)
Over years of operation, insulating fluid quality typically deteriorates significantly. An important part of the
life extension of a transformer is the restoration of the transformer insulating fluid quality. The insulating
fluid quality has implications on virtually all operational characteristics (e.g., dielectric performance, aging
rate, thermal performance). Depending on the condition of the insulating fluid, it may be justified to
reprocess, reclaim, or replace it.
For the purpose of this guide, the diagnostic tests for insulating fluid quality described in IEEE Std 62 and
IEEE Std C57.106 are highly recommended.
It is important, as part of the condition assessment of the transformer, to determine the quality of the
insulating fluid. The results of the insulating fluid quality assessment will determine the need for insulating
fluid reconditioning, reclamation, or replacement.
Particular attention should be paid to the moisture in the insulating fluid. The measurement of moisture in
insulating fluid is a routine test (in addition to other physical characteristics of the insulating fluid) performed
in the laboratory on a sample taken from the transformer. Moisture in the transformer reduces the insulation
strength by decreasing the dielectric strength of the transformers insulation system. The combination of
moisture, heat, and oxygen is the key factor that affects the rate of cellulose degradation.
16
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Moisture level in the insulating fluid depends on the operating condition of the transformer (e.g., winding
moisture content and temperature) as well as the type and condition of the fluid. High fluid acidity and high
particle levels increase the capacity of the fluid to absorb moisture. Usually this situation can be corrected by
fluid reclamation or, for more severe cases, by fluid replacement.
Higher levels of moisture may be more acceptable in fluids such as silicone or vegetable oil (esters) than in
mineral oil due to differences in moisture saturation values. Although the use of these types of fluids is
relatively recent and not yet common, such differences should be considered in the interpretation of the
implications of moisture content.
Assessment of the level of moisture in the paper should be made, preferably by on-line monitoring of the
insulating fluid moisture level, (see Vogel et al. [B44]) to complement the oil assessment. Reduction of
moisture in insulating fluid will not necessarily reduce moisture content of the solid insulation sufficiently
(see Clause 7).
5.3. Furan analysis
One of the latest insulating fluid test methods to help determine the condition of the insulation system is a
test of furanic compounds. This method will help determine the overall degradation of the cellulose within
the apparatus being sampled. Methods or guides for interpretation of the results of this test have not been
universally adopted. However, much research has been done, and some guidelines exist (see Bouchard and
Lapointe [B6], Shroff and Stannett [B42], Chendong [B8], Burton et al. [B7], Dominelli et al. [B11], and
Horning et al. [B16]).
Furanic compounds are a family of molecules based on a furan ring structure. The furanic compounds in
Figure 2 are generated in various amounts by the degradation of cellulose (paper) and are, therefore, a paper
degradation marker.
Figure 2Furanic compound family
The most stable of these compounds is 2-furfuraldehyde, or 2-FAL, and in most routine analysis, this
component is the only one measured. In transformers with paper insulation, furanic compounds are
intermediate degradation products generated in trace quantities. These quantities are absorbed in the paper-oil
system. Oil degradation would not produce furanic compounds. Thermal degradation of paper insulation
could be monitored by furan analysis, especially when due to overheating conditions.
17
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Attempts have been made to relate the furanic content (2-FAL) of oil to the degree of polymerization (DP) of
paper. When the DP test reveals a value of 200 or less, the paper is considered to have lost almost all
mechanical strength, and the transformer has reached its end of life (see Shkolonik et al. [B40]). A 2-FAL
limit of 100 g/L (ppb) has been deduced from analysis of thousands of oil samples as a norm. The
corresponding DP would be no lower than 400, which implies acceptable mechanical strength for the paper.
Excessive furanic content in oil is indicative of pyrolysis of paper, which can also be inferred from excessive
carbon monoxide generation.
Test standards for measuring furanic content in insulating fluid include ASTM D5387.
It must be pointed out that changing the oil would take out most of the furanic content in a transformer;
hence the furanic content measured thereafter cannot be used for remaining life estimations using DP
correlations.
It should also be understood that this test method is an indirect indication of the cellulose condition. Its
precision is somewhat less than the DP measurement described in 5.8.
5.4. Power factor
The dielectric loss in any insulation system is the power dissipated by the insulation when an ac voltage is
applied. (All electrical insulation has a measurable quantity of dielectric loss, regardless of condition. Good
insulation usually has a very low loss.) Power factor testing consists of applying an ac voltage (not to exceed
the rated voltage of the equipment being tested) and measuring the leakage current across and through the
insulation system. Because an insulation system can be represented as a resistor and a capacitor in parallel,
the power factor of the insulation can be defined as the result of leakage current (IR) divided by the total
current (IT). The leakage current, and proportionally the power factor, will increase as the insulation system
deteriorates.
The power factor test and the dissipation factor test are two similar methods of measuring the dielectric loss
of an insulation system. The two terms power factor and dissipation factor are often used interchangeably
even though they have slightly different mathematical characteristics. Power factor is a dimensionless ratio of
the resistive current to total current flowing through the insulation. Dissipation factor (also known as tan
delta test) is a dimensionless ratio of the resistive current to the reactive current flowing through the
insulation. By convention, these factors are usually expressed as a percentage, which is one hundred times
the value obtained from the basic calculation.
Because most field testing is done in energized stations, it is important that the test equipment be properly
shielded to prevent electrostatic interference from influencing the test results. Most test equipment
manufacturers are familiar with the problem and have a method of eliminating or canceling the interference.
If unusual readings are encountered, ensure that the equipment is working properly before proceeding. If the
tests show an increasing trend in the power factor, further investigation is warranted to determine the cause
and possibly repairs before further degradation occurs. Determination of the cause of increased power factor
is usually made by analyzing all of the available test data to find the problem.
If the high power factor readings are caused by contamination in the oil, there will be corresponding results
in the oil analysis. Increased oil power factor may be the result of moisture or polar and ionic compounds in
the oil. This contamination may also reduce the dielectric strength of the oil. A power factor test can also be
run on the oil itself.
Moisture in the insulation system is another cause of increasing power factor. The moisture level of the oil
will help determine whether this situation could be the source of the problem. If the insulation is determined
to be wet, a procedure for drying the unit can be implemented. Such procedures include filtering (on or off
line), vacuum processing, or untanking and drying at a transformer repair facility.
Internal inspections and repairs are possible in the field, but much of the insulation is inaccessible without
untanking the transformer. If field repairs are made, care should be used to ensure that the replacement
18
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
materials are properly processed, compatible with the remainder of the system being repaired, and capable of
withstanding the expected operating conditions.
Bushings are often a source of high power factor readings. These parts can usually be tested in place and, as
with the transformer, previous data are used to evaluate the results. If it is determined that a bushing or
bushings are the cause of the problem, they can be replaced or repaired.
The main capacitance, C1, of a bushing is the capacitance between the high-voltage conductor and the
voltage tap (115 kV bushings and above) or the test tap (69 kV bushings and below). The capacitance C2 of a
capacitance-graded bushing is the capacitance between the voltage tap (115 kV and above) or the test tap
(69 kV and below) and the mounting flange (ground).
Capacitance C1 is measured during the power factor test of the bushings and must be very close to the
value shown on the nameplate of the bushing (tolerance 5%).
Capacitance C2 is measured during the power factor test and is used as a benchmark, especially when
measured during the initial installation of a brand new bushing never exposed to moisture or humidity.
Deviation of the C2 measurement from the nameplate on future power factor tests could also be used to
determine whether there has been moisture intrusion in the potential tap or near the flange. However, this
result does not necessarily determine the internal condition of the bushing core.
5.5. Frequency response analysis (FRA)
FRA is a diagnostic test that is used to help identify possible deformations and movements in the
transformers core and coil assembly and other internal faults. FRA consists of measuring the impedance of
transformer windings over a wide range of frequencies and comparing the results of these measurements with
a reference set, i.e., previous results or results from a similar transformer. The basis of the FRA technique is
that the impedance of the transformer (i.e., resistance, inductance, and capacitance) is related to the
construction and geometry of the windings. Deformations and movements have an effect on both inductance
and capacitance that may be reflected in the resulting frequency response.
Measuring the frequency response of a winding within a transformer will provide a fingerprint for that
winding or transformer. The analysis requires measurement of both input and output signals. The response is
the ratio of the two signals. There are basically two methods: impulse method and sweep frequency method.
Both methods are currently used within the industry.
With regard to the reference set of measurements, the reference measurement must have been made
previously on the same winding in the same transformer. There is no such thing as an identical transformer.
Therefore, measurements made on similar transformers should be used with extreme caution. The
transformer manufacturer may be able to provide invaluable insight to the user under these circumstances.
If there are discrepancies between the original tests and the latest test results, further investigation and testing
(e.g., excitation test) are a logical next step.
5.6. Partial discharge (PD) detection
PD occurs in an insulation system when a local breakdown of the insulation medium causes a redistribution
of charge within the system. PD generates low-amplitude voltage and current pulses that are within radio
range of frequency. Several techniques are available to detect and measure these signals in transformers. Two
techniques consist of direct electrical measurements, and results are measured in microvolts of radio
frequency energy or in picocoulombs. The other method consists of acoustical measurements with an
ultrasonic transducer. It is possible to locate an active discharge in the transformer by comparing the signals
from acoustic and from electrical detection.
19
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
5.6.1. Electrical measurements
Because PD is an electrical phenomenon, electrical measurements allow for the most direct and quantifiable
data. PD measurements in the field can be accomplished using at least two different methods. The first
method is the field-induced test, which is similar to factory testing, where a portable high-frequency
generator system is used to excite the transformer. The second method involves exciting the transformer at
the power frequency either from the utility grid or from an isolated generator.
The field-induced test for older transformers is typically done at voltages somewhat less than the full induced
voltage test levels as specified in IEEE Std C57.12.00. Typical tests are done at 75% to 85% of the IEEE test
levels for a duration of anywhere from 30 min to 60 min. The voltage level and test duration are based on
assessment of the age and condition of the bulk insulation and bushings or other components and the capacity
of the test generator.
PD activity may be measured using either the radio influence voltage (RIV) method or the apparent charge
method. Each method has its own relative advantages and disadvantages. The RIV method is less affected by
external noise from the power system, but may be affected by radio stations. It also is generally less sensitive
to discharges deep within the transformer windings. (The RIV of equipment was historically measured to
determine the influence of energized equipment on radio broadcasting; hence the name RIV.) Typically, if
the PD magnitudes are less than either 100 V or 500 pC, the transformer is considered acceptable. If the
levels are above 500 V or 1000 pC, then the transformer may be suspect. For values in between, the results
are questionable, and further testing may be needed to more precisely characterize the risk.
Advanced PD measurement methods are available that can effectively filter out external noise influences to
selectively measure the PD activity in the windings. These methods involve narrow band measurements at
certain resonant frequencies of the transformer to amplify the PDs and reduce the background noise. With
this type of measurement, a transformer may be tested with excitation from the power grid. In other
instances, the natural attenuation of PD between windings can be used to isolate the high-voltage winding
while exciting a low-voltage or tertiary winding.
Another advanced measuring method involves the measurement of a PD pattern based on a three-
dimensional plot of the PD magnitude, phase angle of the pulses, and the number of pulses. Different types of
insulation defects produce different but recognizable patterns, and the PD test result can be compared to a
library of test results to make a judgment about the cause of the PD. In addition, the test can often establish a
relative location of the PD within the transformer by PD pulse shape characteristic and time displacement
between the bushings.
One of the primary means of detecting PD is to measure the small voltage pulse, or current pulse, that
accompanies every discharge. In a typical transformer, there may be thousands of PDs per second; thus, there
may be thousands of pulses detected every second. The voltage pulse can be detected by means of high-
voltage capacitors, which are normally connected to each phase terminal. A bushing test tap or an existing
surge capacitor can be used, or a small capacitor can be attached to the terminal. The capacitor has a high
impedance to the power frequency, but appears as a low impedance to the high-frequency PD voltage pulses.
Special circuits are used to convert the pulse signals from an analog form to a digital form. Some of these
special meters include spectrum analyzers, quasi-peak pulse meters, and RIV meters. One of the most
common approaches is to use pulse height analysis. The analyzer measures the number of pulses and
magnitude of each individual pulse and plots them. There are also pulse phase analyzers, which digitally
record where the PD pulses occur with respect to the power frequency. Interpretation of test results requires
some experience with PD tests and with the type of device being tested. Comparing previous measurements
on the same piece of apparatus (including factory tests) will achieve the best results for this type of test.
PDs caused by static electrification are typically intermittent dc discharges associated with the buildup of
static charge resulting from forced-oil flow past cellulose surfaces. Such discharges are totally different from
PD associated with ac voltage and must be detected differently. There have been many instances where such
discharges were detected audibly as pinging or banging inside the transformer at intervals ranging from a few
seconds to many minutes.
20
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
5.6.2. Acoustic
The acoustic method of detecting PD offers good sensitivity to many types of PD sources and, in some
situations, permits the site of the source to be located inside the transformer. The acoustic technique has the
advantage that, when properly applied, it can be used on energized equipment and it is not susceptible to
interference from outside sources. Acoustic signals are measured using ultrasonic transducers that are
coupled to the outside wall of the transformer tank. In addition to the transducers, the other test equipment
components are an amplifier and a display device. Self-contained, portable acoustic detectors are available
for quick go-no-go field test programs. However, locating the PD source requires specialized measurements
and custom-designed software and equipment.
5.7. Infrared inspection
Thermography is a noncontact means of identifying thermal anomalies relating to electrical and mechanical
components that are exhibiting an excessive heat loss. This situation may be indicative of poor connections,
excessive stray flux, blocked cooling circuits, or other problems that have the potential for causing eventual
failure of the transformer. An infrared thermal scanning camera is used to record thermal images for
subsequent analysis and identification of corrective maintenance action. The self-emitted radiation in the
infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is measured at the target surface and converted to electrical
signals.
5.7.1. Noncontact thermal measurement
The component to be measured should be at normal operating temperature. Because heating varies directly
with the square of the current, component loading will directly affect the thermographic image. The current
level should at least be 40% of rated full load. If measurement is recorded when the equipment is not at full
load, the maximum temperature rise can be estimated by Equation (3) and Equation (4).
For cooling by natural convection and radiation
Trise max = Trise meas( Irated )1.67 (3)

Imeas
For cooling by forced convection and radiation
Trise max = Trise meas( Irated ) 2 (4)

Imeas
where
Trisemax is maximum temperature rise

Trise meas is measured temperature rise
Irated is rated current
Imeas is measured current
How a surface appears in the visible spectrum is the same way the surfaces will appear in infrared.
Temperature readings should be taken from target surfaces that are dull in the visible spectrum. When
focusing on the target, get close enough so the target occupies a sizable section of the viewer screen. Look at
the target face on, and move around to eliminate reflections.
Most thermal scans of equipment in metal enclosures will not give good readings unless the heat is of a high
enough intensity to heat the enclosure. Therefore, panel doors and cabinets should be opened or panels
removed, as necessary, to obtain good thermal scans.
21
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
5.7.2. Maintenance scanning
Thermographic scans are usually performed semi-annually or annually. The ambient temperature,
transformer winding and top oil temperature (instantaneous and maximum), and load information should be
recorded. Establish a baseline for the component under normal load and operating conditions to facilitate
identification of abnormalities. A comparison of phases in a three-phase system will indicate a uniform
temperature pattern for balanced load and a nonuniform pattern for an unbalanced load. An unbalanced load
can be distinguished from an anomaly, as the temperature is relatively constant along the component when
component size and mass are the same. The manufacturers literature should be checked to verify upper
limits for actual temperature.
5.7.2.1. Transformer main tank
Determine normal operating temperature of the transformer tank, examine all sides of the enclosure, and
record any temperature rise greater than or equal to 10 C. In addition, similar measurements and criteria
should be used for generator step-up transformers in the area where they are connected to the generator bus
duct. Improper bus connections or deterioration of connections over the service life can result in excessive
heating in the vicinity of the interconnection and the transformer tank.
5.7.2.2. Bushings
Determine the normal operating temperature, and document any temperature rise greater than or equal to
10 C.
5.7.2.3. Tap changer
Record the tap position and tap changer counter, examine the tap changer, and record the temperature
differential relative to the main tank. The tap changer should never be hotter than the main tank; any
temperature rise may be an indication of a problem.
5.7.2.4. Control cabinet
Examine all connections and components. An understanding of control component functions is necessary as
high temperatures on some components may be normal operating temperatures. Record any temperature
greater than or equal to 10 C above normal.
5.7.2.5. Overhead
For connections and other ancillary equipment, determine the normal operating temperature, and document
any temperature rise greater than or equal to 10 C.
5.7.3. Temperature rise
An acceptable maximum surface temperature rise is really dependent upon the environment of the
equipment, severity of duty, significance of the equipment to the operating system, and equipment type.
Knowledge of possible sources of measurement error (such as surface emissivity and solar reflections) is
required for accurate readings and interpretation. Maintenance and operating personnel who are most familiar
with the equipment should have the responsibility for judging the seriousness of an abnormal condition.
Table 3 presents guidelines to use in the analysis.
22
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Table 3Suggested temperature rise recommendations
Temperature rise above

local ambient a
(C) Action
010 Take no action.
1025 Record and plan to reinvestigate within 3 to 6 mo.
2570 Schedule an investigation and/or possible repair.
Above 70 Investigate immediately.

a
Local ambient refers to immediate surrounding area. For example, the overall transformer tank temperature
will be at least as hot as the top oil (40 C to 60 C above air temperature) without there being a problem.
However, a spot on the tank that is 25 C hotter than the surrounding tank area deserves further investigation.
5.8. Degree of polymerization (DP)
DP testing is used as a precise measure of the degradation of the paper insulation used in transformers,
cables, and capacitors. Cellulose (i.e., the main constituent of paper and wood) is a large linear polymeric
molecule constituted of several hundreds of glucose units. DP is the average number of glucose molecules
making the cellulose chains. The DP value decreases with time as the cellulose molecules break and
fragment. The rate of deterioration is very much temperature dependent.
It has been shown that the DP method provides a direct correlation between tensile strength and the DP
result. The DP values range from an average value for new paper of about 1200 (i.e., on average, each
cellulose chain contains 1200 glucose units) down to values for aged paper as low as 100. At a DP value of
200, a direct correlation has been shown to agree with paper that has lost approximately 70% of the original
tensile strength. At this point, the paper becomes brittle, and the transformer can be deemed to be at the end
of its useful life due to its loss of tensile strength (see Shroff and Stannett [B42]).
The test method that should be specified for determining the DP is ASTM D4243. An equivalent test method
is IEC 60450.
The paper used in electrical equipment is assumed to age at a more rapid rate where the temperature of the
paper and exposure to oxygen are the highest. In order to collect samples for DP tests, the paper should be
collected from locations that have the most rapidly aging paper.
Once a transformer is manufactured, the paper with the highest probability of becoming weakened is usually
in locations that cannot be easily accessed without risk of damaging the transformer. As a result, collecting
the paper samples from a transformer may jeopardize the reliability of the transformer. For in-service
equipment, taking samples must be limited to areas that, after repair, will result in a negligible increase in the
probability of failure as a result of the paper sampling. Locations are selected based on judgment, but should
usually be in the upper part of the transformer where top oil temperatures are the highest. A coil lead or a
crossover connection could be such a location.
Collection of samples that are directly in contact with the conductor is important. If the transformer oil has
been exposed to air, the outer layer of the paper should also be tested. To obtain a sample of paper in contact
with the conductor often requires the removal of a considerable amount of insulating material. It is important
that the insulation be carefully removed and the location and layer from which the paper was removed be
documented. The repair of the insulation system requires great care. For example, paper tapes must be
properly applied to replicate the previous insulation. Often paper tapes should be pre-impregnated with clean
dry oil. The concept that more paper is better is a poor idea as excessive paper can cause hot spots by
restricting the cooling of the conductor. It is recommended that properly trained personnel repair disturbed
sections of the insulation system.
23
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
If a transformer has failed and duplicate transformers exist, a good opportunity is presented for collecting
samples from the failed unit that may be representative of identical units, particularly when the loading
conditions have been the same. Such conditions exist for many generator step-up transformers. In these
cases, the best locations for samples will be in areas of the windings presumed to be the hottest. For core-
form transformers, this location will be near the top of the coils. For shell-form transformers, this location
will be directly over the top of the core were the oil flow is the least.
Unfortunately for most transformers that are in service, the results of DP tests will result only in values that
may not be representative of insulation that is in a higher state of deterioration. If these samples are below a
DP of 300, the transformer may be at the end of its life.
Collecting the paper samples is an important process, and the following guidelines and Table 4 are presented
to help ensure that the samples are collected and identified properly for laboratory analysis using
ASTM D4243 or IEC 60450.
For routine testing,
The minimum weight of oil-impregnated paper with excess oil removed is 300 mg.
The minimum weight of non-oil-impregnated paper is 175 mg.
Table 4Dimensions of paper needed
Thickness Area
[in (mm)] [in2 (cm2)]
0.003 (0.08) 6 (39)
0.005 (0.13) 3.5 (23)
0.010 (0.25) 2 (13)
For samples from failed transformers, a quick means for acquiring samples is to cut about six inches of the
conductor out of the coil and wrapped insulation. Wrap the sample in plastic or place in a plastic bag, and
identify the source and location.
The aging of the solid insulation is not uniform; therefore, the more paper samples tested, the better in order
to understand the spatial distribution of relative aging of the solid insulation. Darker areas of insulation are an
indication of advanced aging and should be candidates for testing. It is best to collect as many samples as
possible and then test as many as needed to obtain the desired information.
Figure 3 is an example of the information that should be provided with the samples. Samples collected from
different locations should be separated and clearly identified so that analysis of the results will be logical.
Samples should be protected from the environment. The use of sealed plastic bags is a method of separating
samples.
The testing facility should be consulted to discuss the different types of testing available, the accuracy of the
different test methods, and associated sample requirements.
NOTEInsulation cannot be varnished or impregnated with any material that will not be readily removed by rinsing
with solvent. If the insulation is impregnated with anything other than the insulating liquid used in the transformer, it is
unlikely that the DP measurement can be made. 9
9
Notes in text, tables, and figures are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement this guide.
24
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION
Note: Need to specify that test must be conducted in accordance with ASTM D4243.
TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE
Manufacturer: Serial Number:
MVA: kV: Age:
Preservation System: Cooling System:

Type of Transformer: Transmission _____ Distribution ____ Generation ____
Loading History:
Load Level, Estimated Percent Time
Percent of Top Nameplate Rating at Load Level
(%) (%)
<50
5075
>75
=100
Comments:
Transformer testing history available: Yes ___ No ___

(If yes, please include results with sample, for example, power factor tests).
Cellulose Location (see sampling):
Type of Paper (for example, kraft, thermally upgraded kraft, creped, if known):
Insulating Oil Type:

Testing history and oil makeup or changeout records available: Yes ___ No ___
(If yes, please include results with sample.)
Figure 3DP sample information
5.9. Vibration and noise
The human ear is a valuable tool in assessing equipment condition. However, the use of noise is subjective.
Site checks are, therefore, best carried out with regular visits by the same qualified personnel. They can
become accustomed to the usual sounds heard so that any new or unusual sounds or noises may be obvious to
them.
New sounds can usually be located as coming from the tank, pumps, fans, or other components attached to
the tank. Certain audible sounds are readily identified, but in some instances, the levels of sound, their tone,
and direction may often be more apparent than real and are then difficult to locate and identify. However, any
new or changed sound level is worth investigating.
25
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
5.9.1. Internal noise
Increased levels of sound emanating from the tank could result because windings have become loose due to
shrinkage or short-circuit movement. The sound due to such changes would generally have a tonal frequency
of twice the operating system frequency. This change in sound could also be the result of loose leakage-flux
rejecters or collectors. Abnormal overloads could also increase the level of sound or the tonal content
emitted, both from normal winding vibration and leakage-flux collector saturation effects.
Damaged or loose cores could contribute to modified sound characteristics, as could any changes to the
mechanical clamping or anchorage of the active part structure. Overvoltage and/or underfrequency will
cause excessive flux and hence possible saturation of the core. This situation would result in higher sound
levels and changing tonal composition. Superposition of dc on the exciting current can cause much higher
sound levels as well as extra tonal harmonics.
Broken leads and/or their supports can be responsible for a change in sound levels and tones, especially if the
natural frequency of these structures is close to a harmonic of the system power frequency.
5.9.2. External noise
Broken or loose external components can cause modified sound characteristics. Valve wheels and handles
can become loose and vibrate when their retaining nuts become unlocked. Cabinet or other component
antivibration mounts can fail and allow the component to rattle in sympathy with the normal transformer tank
vibration.
Fans and pumps should be manually energized to ensure proper operation. Any significant noises (e.g.,
grinding, rubbing, scraping) should be noted and investigated further.
LTC motors may start to make different sounds if their bearings wear or if their windings become damaged.
Also, if contacts become worn, different sounds may be noticed during the tap change operation.
6. Condition assessment and reconditioning

In order for a transformer to continue in reliable service for an extended period, every effort should be made
(economically and operationally) either to regain the relevant original performance characteristics or to
modify the loading and/or its application duty as appropriate. It is technically feasible to restore many of the
factors that directly affect the long-term reliability.
After completion of the risk assessment and thorough diagnostic testing, the owner may have been able to
reduce to a more manageable number the transformers that are candidates for condition assessment.
Condition assessment includes both nonintrusive and intrusive evaluations. Obviously, the intrusive or
internal evaluation is the most costly, most time consuming, and highest risk procedure. An internal
evaluation may also be risky, depending on the age and condition of a transformer. The decision to perform
this assessment must not be taken lightly. These inspections require great care and knowledge of transformer
construction.
Although the condition assessment is considered an inspection, some components may be considered for
upgrading or replacement at this time. Refurbishment or replacement of these components might arguably be
considered as a comprehensive maintenance exercise, which may not contribute directly to the life extension
of a transformer. Nevertheless, new or refurbished components could increase versatility and reliability, and
they should be considered at this time because there is an opportunity to do so while the transformer is out of
service.
The intrusive inspections and the transformer components are addressed in 6.1 through 6.8.
26
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.1. Core and coil assembly
6.1.1. Core and coil inspection
Proper coil clamping pressure is required for the winding to withstand axial short-circuit forces. As a result
of thermal and mechanical cycling over time, vertical clamping forces (axial) on the coils can be reduced
below the level required to hold the coils stable during through-fault events. Inadequate coil clamping
pressure has been known as a primary cause of transformer winding failures due to through faults. Coil
clamping pressure generally reduces gradually over time at a different rate for different windings or for
different layers of the same winding. The primary reason is that total accumulation of cellulose insulation
between the fixed top and bottom clamps can take a permanent set over time under static loading and
dynamic loading. Mechanical creep characteristics of compressible, nonelastic material are much more
pronounced on low-density material such as found in older transformers. For this reason, loss of clamping
pressure on coils is more prevalent in older units. Another contributor to the loss of coil clamping pressure is
shrinkage of the cellulose, which is caused by thermal cycling due to load variations in service.
At the time this guide was published, the only recognized method for evaluating coil-clamping adequacy was
an internal inspection. Reclamping the winding is one of the most constructive measures to extend
transformer life. For life extension, an inspection should be done to observe loose blocks, key spacers, and
wedge blocks. If loose blocks or key spacers are discovered, reclamping should be considered in order to
regain the forces needed for through faults.
Prior to making the decision to reblock and reclamp, it would be prudent to investigate whether the
transformer is a suitable candidate for life extension. Factors such as DGA, FRA, DP, and furan analysis can
be invaluable in determining the suitability of reblocking and reclamping the transformer. If diagnostic test
results indicate that serious problems exist in the transformer, it would not be advisable to reblock and
reclamp at this time. (It is not advisable because increased clamping pressure may exacerbate the condition
that is causing the generation of a particular gas and could possibly cause the transformer to fail soon after
energization.)
If the testing identifies serious problems and if the source of problems can been found and eliminated, the
transformer should be returned to service and monitored. If symptoms of problems do not persist, the
transformer may then be reconsidered for the reblocking and reclamping.
Hydraulic jacks, pumps, and hoses are normally utilized for reclamping and reblocking. A good practice is to
employ new hydraulic equipment for this task and to substitute the hydraulic fluid with transformer oil. In the
event of pump, jack, or hose leaks, the transformer will not be contaminated by hydraulic oil. (Even with new
hydraulic equipment, it should be thoroughly flushed with transformer oil in order to remove any hydraulic
fluids.)
6.1.2. Oil distribution box inspection and reconditioning
Some forced-oil, directed-flow (e.g., ODAF) transformers include a pressboard oil box in the bottom of the
transformer tank. The purpose of the box is to direct oil from the pumps into the bottom of the coils. During
the internal inspection of the core and coils discussed above, the oil box should be inspected for structural
damage such as tears or blowout of bolted joints. Implication of a breach of this box are that cooled-oil flow
in coils is reduced and that winding temperatures will be higher than with a box that is sealed as intended.
The rupture typically occurs in the window area of the core at an overlapping pressboard seam. If a ruptured
box is found, properly sized pressboard should be ordered for the repair. On-site repairs to restore the
integrity of the box are usually feasible by replacement of damaged pieces or by installing new material over
the damaged areas. It is important to use only appropriate dried and oil-saturated material for this repair. One
common repair method is to cut and install a piece of pressboard through the window area from one side of
the oil box to the other. The patch in the window area should be wide enough to be partially wedged under
the two adjacent winding assemblies in the ruptured area (see Penner [B31]).
27
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Because possible causes of damage to the oil box include the repeated starting and stopping of all pumps at
once, a recurrence may be avoided by reviewing the operational procedures and cooler control characteristics
and modifying them as necessary.
6.1.3. Reblocking and reclamping of transformer coilscore type transformers
An important characteristic of core and coil assemblies is their design for maintaining adequate clamping of
the windings to sustain them during through-fault events. Coil assemblies (including end blocking and
collars) are clamped between the upper and lower core frames. The vertical distance between the top yoke
frame and the bottom yoke frame is maintained by tie-plates or rods assembled adjacent to each core leg or
maintained by rods installed outside the coils.
Final assembly coil compression is accomplished by various means of expanding the gap between the upper
collar (or clamping ring) and the top yoke clamping assembly. The most common method is to insert scissors
jacks or bottle jacks between the yoke assembly and the clamping collar. Once a predetermined coil-height
dimension is achieved, filler blocks are installed or screw-jacks are adjusted to hold the dimension after jacks
are removed. Once the coils are clamped, the entire clamping system is rigid, and there is typically no
provision to compensate for shrinkage in the solid insulation system. The pressure is, therefore, expected to
reduce gradually over the years.
Some large power transformer designs include dashpots (i.e., oil filled spring loaded pistons and cylinders)
for coil clamping. This system ensures positive clamping pressure even with moderate changes in coil height.
Clamping pressures are transmitted through the columns of radial key spacers. The clamping pressures are
normally specified as the pressure exerted onto the radial key spacers. There is, however, no industry
standard, and clamping pressures vary widely from 1380 kPa to 8960 kPa (200 psi to 1300 psi), depending
on individual manufacturers practices.
The total force in clamping the coil is calculated by multiplying the area of key spacers covering the
conductors by the clamping pressure.
For example:
Key spacer area
High-voltage winding
(12.29 cm 3.81cm) (32 spacers) = 1498.76 cm2 or
(4.84 in L 1.5 in W) (32 spacers) = 232.32 in2
Low-voltage winding
(6.03 cm 3.81 cm) (30 spacers) = 689.51 cm2 or
(2.375 in L 1.5 in W) (30 spacers) = 106.88 in2
Total key spacers area

(1499 + 690) = 2189 cm2 or
(232 + 107) = 339 in2
Using a clamping pressure of 3447 kPa and 2189 cm2 equals a total force of about 77 tonnes.
Or, using a clamping pressure of 500 psi and 339 in2 equals a total force of 169 500 lb or 85 tons.
Normally, the coils may be reclamped to the original values specified by the manufacturer. However, if there
are possibilities of insulation damage or conductor tilting due to previous faults, the clamping pressure may
be reduced accordingly to a lower value (e.g., 60% of original clamping pressure). The purpose of reblocking
is to restore the transformers through-fault withstand capability. Restoration of a portion of the original
compression will improve this capability. The original equipment manufacturer or designers that are familiar
28
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
with the design of the transformer should be consulted before performing reblocking to ensure that
components should not be damaged.
Over the years, it is likely that the fault level at the substation may change. For situations where the fault
level has increased, it is also necessary to evaluate whether the existing blocks per circle in the winding(s) are
adequate. Should it be otherwise, appropriate measures are required to enhance the blocks in the winding(s).
6.1.3.1. On-site reblocking and reclamping process
Investigation for loose blocking is relatively simple, as described in this subclause. However, correcting for
the loose blocking is complex, as the specific winding and blocking geometry must be carefully considered in
order to avoid inflicting damage to the windings and incurring a subsequent increase in risk. The reblocking
plan should be developed by someone with knowledge of the specific winding and blocking design. With
knowledge of original pressure, a new pressure objective can be established; however, keep in mind that
reestablishment of original pressure may be unrealistic. In a core form, it is not necessary to adjust the lower
coil blocking because clamping pressure is applied to the entire lengths of each concentric coil during this
process.
a) Checking for loose blocking. Loose blocking can be checked by rapping the blocking with a
mallet and observing any movement and listening to the sound the mallet makes. Loose blocks
will make a dull sound, and the mallet will not bounce back. Sometimes, however, it is difficult to
identify a loose (under inadequate pressure) block that is glued securely.
b) Reblocking and reclamping. The total force exerted on the coil is controlled by the pressure in
the hydraulic line, which is calculated based on the bore diameter of the jacks. A set of four (or
more) bottle jacks, hydraulic hoses, a common manifold, an accurate pressure gauge, and a pump
will be required for reblocking and reclamping coils. The bottle jacks are to be positioned evenly
on the end ring. There are usually provisions to accommodate the bottle jacks. The total force
exerted on the coil is controlled by the pressure in the hydraulic line, which is calculated based on
the bore diameter of the jacks.
For example, assume the following:
Total clamping force required = 77 tonnes (85 tons)

Bore diameter of hydraulic jack = 6.5 cm (2 9/16 in)
2
9
2
Cross- sectional area =
(dia ) 2
=
(6.5) 2
or
16
= 33.18 cm 2 or 5.157 in 2
4 4 4
Number of jacks used = 4
Hence, pressure in hydraulic line is as follows:
77 tonnes 9.8kN / tonne

= = 5680 Newtons / cm2 or
4 33.18 cm2
85 tons 2000 lbf

= = 8241 psi
4 5.157 in 2
The existing clamping pressure may be checked by slowly applying pressure to the end ring and
noting the force at which the coil blocking becomes loose and can be removed.
Repacking loose blocking may be a tedious process. With the coil still under pressure, the loose
blocks are identified and marked. Next, the clamping pressure is released. Loose blocks may then
be glued and repacked with various thickness of high-density pressboard paper. The whole
29
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
process may have to be repeated a few times to ensure all blocks are tight. Besides rapping the
block with a mallet and listening for the sound, the tightness of blocking can be roughly
determined by the amount of residual oil squeezed out of the wooden blocks.
c) Hydraulic jacks versus torque wrenches. Hydraulic jacks can be used to provide a fairly
accurate clamping force. On transformers that are equipped with jacking screws and have no
provision for the bottle jacks, jacking screws may be tightened with a torque wrench to provide
the proper clamping force according to the empirical formula in Equation (5).
kDN
T= (5)
12
where
T is torque (ftlb) (Nm)

k is torque factor
D is diameter of bolt (cm) (in)
N is tensile load on bolt (kN) (lbf)
The problem with using this equation is the selection of a value for the torque factor k.
Unfortunately, this torque factor can vary anywhere from 0.1 to 0.3, depending on the bolt size
and friction coefficient. The wide variation is a result of surfaces that can be rough, smooth,
oxidized, chemically treated, or lubricated (see Haviland [B15]). Oily steel has a range of 0.11 to
0.17. Because the values of the torque factor vary widely, this equation should be used with
caution.
d) Additional concerns. One important aspect of the coil reclamping job is to ensure that all
windings share the clamping load. Disk and helical windings have a large percentage of cellulose
in their axial build; therefore, they are soft. Layer windings have much less cellulose; therefore,
they are hard or stiff. If soft and hard windings are clamped together and if they have the same
unclamped height, the hard winding would take the majority of the load. It is a bit of an art to
assure appropriate sharing of the clamping load. In some cases, it would be necessary to install
additional radial blockings with steps of different thickness to redistribute the clamping load onto
the different windings.
Another concern to be considered is the possibility of unexpected shifting of winding conductors
as a result of the application of pressures. A layer (barrel) winding, for example, includes an axial
alignment of conductors so that axial pressure could result in overlapping of conductors (lateral
alignment versus series alignment) and subsequent compromise of dielectric integrity. Pressure
must be increased slowly with careful monitoring of pressure changes. If a comparison of
movement to pressure change is indicative of a soft winding, the procedure should be halted to
mitigate possible damage.
The owner should consider performing a FRA after reblocking to establish a baseline response
pattern for assessment (by comparison) of coil movement, deformation, and/or looseness later. If
FRA was previously performed for the reblocked transformer, it will be voided by the coil
shifting during the reblocking procedure, and a new baseline would be necessary.
6.1.4. Reblocking and reclamping of transformer coilshell-form transformers
In shell-form transformers, the windings consist of conductors wound into flat pancakes and assembled
with insulation barriers, washers, and formed parts to become phase packages. Each phase package is
suspended above the bottom tank section so that the core can be stacked through and around the phase legs.
Therefore, a substantial portion of the phase packages are effectively clamped within the mass of the core
material, surrounding all but the upper and lower portions of the package. Because the shell-form
transformers have a form-fit tank construction, the side walls of the tank fit the core assembly snugly and, by
30
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
supporting it, provide additional support to the phase packages. The top and bottom ends of the phases are
blocked during manufacturing using wood wedges, wedge guides, and packing board for a tight assembly.
The clamping design of shell-form transformers can differ depending on the manufacturer and vintage. In all
cases, the procedures mentioned in this guide should be applied with caution. The original manufacturer or
someone knowledgeable with the design and manufacturing practices of the specific transformer involved
should be consulted. Furthermore, the on-site person(s) doing the actual reblocking should be skilled in this
endeavor.
Depending on the manufacturer, there are three types of phase-wedging design for three-phase shell-form
transformers:
An upper wood interphase blocking wedge system

An upper steel interphase frame with wood wedges system
A circular shell or round shell system, which does not have wood wedges
Circular shell transformers have aluminum interphase and end pressure plates. The end plates are tightened
from the outside with a set of steel bolts and wall-welded nuts located above and below of the core stack.
During the manufacturing of these units and after the final drying process, those steel bolts are tightened and
welded to nuts to avoid possible oil leaks through the thread. An attempt to reclamp these phase packages in
the field will be intrusive because the steel bolts have to be cut to remove them. Also, the nut threads must be
clean and their threads redone. A set of new bolts must be installed. The aluminum pressure plates are
combined with phenolic barriers against the phases. There is no maple lumber involved in this clamping
arrangement; therefore, the shrinkage should be minimal. Because of these described distinctions of the
circular shell design, reblocking is considered impractical, and the remainder of this subclause will focus on
the other design types.
Single-phase transformers are similar in construction among the manufacturers in that there is no interphase
blocking to be considered. In the special case of three-phase transformers known as a seven-leg core, there
is also no interphase blocking, and the treatment will be the same as the single-phase type.
If, during an internal inspection of a three-phase D-core design transformer (i.e., the most commonly used
core design with a nonstep lap), it is noticed that the interphase upper blocking has become loose, the
transformer should be evaluated for reclamping in the field. It will be necessary to consider all the internal
dimensional limitations as well as accessibility of the upper wedges.
6.1.4.1. Adding packing to the block wedges in the field
An internal inspection will be necessary to gather information needed to prepare the packing material and the
tooling. For example, it will be necessary to measure the length of the wedges for use in preparing the
packing board. (The length of the wedges will be the width of the packing board.) Because the only access to
the transformer will be through the manholes, the dimension of the manhole opening must be taken into
account when preparing the packing board materials. Typically, the board material is dried out and oil
impregnated to avoid shrinking during field processing. A judgment call has to be made during the internal
inspection to determine how much packing will be needed. This decision will depend on how loose the
wedges are. It may be prudent to prepare additional packing.
If any of the wedges are found to be cracked or damaged, they should be replaced as needed using
appropriately sized maple lumber, previously dried and oil impregnated to avoid shrinkage.
6.1.4.2. Three-phase transformers with maple wood blocking wedges
For three-phase transformers with wood blocking wedges, it is typical to have a two-piece wedge set between
phases, as shown in Figure 4. Tightness can be assessed by tapping on, and/or attempting to lift, the wedge
whose larger end is up. It should not be possible to lift or shift this wedge. When it is determined that the
31
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
transformer is to be reblocked, an internal inspection must be performed for scoping the task. When all the
needed packing boards are ready, the interphase wedges must be removed. It is customary to begin with the
area between phases A and B. Depending on how loose the wedges are, it may be necessary to use hydraulic
jacks to relieve pressure from some of the interphase wedges for their removal. All the hydraulic equipment
used inside the transformer must be in optimal condition to avoid an internal spillage; extreme caution must
be used when doing this work. Additional maple lumber may be needed as tooling to spread the wedge
guides or wedge retainers. Figure 5 shows a typical arrangement of hydraulic jacks.
Original
pressboard
packing
insulation
Two pieces
Wedge guide wedge set
or wedge
retainer
Dowels
PLAN VIEW
Two pieces
wedge set
Phase top end
Fill block or
core block
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 4Three-phase wood interphase blocking
32
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
1 3 (2.54 7.62 cm)

Maple wood lumbers
Hydraulic
jacks
Hose couplers
PLAN VIEW
Phase top end
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 5Three-phase wood interphase blocking
Apply only enough pressure to loosen the wedges, up to 10 342 kPa (1500 psi). If adjacent wedges have not
become loose at this pressure level, the pressure should be increased slowly until the wedges start to loosen.
The wedges can then be removed, starting from the center and moving to the outside. Once all of the wedges
are out, the hydraulic jacks can be carefully removed. With the wedge guides loose, packing material is
placed between the wedge guides and the phases. The packing material can be placed on just one side, but it
is preferable to place the packing on the back of both wedge guides. Do not add the packing board between
the wedges and the wedge guides. Always place the packing board behind the wedge guides.
33
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Once the packing is in place, the jacks are placed between the wedge guides and pressure applied. The
wedges are put back in place, starting from the inside and working to the outside, in the same way they were
removed. Pressure is applied as needed to open the wedge guides [usually 17 237 kPA (2500 psi) is
adequate], and the wedges are placed between them. It is important that an excessive amount of pressure is
not applied so to avoid causing any permanent damage. Consult a manufacturing representative for
confirmation of the pressures used. The use of more than two jacks could be necessary for better and more
uniform pressure along the wedge guides. Check the tightness of all wedges.
When the reclamping between phases A and B is complete, then the reclamping between phases B and C can
be started. The previous steps are then repeated to pack this blocking.
Wedges located between the phases and the tank (on phases A and C sides) will be addressed in 6.1.4.3
because they are placed using a method similar to single-phase wedging.
6.1.4.3. Phase-to-tank wedgingthree-phase transformers with upper steel interphase,

seven-leg core transformers, and single-phase transformers
Reclamping for these three different cases will all be done in a similar fashion. In all of these cases, the phase
pack will be between the wedge guide, with the wedges and the shunt packs or bundle shields.
For these types of transformers, if the wedging becomes loose, it is more difficult to get additional packing in
place because of the size of the wedges and the space available. In this case, it may be necessary to use a
hydraulic jack with jaws that can fit into the appropriate clearance and can open to 9.525 cm (3.75 in).
Figure 6 shows the case for a three-phase transformer with steel framing and maple wedges. Once the
packing material and the tooling are ready, the hydraulic jack is placed as shown in Figure 7 to start
spreading apart the wedge guide and the board. Pressure is then applied to it; and when the wedge is totally
loose, it is then pulled out of the assembly. The hydraulic jacks are then moved to the next notches, and the
procedure repeated until all of them are removed. Additional packing is placed between the phase packs and
the wedge guides. Then, using the hydraulic jacks, the maple wedges are put back in place again, in the same
sequence as they were removed. Once the wedges are tight on this side of the phase pack, the other side of
the phase pack is done. When one phase is complete, move to the next phase and repeat the process. It will be
necessary to repeat the same process six times (two sides per phase).
Figure 8 is a single-phase transformer that utilizes the same procedure for the side to tank wedges as was
utilized for the end phases on a three-phase unit because both cases have the same configuration and it is
necessary to follow the same steps.
For three-phase, seven-leg core transformers, the addition of board packing uses the same method as a single-
phase, but it is repeated three times, one per phase. In this variant of shell-form transformers, the phases are
rotated 90 with respect to a horizontal line along the tank length similar to having three single-phase units
sharing the same core. Instead of having a common opening for all phases, there are three different openings,
one per phase.
The addition of packing board in this case starts with the removal of the fiber studs and nuts that keep the
wedge retainer in place, a maple piece, the wedge retainer shim, and a pressboard piece bolted to the inside
frame with the fiber studs. The removal of the studs and nuts is necessary to gain access to the maple wedges.
In most of the cases, this step was already done in order to size the wedges and the packing material.
To proceed with the removal of the wedges, the hydraulic jacks are used as shown in Figure 9 to spread the
wedge guide and the pressboard packing. Following the same procedure described in the previous subclause,
the wedges are all removed, and the additional board packing is placed between the phase and the wedge
guide.
The wedges are inserted back in place using the hydraulic jacks to spread the wedge guide and the pressboard
piece. The same steps are repeated until the last wedge is placed. If needed, the tightness of the wedges
34
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
should be verified and more packing material added. (It is always a good idea to add at least one extra piece
of thin packing to the original estimate to assure the wedging will be tight.) Once this step has been done, the
wedge retainer and wedge retainer shim are inserted into place, using the fiber studs and nuts and ensuring
they are tight.
Original
pressboard
packing
insulation
Wedge
guide
Maple
wedges
Magnetic Steel
shielding or interphase
shunt packs frame
Steel interphase frame PLAN VIEW
Phase top end
Magnetic
shielding or
shunt packs
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 6Three-phase steel frame interphase and wood blocking
35
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Original
Wedge Steel pressboard
guide interphase packing
frame insulation
Maple
wedges
Hydraulic
jacks Hose
couplers
PLAN VIEW
Hose
coupler Steel interphase frame
Hydraulic Phase top end

jack
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 7Three-phase steel frame interphase and wood blocking
36
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Wedge guide
Original
pressboard
packing
Upper
end
wedges
Magnetic
shielding or
shunt packs
Pressure plate
brace or end
frame
PLAN VIEW
Wedge retainer
Top of the phase
Pressure plate
brace or end
frame
Magnetic
shielding or
shunt packs
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 8Single-phase, seven-leg, or end-phase wood blocking
37
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Wedge guide
Original
pressboard
packing Upper
end
wedges
Hydraulic Hose
jacks couplers
Pressure plate
brace or end
frame
PLAN VIEW
Hose
coupler
Top of the phase
Hydraulic
jack
Pressure plate
brace or end
frame
Magnetic
shielding or
shunt packs
ELEVATION VIEW
Figure 9Single-phase, seven-leg, or end-phase
38
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.1.4.4. Core clamping jacks
Many older versions of shell-form transformers with steel interphase frames have a system of jack bolts that
press down on the top core blocking and/or onto the core itself. However, newer units of this type have a set
of compressed springs on the core joint areas in conjunction with the jack bolts. As part of the reblocking
assessment for this type of transformer, the tightness of the jack bolts should be checked. The most common
size jack bolt is 3.175 cm (1.25 in) - 7 NC diameter steel bolts, and these should be tightened to 610 Nm
(450 ftlb) of torque.
6.1.4.5. Assessment of potential reblocking effectiveness
The effective natural clamping provided by surrounding core material was discussed in the opening sentences
of 6.1.4. Various methods for restoring clamping pressures for top coil sections have been addressed. No
methods have been discussed for restoring pressure for bottom sections because this area is inaccessible in
shell-form transformers. Typically there is no space for movement because the one-piece bottom wedges are
enclosed and compressed between the interphase shielding and the interphase core section. For the
transformers having a steel interphase bottom frame, the shrinkage will be minimal because the wood content
is less. It could be argued that reblocking the top section will not improve reliability or effective life of the
transformer because material shrinkage will weaken the bottom coil section and this area cannot be
reblocked. However, the top section is the area with the leads and the lead support structure attached to the
phases, which is more susceptible to shrink than the bottom section. The reason for expecting improvement
of through-fault survivability by reblocking the top section is to maintain all the leads and copper bars so
they are properly supported and clamped as they were originally designed. When the top section of the phase
becomes loose, that looseness will make the leads and copper bars lose support, and this area will create a
problem when the clearances are reduced because of the lack of proper support. When the top section
reblocking is done, the lead support structure must be retightened to assure it is back to its original strength.
6.1.5. Shielding
Historically, winding shields have been of two types: line shields and ground shields. Line shields usually
enclose irregular shaped components of the line end of a winding, are electrically attached to the winding
lead, and help contour and control the voltage gradient in these high-stress areas by their effect on
capacitance coupling of turns. Ground shields are used in some transformers to control the capacitance
between windings and ground planes such as the core and tank. Typically, these shields are placed in the
main gap between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings. Usually, a paper-taped lead is brought out of
the winding assembly and attached to a core clamping member, which is grounded.
Because line shields for both core-form and shell-form transformers are usually an integral part of the
winding, it is difficult or impossible to inspect these shields as part of an internal inspection. However, one
can look for areas of burning or spitting in the line end of a winding as a possible indication of PD activity.
Ground shields are quite different from line shields in that an insulated lead is normally used to ground the
shield outside the winding assembly. On core-form transformers, these leads are normally brought out at the
top of the winding and can be inspected for mechanical tightness of the hardware, which is usually a bolted
connection to the core clamp. The electrical integrity of the lead can be examined visually, and a capacitance
measurement of the ungrounded shield lead can be made to the adjacent windings. The measured capacitance
should be significant if the lead is continuous to the shield. Occasionally, ground shields can become
disconnected from the lead through age and service. In this case, the measured capacitance will be quite low
and can serve as an indication that a problem exists. An additional benefit can be realized by disconnecting
the ground shields and letting them float electrically, while making conventional power factor and
capacitance measurements between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings. Usually the ground shield
acts as a barrier to this particular test measurement, and no practical value is obtained. On shell-form
transformers, the close proximity of the tank to the core and coil assembly usually restricts an inspection.
39
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Improper connection of a shield can be detected through on-line monitoring of dissolved gases. However, at
the time this guide was published, the only recognized method for evaluating shield integrity was an internal
inspection. For life extension, an inspection should be done to observe for the conditions mentioned.
6.1.6. Bus and leads
Over years of service, bus and lead supports can develop weaknesses, such as cracking of structural members
or loosening of the bolted structure interconnections. Physical stresses from through-fault currents can
damage the support structure for a bus and/or lead. Bus and/or lead insulation components can become
dielectrically weakened by abrasion and/or tearing as a result of normal vibration or through-fault-induced
movement. Reasonable efforts to correct such damage should be made. If damage is found in areas not
correctable in the field, consideration should be made to send the transformer to a repair facility.
Leads should require little maintenance, but they do need to be inspected whenever possible. During
transformer inspections, the leads should be checked to see that the insulation (normally crepe or linen tape)
is intact and firm. If the paper close to the conductor is damaged, the insulation will have soft spots. The
leads should also be checked to see that they are attached to the cleat assemblies properly to prevent
movement. Check for signs of broken supports or loose hardware that would allow the leads to move, and
then repair any damage. If the leads have been moved to change bushings or make repairs, ensure that there
is adequate clearance after the work is completed. If insulation is damaged or missing and if repairs are to be
made, care should be taken to replace the insulation similar to the original design criteria. The manufacturer
may have to be contacted to obtain this information. Too little insulation can reduce the voltage withstand,
and too much can cause overheating in some conditions.
If the leads themselves are damaged, there is little that can be done to repair them. Usually the lead can be
replaced. Manufacturers and repair shops normally keep lead materials on hand. When splicing leads, take
care to ensure that the new lead is the correct size and length. When completed, the splice should be properly
insulated and the lead secured.
Leads should also be inspected at terminals to check for signs of overheating. Leads should be sized for the
expected loads. Overheating is a sign of loose connections or other problems that should be investigated
before returning a transformer to service.
Lead supports should be constructed to hold the leads securely during both normal operation and during fault
conditions. Ideally, the leads are held in place by a clamping arrangement, but are sometimes tied to supports
with tie wraps or cloth tape. While inspecting the leads and lead supports, consider the forces during fault
conditions. Particular attention should be paid to points of physical stress such as secured points and points of
pressure against edges and corners of structure. If the leads come loose, they can move and possibly create
short circuits in the tank. Consider both phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase clearances in these inspections.
6.1.7. Flux control
For large power shell-form and core-form transformers, designs typically include control of stray flux to
avoid excessive heating of the tank and/or other magnetic components. A particular transformer may include
either or both of the methods discussed in 6.1.7.1 and 6.1.7.2.
6.1.7.1. Flux shielding
Flux shielding prevents magnetic component heating by repelling (blocking) flux impingement through
strategically placed nonmagnetic plates or sheets between the protected area or component and the flux of
concern. Common materials for flux shielding are aluminum and copper. For shielding the tank walls, sheets
or plates of such material are mounted on the inside wall closest to the coils. By repelling the flux at its
surface, shielding forces the flux lines to paths parallel to the shield surface until the flux bends back toward
its source to continue its loop.
40
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Because of its capacitive coupling to the adjacent coil(s), the shielding has the potential to establish
significant voltages if not properly grounded. Defects in the design and/or manufacture of its grounding may
cause PD and resultant gassing or may cause tank wall or other component heating due to equalizing currents
between separate shield components.
Inspection of flux shielding components should be a part of a transformers internal inspection. Areas of spot
heating, loose mounting, ground lead burning, etc. are indications of problems with the shields that can result
in eventual transformer failure.
6.1.7.2. Flux shunts
Another method of avoiding tank wall and other stray flux heating is to include magnetic shunts in the
transformer. Typically, these shunts are designed and manufactured into shunt packs, consisting of wound or
stacked packages of thin strips of grain-oriented magnetic steel. As compared to the repulsion of flux shields,
the shunts provide a low-reluctance path for the flux to efficiently (low losses and low heating) flow along
the area protected on its path to complete its loop back to the source.
As with flux shielding, the shunt packs can acquire significant voltage by their capacitive coupling to the
adjacent windings and should be inspected for loose mounting, burn spots, etc. for signs of abnormal heating.
As in the case of flux shielding, defects in shunt pack design and/or grounding can result in PD and
component heating.
Shunt packs are typically used in shell-form transformers to protect the many areas of the tank sides and
bottoms from stray flux heating. For the shell design, most of these areas are not observable without
untanking the transformer. The best way to assure the proper functioning of shunt packs on a shell-form
transformer is to review infrared results.
6.2. Tap changers
6.2.1. Deenergized tap changers (DETCs)
6.2.1.1. DETC external inspections
When performing an external inspection on a DETC, caution should be used when operating the DETC
through tap positions. Internal hardware may break, or contacts may become misaligned so that an extended
outage is required to internally repair the DETC. The external DETC shaft should show no signs of liquid
leakage. If leakage is noted, it may require seal replacement or bearing attention. The control handle or
actuator should have a provision for padlocking added if it is not already present. During the inspection, the
DETC should be operated through all tap positions to verify its operability. If attempted operation reveals
that the mechanism is seized, the gearbox should be inspected for corrosion or misalignment. If it is
confirmed that the mechanism is seized inside the tank, an internal inspection should be made to observe any
binding parts in the internal assembly. Also, the contact alignment and condition should be confirmed for
each tap position. A transformer turns ratio test will help determine whether the actual ratio and the handle
indicator are correct for each phase.
CAUTION
Under no circumstances shall the DETC be operated when the transformer has voltage applied.
6.2.1.2. DETC internal inspections
The purpose of DETCs as part of the transformer design is to allow selection of appropriate or optimum turns
ratio for the transformers performance in its operating position. Because this device is typically the only
current-carrying component in the transformer that is not bolted, crimped, or brazed to assure its continuity,
proper contact alignment and conductivity between moving and stationary contacts are critical for reliable
41
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
transformer performance. Unless properly designed, manufactured, and maintained, this component can
become a weak point for transformer reliability. A typical failure mode for a DETC is coking, metal flow,
and/or welding of contact surfaces due to increases of contact resistances over time.
Although there are DGA interpretations that can provide warning of tap contact progressive failure (see
Pruente [B34]), typical templates for interpretation of gas combinations do not include warnings for this
particular anomaly. Left unchecked, contact failure can generate an explosive accumulation of combustible
gasses.
Typically (if not uniformly), manufacturers of transformers and tap changers recommend periodic exercising
of the DETC by operating the tap changer through its range of settings and back to the operating position.
This movement creates a wiping action on electrical contact surfaces and tends to clean them from
accumulated carbon and/or corrosion and contamination materials. Unfortunately, what manufacturers
commonly recommend is not commonly practiced by users, and the DETCs of many transformers remain in
the same position for the life of the transformer.
During the internal inspection, the DETC should be operated through all tap positions while the contact
assembly is observed directly by the inspector inside. Particular attention should be paid to the condition of
the mating surfaces in the position in which the DETC has been in service. Any sign of coking or surface
heat damage should be investigated for corrective action.
External handle rotation is translated into contact movement by a series of steel shafts and gears. Each of
these components should be inspected carefully for condition and alignment. Typically included in the shaft
assembly are one or more couplings to allow relative movement of mounting points (e.g., tank-wall and lead
assembly). These couplings should be inspected for their potential for decoupling, which would allow
movable tap assemblies to drift from their connected positions and the possible creation of open circuits in
the current paths in the transformer.
Recent findings relating to relative performance of various contact designs suggest that tap assemblies that
include silver plating on stationary and moving contacts are less susceptible to increases in contact resistance
and eventual heating problems. Therefore, it is recommended that any rebuild or rework of taps include silver
plating on fixed and moving contacts.
Prior to energizing the transformer after any DETC tap change or tap movement, the following tests should
be performed to ensure that all taps are properly connected and aligned: a continuity test, transformer turns
ratio test, and contact resistance test.
6.2.1.3. DETC maintenance
As part of a transformer upgrade and service life extension, the contact assemblies should be inspected for
evidence of poor performance, such as discoloration and/or material flow (melting) of contacts and also film
or carbon buildup (coking) in conducting contact area. If degradation is observed, the contacts should be
reconditioned, including new or resurfaced contacts. If contact design or spring design problems are
suspected, redesign should be included in the upgrade. DGA history should be reviewed for evidence of hot
spots that could be related to tap contact performance (e.g., hydrogen, ethylene, ethane, and finally
acetylene.)
The internal tap assemblies and their operating shafts/gears should be inspected carefully for alignment and
physical condition. The tap changer mounting structure can be damaged by shipping and/or through-fault
stresses or by maintenance activities inside the transformer. Any damage with potential for negative
consequences should be repaired in place if practical. If not field repairable, consideration should be given to
removing the transformer to a repair facility.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.2.2. Load tap changers (LTCs)
6.2.2.1. LTC inspection
The LTC external condition needs to be monitored and maintained periodically. External conditions, such as
oil leaks, rust, peeling paint, dirt, or various types of debris buildup on the LTC, may in time compromise the
internal integrity of the LTC.
Oil leaks may lead to a low-oil condition in the LTC and compromise its ability to provide dielectric strength
and arc-suppressing functions internally. Oil leaks may also be an ingress point for moisture to enter the LTC
and promote oxidation. Should sufficient oxidation by-products and moisture be allowed to build up in a
LTC, insulation materials will prematurely deteriorate, and the dielectric function of the oil and insulation
will suffer. This situation can lead to failure. The abrasives in the oxidation by-products may lead to
accelerated wear of the contacts.
Rusted metal and peeling paint conditions should be corrected so the structural condition of the tank is not
compromised. If repainting is performed, a compatible primer and paint recommended by the transformer
manufacturer should be used. Care should be taken to not use coatings that may cause heat retention in the
LTC.
Dirt or various types of debris building up on the LTC may result in heat buildup that will lead to other
problems previously mentioned, such as oxidation. Dirt and debris can also lead to rust and paint problems
with the case. Dirt or debris can block the breathing device, and a dangerous amount of combustible gasses
may be allowed to build up in the LTC. This buildup may result in an internal fault that may lead to a major
fault of the transformer. Periodic inspections of the free breathing device are a necessity. If the free breathing
device is equipped with a desiccant filter, check the filter regularly, and change as necessary to prevent
moisture from entering the LTC.
Additional equipment associated with the LTC, such as the control cabinet, voltage control and control-
blocking relays, should also be included in the maintenance plan. Control cabinets should be properly sealed
as moisture and other contaminants can lead to damage of the control circuits. Periodic inspection and
calibration of the relays to ensure reliability are also recommended. Functional checks of alarms, such as off
tap, loss of potential, loss of control voltage, and liquid level, are also recommended. Functional checks
should also be performed on the motor control circuits and position indicators. If the LTC is equipped with
vacuum bottle protection systems and rapid pressure rise relay (RPRR) systems, functional checks of these
systems should be performed.
Periodic testing of the LTC fluid can help in the decision-making process of when to maintain and
recondition the LTC. Some of the same tests performed on the main tank transformer oil may also be
performed on the LTC. These tests include DGA to help detect overheated contacts and components, the Karl
Fischer test to detect moisture ingress, and oil screen tests to help maintain acceptable dielectric strength and
monitor oxidation. Additional testing may also include liquid power factor (an increase may indicate the
presence of moisture, oxidation by-products, or other contamination), metals testing to indicate unusual wear,
and inhibitor content. Advanced testing methods to consider are particle counting and analytical ferrography.
With over 100 different types of LTCs in use today, it is impossible to establish what typical acceptable
criteria should look like. However, the industry is pursuing standards for DGA in IEEE PC57.139, and most
laboratories have sufficient history to make model-specific recommendations.
6.2.2.2. LTC maintenance and upgrade
LTCs should be carefully inspected to assess the condition of the mechanical and electrical assemblies and
parts for extended service. Looseness (slack) in operating linkages due to wear can cause contact
misalignment and potential failure. Contact alignment should be checked and corrected as needed. Bolts,
nuts, wire terminals, and cam secureness should be checked. If additional problems are found, the tap
changer should be refurbished (repaired) or replaced, depending upon the nature of the problem.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.2.2.3. LTC temperature monitoring
When reconditioning transformers with a LTC, consideration should be given to monitoring the temperature
difference between top oil temperature and LTC tank temperature. Monitoring is typically successful for an
LTC with low oil volume. Normally, the LTC tank temperature is equal to, or lower than, the top oil
temperature, depending on the design of the LTC (separate compartment type versus in-tank type). However,
in the course of use, LTC contacts can erode or develop coking or a polymeric film. Also, connections and/or
contacts can loosen, or abnormal arcing may develop. Any of these problems will generate heat that in turn
causes the temperature within the LTC tank to be higher than the top oil temperature. The temperature
difference can then be used to trigger a more thorough investigation, including thermal imaging and oil
sampling to determine whether and when an outage should be scheduled.
Some electronic indicators provide for an additional temperature probe for monitoring the LTC tank
temperature and provide an alarm indication when the differential temperature exceeds a preset threshold.
Preset thresholds will vary from installation to installation as temperature probe placement, LTC oil volume,
and transformer loading will influence this setting.
When adding LTC differential temperature monitoring, consideration should be given to measuring LTC
tank surface temperature or measuring the internal LTC tank oil temperature by installing a thermometer well
into the LTC tank wall. Normally, the internal LTC tank oil temperature will be more accurate than
measuring temperature using a surface temperature probe.
Consideration of temperature probe placement is also important. If surface-mount temperature probes are
used, it may be necessary to shield the temperature probes from solar radiation. However, whether a surface-
mount or internal LTC tank oil temperature probe is used, it should be installed near the top of the LTC tank
oil level
6.3. Bushings and arresters
6.3.1. Bushingsexternal inspection
Bushings are a critical part of all transformers, and their suitability for service is an important aspect of a
transformers evaluation. The methods for assessing a bushings condition are well understood with the most
common methods being power factor, dielectric loss, and capacitance measurements made while the
transformer is off line and infrared inspections performed while energized. On-line power factor and
capacitance techniques are relatively new and are gradually gaining acceptance.
The most common technique for assessing a bushings condition is power factor and capacitance
measurement. Measurements of the main insulation (C1) are made by applying a test potential to the center
conductor and measuring to the test or potential tap, using an ungrounded specimen test technique. The tap
insulation (C2) is measured by the grounded specimen test method with the high-voltage terminal of the
bushing connected to the guard circuit. The test/potential tap is measured to the ground flange using a guard
test connection. Test results are then compared to nameplate values or previous tests. Increases or decreases
from reference values are usually an indication of contamination and/or deterioration of the insulation
system. Limits for the maximum permissible change tend to be manufacturer and type specific; however, a
doubling of the initial power factor value warrants either more frequent monitoring or replacement. A 10%
change in capacitance also warrants replacement.
The condition of bushings, which do not have test taps, can be assessed using a hot collar measurement. The
hot collar method involves energizing a conducting band that is wrapped around the bushing usually below
the top skirt of the bushing weather shed. This step measures the capacitance and dielectric loss of the
insulation between the collar and the grounded center conductor. The test is used to detect moisture ingress
between the conductor and weather shed. It is also effective for detection of oil contamination and
deterioration on oil-filled horizontally mounted bushings. The evaluation is based on a comparison of tests on
similar bushings on the transformer.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
On-line infrared inspections are effective for locating either loose or high resistance connections in the
bushings top terminal. The evaluation is based on a comparison of the three transformer bushings. Terminal
temperature differentials in excess of 5 C should be investigated.
Abnormally high or low bushing oil level should also be investigated and may justify further testing to find
cause or resulting damage. The detection of oil bubbling or internal corona should also be addressed
according to the manufacturers recommendations.
6.3.2. Bushingsinternal inspection
The primary function of a bushing is to provide insulation for the energized conductor that passes through the
grounded transformer tank wall or cover. The bushing also provides support to the lead that is connected at
the bottom end on the oil side or to the lead that passes through the bushing in the draw-lead applications.
Inspect each bushing for loose connections, burning, or indication of overheating. If a bushing has a draw-
lead, inspect the exposed portions of the lead for burning or indications of overheating. If the oil side of the
bushing is constructed with porcelain, inspect for cracks and chips. Inspect the top of the core and coil
assembly for pieces of porcelain or strands/shavings of copper conductor that may have come from the
bushings. If the oil-side of the bushing is resin-bonded and paper-insulated, inspect the surface for
mechanical damage, surface imperfections, or signs of tracking.
Some insight into the physical condition of a bushing below the flange may be indicated by the most recent
test tap (or potential tap) power factor test, commonly referred to as the C2 [bushing] power factor. A
decrease in C2 power factor to a value below the factory nameplate value or a notable decrease since the last
field test may indicate surface contamination of the porcelain below flange and should be investigated during
the internal inspection. If stains or films are present on the surface of the bushing, further investigation is
recommended.
If there are springs present to maintain pressure on gasket surfaces of a bushing, check that each spring is in
place and maintaining positive pressure by visual inspection, and check manually for movement of a spring
that would indicate that the spring is no longer compressed.
If there is a corona shield present, inspect the shield for signs of arcing or pitting.
Some vintage compound-filled bushings may contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) as a main ingredient.
This factor should be considered as the PCBs may leak from the bushing while in service, particularly if
heated during an event associated with the transformer.
6.3.3. Bushing replacement
Each bushing should be inspected and tested (e.g., power factor test) to determine whether a specific problem
justifies its individual replacement. If any of the bushings are of a design that is known to be of unusually
high risk, consideration should be given to replace them all, while the transformer is out of service, in order
to avoid an unplanned forced outage in the future.
6.3.4. Bushing current transformers
The primary function of bushing current transformers is to provide a current input to protection devices. The
function of bushing current transformers may be tested externally by examining the current transformer
saturation, turns ratio, and accuracy and by performing high potential testing of the insulation. The physical
condition of bushing current transformers is confirmed by an internal inspection of the transformer.
Bushing current transformers should be centered on the bushing and bushing leads with no signs of shifting
or deformation. They should not touch the bushing or bushing leads. The mounting hardware should hold the
bushing current transformers firmly in place and be in good condition with no loose parts or connections. The
bushing current transformer leads should also be held firmly in place and routed along the tank wall. The
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
insulation should be examined for signs of burning, overheating, or abrasions. Current transformer circuit
terminal contacts in the control cabinet should be examined for any looseness or burning.
6.3.5. Surge arresters
The normal operating and maintenance procedures of surge arresters by most utilities involve either field or
shop testing. The cost evaluation of field or shop testing should take into account that the arrester testing is
carried out either as scheduled maintenance or as an emergency repair. In general, shop testing is more
accurate and effective in diagnosing faulty arresters, but it is more expensive because arresters have to be
removed and shipped to the shop. In contrast, field testing can be fast and inexpensive, except for the initial
capital cost of the test equipment, while being less effective because of the limitations of mobile equipment.
If arresters are not already installed for transformer protection, they should be added. If the transformer
installation has the gap-type arresters, improved surge protection can be achieved by replacing the gap-type
arrestor with properly rated metal oxide varistor arresters. IEC 60099-5 provides recommendations for the
selection and application of surge arresters.
6.3.5.1. Gap-type surge arrester testing
A gap-type silicon-carbide surge arrester is a protective device for limiting surge voltages on equipment by
discharging or bypassing surge current; it prevents continued flow of follow current to ground and is capable
of repeating these functions as specified. Field studies indicate that moisture ingress is the cause of about
90% of all arrester failures. In general, acceptable limits of allowable leakage current in gap-type arresters
have been developed on the basis of past experience with arrester units of the same type and rating. Test
procedures and evaluation are described in IEEE Std C62.1 and include the following:
a) Impulse sparkover tests on gap-type arresters (shop testing)

b) Power-frequency sparkover test (shop testing)
c) Leakage current measurement (shop testing or field testing)
6.3.5.2. Metal oxide surge arrester testing
A metal oxide surge arrester is a protective device for limiting surge voltages on equipment by diverting
surge current and returning the device to its original status. It is capable of repeating these functions as
specified. In normal service, the zinc oxide surge arrester may be exposed to different stresses that alone or
together may cause increased resistive current. These stresses are normal operating voltage, temporary
overvoltage, switching overvoltage, lightning overvoltage, and external pollution. The increase in resistive
leakage current (aging) may bring the arrester to thermal instability and complete arrester breakdown.
Different systems are used to monitor surge arrester operation or possible deterioration. The following tests
are described in detail in IEEE Std C62.11:
a) Measuring of the V-I characteristics (shop testing or field testing)

b) Power loss measurement (shop testing or field testing)
c) Third-order harmonic leakage current (shop testing or field testing)
d) Measurement of the temperature of the surge arrester (field testing)
e) Thermal imaging monitoring (field testing)
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.4. Tanks, gaskets, etc.
6.4.1. Tank condition
The tank contains the transformer active element (core and coil assembly) and its insulating fluid. An LTC
compartment can also be included in the assessment of tank condition. The integrity of the tank is dictated
primarily by its mechanical characteristics. The tank must hold pressure and should not leak.
The integrity of the tank depends primarily on the condition of gasket containing surfaces, hand hole,
manhole, and tap changer door gaskets and on the integrity of tank welds. Deficiencies are detected by
observing oil leakage. Oil leakage may be due to deteriorated gaskets, warped gasket surfaces, and faulty
welds. A leak in a weld may be difficult to locate, as a breach in a weld may involve weld damage at
different locations within and outside the tank. Extension of tank life may involve replacement of gaskets,
possibly with higher temperature rated gasket material, if deterioration due to high ambient temperature is
suspected, and replacement of covers that may have become warped or uneven after years of removal and
reinstallation. The inability to adequately seal a tank may render a tank environmentally unacceptable for its
current installation. External sealant repair systems, involving specialty sealants and unique hardware
containing gasket provisions, may also prove effective in stopping leaks.
The tank should also be inspected for indications of deformation. Tank deformation may result from extreme
pressure or electrical arc experienced during a fault, improper foundation support, and, for spare
transformers, frequent installation and removal.
A tank that has undergone a reasonable maintenance program should not be severely rusted. Severe rusting
will reduce the tanks mechanical integrity and should be evaluated and repaired as necessary. It should be
noted that appropriate precautions should be taken when welding on a tank. Welding completed with an oil
backing has no risk of paint carbonization, while repairs completed without oil backing risk paint
carbonization. The thickness of the tank being welded will dictate the technique and type of welding process.
Retrofit of safety measures, such as fall protection, may be necessary in a complete tank assessment.
6.4.2. Pressure-regulated gas-blanketed system
Gas-blanketed transformers are used as a method to stop oxygen and moisture from entering the transformer.
These systems offer some advantages and disadvantages as shown in Table 5.
Table 5Advantages and disadvantages of gas blanketed systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Positive nitrogen pressure (along with a good If the nitrogen bottle is empty, moisture and oxygen may enter the
gasket) keeps oxygen and moisture out. transformer.
Purging of nitrogen during thermal cycles High levels of nitrogen in the oil could lead to nitrogen bubble
removes moisture and oxygen. entrapment in the insulation or pumps under certain conditions of
cool down.
Lower values for moisture and oxygen in the Purging of nitrogen will remove other gas from the transformer
transformer decreases the rate of insulation making DGA of limited value for long term trending, particularly
deterioration. for gas that are released from the oil easily, such as hydrogen..
Maintenance resource requirements will be higher.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.4.2.1. Typical system components
Gas-blanketed systems have typical main components installed on a transformer and usually include most of
the following items:
a) Nitrogen cylinder with connections defined by the Compressed Gas Association. Typical
cylinders have a capacity of 5.663 m3 (200 ft3) and are full at a pressure of 15 168 kPa (2200 psi)
at 21OC. Nitrogen should be dry and clean and may be specified as Type I in accordance with
ASTM D1933.
WARNING
Nitrogen gas displaces oxygen. Any space that has been purged by nitrogen shall be degassed,
and breathable air used to fill the space prior to any entry into the space.
Follow all necessary safety precautions to prevent death or injury.
b) High-pressure regulator. Most are two-stage regulators. The first stage reduces the pressure to
approximately 690 kPa (100 psi). The second stage reduces the pressure to the level acceptable by
the low-pressure regulator. A typical value for output of the second stage is 34 kPa (5.0 psi). The
T handle on the regulator should be adjusted so that the output pressure from the second stage is
as specified by the transformer manufacturer or as indicated on the nameplate of the system.
c) Low-pressure regulator. This device, which feeds the nitrogen into the transformer space is set
by the transformer manufacturer and should not be changed.
d) High-pressure gauge. This gauge, typically 0 to 20 685 kPa (0 to 3000 psi) indicates the pressure
in the nitrogen cylinder.
e) Sump. This device is used to collect any moisture or oil condensate. The sump has a drain cock.
f) Pressure gauge. This gauge indicates the pressure in the gas space of the transformer.
g) Pressure relief device. This device releases nitrogen when the pressure in the transformer
exceeds the set point.
h) High-pressure alarm switch. This switch operates when the set point is exceeded and resets
when the pressure drops below the set point.
i) Low-pressure alarm switch. This switch operates when the pressure falls below a set point that
indicates the nitrogen blanket is being lost and corrective action is required.
6.4.2.2. Maintenance
The following maintenance of a gas-blanketed system should be done on an annual basis:
Drain the sump.

Verify the low-pressure alarm activation.
Verify the pressure relief device operation.
Verify the pressure gauge is operating properly.
Conduct a leak check of the system.
Follow the manufacturers instructions to verify other accessories that may be included with the system.
6.4.3. Conservator systems
The transformer oil conservator system typically consists of one or more externally mounted reservoirs (or
expansion tanks). They are installed at the height required to provide an oil level in the transformer that is
above the cover of the main tank of the transformer, or in many cases, above the highest oil-filled bushing
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
boss. Many conservator systems generally include a bladder inside the tank that provides an oil-to-air barrier
to prevent moisture and dissolved air from entering the transformer oil. The system also has an air
equalization line that allows air to enter the bladder when the transformer temperature is decreasing and air to
discharge from the bladder when the temperature is increasing. There is also normally a desiccant container
in line with this equalization line to dry the incoming air.
Some conservator systems have a separate pressure equalization tank and do not have the internal bladder.
These systems do not maintain degassed oil in a transformer, but allow the oil to become saturated with air or
nitrogen (depending on whether air or nitrogen is used in the gas space of the system).
Conservator systems usually have an oil level gauge attached to the tank with an alarm connection to alert
operators when the oil level is to the minimum or maximum acceptable oil level in the tank. There is also
often a Buchholz valve or other nonreturn valve that shuts off in the event of a main tank rupture. Some of
these valves also contain a gas collector that traps gas generated in the main tank and provides an alarm when
a certain amount is collected. Transformers with conservator systems may also have gas detector relay
systems that are mounted separately on the tank.
The condition of the bladder conservator system is dependent on the integrity of the bladder and the other
components. A deteriorated bladder can allow moisture or oxygen to enter the transformer. Generally, a
bladder should be considered for replacement about every 10 yr. The integrity of a bladder may be checked
in service by inserting a swab stick with a cotton cloth on the end through the bladder access port in the top
of the conservator tank and gently swabbing the inside of the bladder. If the cotton swab becomes saturated
with oil, there is a leak in the bladder, and the bladder must be replaced.
The oil level in the conservator system should be checked regularly to make sure that it is at the proper level
and to verify there is no undetected oil leak in the transformer. There is normally a 25 C elevation mark on
the oil level gauge to use in adjusting the proper oil level. If the oil level gauge gives erratic readings, the
float inside the conservator tank should be checked for proper operation or damage.
Generally, conservator tanks are not designed to withstand full vacuum. Whenever vacuum is applied to the
main tank, the valve between the main tank and the conservator tank must be closed.
The desiccant for the bladder conservator system should be checked regularly and replaced when it reaches
the end of its moisture removal capability. Operating such a system with a nonfunctioning desiccant,
(especially in a humid environment) can allow moisture to enter the tank, or cause the bladder to age
prematurely.
6.4.4. Sealed tank transformers
A sealed tank system simply utilizes a transformers sealed tank to keep the oil isolated from external
atmospheric conditions. The use of a sealed tank system requires that the tank be large enough to
accommodate the minimum volume of oil required by the transformer when the oil is cold, and the maximum
volume of oil generated when the transformer is operated at its maximum load rating under its maximum
designed ambient temperature. The tank must, therefore, be able to accommodate the oils full volumetric
excursions from a deenergized dead cold condition to a fully loaded maximum heat condition. This type
of preservation system is typically used for smaller transformers whose minimum and maximum oil level
requirements can be accurately predicted.
Many sealed tank transformers are filled with dry nitrogen and have pressure gauges and fill valves to
manually add nitrogen if the pressure drops. One of the advantages of sealed tank systems is that they are less
expensive than the pressure-regulated gas-blanketed system. One of the disadvantages is that a leak can allow
oxygen and moisture to enter the tank. Some sealed tank transformers can suffer a slight loss of gas pressure
at peak loads, which will result in negative pressures (or vacuum) during periods of light loading.
Consideration should be given to convert these transformers to a pressure-regulated gas-blanketed system.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.4.5. Free-breathing transformers
Operating around the world are numerous transformers of all sizes that have free-breathing oil insulation
systems. Most of these have a provision for maintaining the dryness of the oil. Such provisions include a
desiccant breather or a refrigerating breather. However, some free-breathing transformer designs do not
include provisions for maintaining the oil in a dry condition, and the predictable result is an increase of
moisture in the oil. In such cases, consideration should be given to make some provisions to ensure the
dryness of the oil. After oil replacement, reconditioning, reprocessing, etc, the preferred modification is to
include a bladder in the expansion tank (if so equipped). If cost of conversion to a bladder sealed design is
not justified, an alternative improvement would be to vent the expansion tank through a desiccant (drying)
system. The reason that bladder addition is preferred is that its design includes sealing the oil from oxygen
entry as well as moisture entry.
6.4.6. Gaskets
Gasket material must be compatible with the transformer insulating fluids. Otherwise, failure of the gasket
occurs and leaks develop.
Gaskets must be applied and maintained in proper condition to ensure the reliability of the insulation system,
safety of personnel, and health of the environment. Gaskets in good condition will be smooth, firm, and
pliable.
Gasket surfaces should be checked for damage, such as nicks, indentations, and deformation. Improper
manufacturing, handling, or sizing may have caused these defects.
Gasket surfaces should be lubricated prior to gasket installation with materials compatible with the gasket
material and with the transformer insulating fluids.
The gasket material should be checked for chemical and thermal degradation. These types of degradation
result in softening or hardening of the material, and it may show cracks. These defects may be caused by
improper material selection or manufacturing.
6.5. Gauges, indicators, and relays
6.5.1. Liquid and winding temperature gauges
Liquid temperature indicator (LTI) and winding temperature indicator (WTI) devices typically control the
cooling operation, indicate the actual operating temperature conditions of the transformer, and provide alarms
or trip functions should preset temperature parameters be exceeded.
The lenses of the devices should be clear and free of scratches. Maximum indicating mechanisms should
operate freely and allow the indicating hands to reset and not vibrate or move on their own. Dials should be
legible and free of paint flaking or chips. Labels should be visible. Look for any signs of moisture or
condensation under the lens and replace if present.
The devices should be functionally tested using a calibrated temperature bath with an accuracy of no worse
than 2 C at the actual sensing probe of the gauge. The readings at any point on the gauge should be no worse
than 2% of full scale. Also, note any hesitation in the pointer mechanism during an increase to high
temperature and decrease to low temperature as a sign of corrosion or binding of the internal drive
mechanism. Hesitation of more than 2% of full scale is considered cause to replace the gauge. The operation
of the switch should be a clear change of state from normally open to normally close. There should be no
noncontacts, commonly referred to as dead spots, or simultaneously normally open and normally closed
contacts.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Also verify that the connector cable from the device to the control or annunciator panel shows no signs of
significant aging. Replace the cable if it shows signs of aging or cracking. As a general rule, the cable should
be replaced if the gauge is replaced.
Electronic indicators should be considered as a replacement for the older mechanical top-liquid and
simulated winding temperature gauges. Although this type of replacement may not contribute directly to the
life extension of a transformer, it should increase reliability and/or versatility of temperature monitoring.
Typically, transformers with forced-air or forced-oil cooling are operated in fail-safe mode (in other words,
the cooling system will automatically be activated, e.g., fans will be energized, if the electronic temperature
indicator becomes deenergized or fails). The user should design their protective relaying system to switch off
the fans and/or pumps if the transformer should trip off line. If the transformer has tripped, cooling is not
needed. If a catastrophic failure has occurred, fail-safe energization of the fans and/or pumps could
exacerbate the situation.
Instrument selection should include winding temperature input directly from a current-transformer (rather
than by use of a heater) in order to avoid the concern for the heater circuit and components. If the winding
temperature device will continue to utilize a well heater, the functionality and/or accuracy of the heater and
heater circuit should be confirmed to avoid erroneous winding temperature indication and inappropriate
cooler initiation.
Some electronic indicators offer the ability to measure both the liquid and winding temperatures
simultaneously and provide control and alarm functions for any combination of measured sources. This
option provides an opportunity for replacing two gauges with one instrument or for using one of the
mechanical gauges as a redundant alarm source while operating experience is gained with the new
equipment. If the latter case is chosen, the liquid temperature gauge should be retained, and the electronic
indicator should be configured for cooling control and alarm functions based on hottest spot temperature.
Consideration should be given to the functionality of the indicator with respect to the overall mission of the
other equipment in the substation to which the transformer will be applied. Some example questions that
need answers are the following:
Will the indicator be required to transmit measured quantities to control centers?

If communication is required, will digital or analog methods be used?
What is the protocol used by the indicator to transmit data in a digital format, and is it compatible with
the applications equipment?
Will the indicator interface with a translation device or directly to a remote terminal unit?
Will the indicator collect data from other devices on the transformer?
Is additional cabling required to service the transmission of additional information in analog form?
Should the indicator be powered from ac station mains or from dc station battery?
Mechanical gauges are immune to electromagnetic interference, electrostatic discharge, and transients that
are common in substation environments. Some examples are switching transients, lightning strike, faults, and
usage of wireless communications devices nearby. Electronic instruments, however, contain semiconductor
components and other circuit elements, which are generally susceptible to these kinds of influences. Designs
typically incorporate clamping, shielding, and filtering devices that protect the semiconductors from damage
and prevent misoperation of the instruments functions to defined levels of energy. Consideration should be
given to the level of susceptibility that the instrument manufacturer specifies for the instrument and to the
way that factor relates to the actual application.
Where electronic indicators are currently being used on the transformer, the instruments should be returned
to the manufacturer for refurbishment and recalibration prior to recommisioning the transformer. Typically,
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
the manufacturer will replace mechanical control relays, switches that show signs of wear, faded or worn
labels and markings, and viewing windows. All functions should be tested, and recalibration should be
performed.
6.5.2. Liquid level indicator
The liquid level gauge lens should be clear and free of scratches. The dial should be legible and free of paint
flaking and chips. There should be no signs of moisture condensation on the lens. All labels should be clearly
legible and visible.
The pointer should travel freely when checked with a magnetic drive source. If any sticking is detected,
replace the gauge. The switch should operate at the appropriate set point as shown on the dial or drawing
when the pointer is moved by the magnetic drive. The operation of the switch should be a clear change of
state from normally open to normally close. There should be no noncontacts, commonly referred to as dead
spots, or simultaneously normally open and normally closed contacts.
The float mechanism should be examined to ensure proper staking and/or assembly and no wear in the drive
mechanism. Any floats exhibiting binding should be replaced. Note that this last activity is actually an
internal assessment because it is necessary to lower the oil level in the transformer in order to access the float
mechanism. Defective gauges should be repaired or replaced.
Liquid level indicators in the main tank of a conservator transformer have a demonstrated propensity to seize
up due to lack of movement. Because the main tank on such a transformer normally remains full of oil, the
level indicators remain stationary for months or years. Whenever the oil is lowered for maintenance
activities, these gages should be carefully examined for proper functionality and replaced if needed.
6.5.3. Rapid pressure rise relay (RPRR)
The RPRR typically is used to trip the transformer off line to protect the transformer from damage caused by
an internal fault. This relay is also known as fault gas relay, fault pressure relay, and sudden pressure relay.
The operating characteristics and sensitivity of the device is such that it should not operate in the event that
the pressure rise generated during a through fault or other such phenomenon is below the calibrated
threshold.
There are two basic types of RPRRs, gas space relay and liquid space relay. The gas space relay is set to
respond slightly faster than the liquid space relay to compensate for the compressibility of the gas versus the
noncompressible liquid to which the liquid space unit is exposed. There are no general rules regarding which
type of relay functions better under various conditions. In recent years, it is becoming more common to place
dual relays on the tank in perpendicular planes with the relay switches wired in series. This arrangement
minimizes the occurrence of a nuisance trip due to surges below the calibrated limits of the unit should one of
the relays be more sensitive or experience fault conditions to which the other relay was not subjected.
The manufacturers of these types of instruments publish testing methods to ensure that the units function
within calibrated parameters. It is important that these units be tested on a periodic basis to ensure
conformance to the manufacturers standards. Several factors affect the performance and long-term life of the
units including, but not limited to, excessive vibration, moisture, and corrosive environments. Due to the
design of the relay, it is not easy to detect signs of wear other than to conduct the performance tests
recommended by the manufacturers. The operation of the switch should be a clear change of state from
normally open to normally close. There should be no noncontacts, commonly referred to as dead spots, or
simultaneously normally open and normally closed contacts.
Some users have found that the conflicting issues of false (nuisance) trips and reliable protection are
somewhat balanced by the use of three different RPRRs, mounted apart from each other on the transformer
tank. When an internal fault occurs, the nearest relay should pick up first. By using a two-out-of-three
relaying scheme, a trip signal will be only sent when the second relay picks up. Any one of the three relays
can fail to sense the fault without failing the protection scheme.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
As a general rule, any relay that does not perform to the published test parameters should be replaced. As this
device is used for tripping a transformer, any nonconformance to standards could result in nuisance trips or
failure to operate in the event of actual fault. It is also recommended to consult the manufacturer to determine
if the relay in question has undergone any design changes that would enhance performance or reliability to
ensure that only the most recent technology products are placed back in service.
In addition to a performance check, it is also important to perform a visual inspection of the relay. Look for
signs of corrosion in and around the connector location and around the top cover. Check that the flange-
mounted units have smooth and even flanges and clean gasket sealing surfaces. The thread-mounting devices
should have smooth threads, and old sealant materials should be cleaned before reinstalling. The condition of
the isolation valve should be checked to determine that it is functioning properly, in case the relay would
need to be removed from service.
Verify that the connector cable from the RPRR to the seal-in function or control panel shows no signs of
significant aging. Replace the cable if it shows signs of aging or cracking. As a general rule, the cable should
be replaced if the relay is replaced. It is also important to verify that the associated seal-in relay function,
typically installed in series with the RPRR function, is operating correctly and of the latest design. It is best
to consult with the manufacturer of these relays to ensure they are functioning to the latest standards.
If the transformer does not include RPRR protection, consideration should be made to add such protection.
For expansion tank designs, a RPRR can be installed in the side or on the top of the main tank by modifying
a manhole and/or hand hole. For sealed tank designs, a RPRR can be installed in a manhole and/or hand hole
on the side of the tank. An existing fill or drain valve can be used for installing the RPRR, but the location
and orientation of such valves are usually not optimum for responsiveness of the relay to faults. For
expansion tank designs, a Buchholz relay can be installed in the piping between the main tank and the
expansion tank.
Electronic fault pressure monitoring devices are now also available with sensor mounting to small pipe
fittings versus the large flange or thread mount designs. These sensors adapt well to fill plugs or other such
fittings with minimal impact on operation or performance. These devices may also contain adjustability
features to vary the response time based on the actual operating environment of the transformer.
6.5.4. Gas detector relay
The tubing from the source to the gas detector relay should be checked for crimping and plugs. Replace the
tubing if any damage is detected.
The relay gauge lens should be clear and free of scratches. The dial should be legible and free of paint flaking
and chips. There should be no signs of moisture condensation on the lens. All labels should be clearly legible
and visible.
The pointer should travel freely when checked with a magnet drive source. If any sticking is detected, replace
the gauge. The switch should operate at the appropriate set point as shown on the dial or drawing when the
pointer is moved by the magnetic drive. The operation of the switch should be a clear change of state from
normally open to normally close. There should be no noncontacts, commonly referred to as dead spots, or
The float mechanism can be checked by removing the enclosure cover and visually ensuring that the
mechanism moves freely and has no signs of wear. Be sure to apply the appropriate gasket compound when
reassembling the relay. Any floats exhibiting binding should be replaced.
If provisions on an expansion tank transformer do not include detection of free gas, such provisions may be
added. Options include the installation of a gas detector relay on the top of the main tank and tapping into the
highest point of the tank top. As an alternative, a Buchholz relay can be installed in the piping between the
main tank and the expansion tank for gas detection.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.5.5. Pressure relief devices
The pressure relief device is designed to relieve internal pressure in order to protect the transformer tank
when internal pressure exceeds the calibrated limit of the pressure relief device. The actual operating
pressure for the device is determined by the transformer manufacturer and should not be changed without
consultation with the transformer manufacturer. The device operates as follows: the sealing valve opens
when the internal tank pressure is sufficient to overcome the force of the hold-down springs.
CAUTION
The hold-down springs contain a tremendous amount of stored energy when assembled and
should never be disassembled without taking the proper safety precautions.
The relief device sealing valve gaskets are typically coated with a special lubricant to minimize sticking and
long-term vulcanization to the sealing valve due to pressure, vibration, and temperature. This lubricant may
break down after long-term exposure to transformer oil and should be checked. The lubricant can also be
wiped clean during multiple operations; therefore, any device that has seen more than a few operations in the
field should be carefully inspected to ensure the gasket does not stick due to the lack of lubricant.
Visual inspection of the cover for signs of corrosion, primarily at the sharp bend radii, is important. If any
sign of cracking or pitting is noted, the device should be replaced. Also, verify that the springs have not
corroded beyond light surface rust.
Note the condition of the attached operation indicating alarm switch, if so equipped. Any signs of corrosion
or contamination, especially around the connector area, require the switch to be replaced. Most switches are
designed with a manual test lever to allow users to verify proper operation. If the switch does not function
and reset properly, it should be replaced. The operation of the switch should be a clear change of state from
normally open to normally closed. There should be no noncontacts, commonly referred to as dead spots, or
Also verify that the connector cable from the alarm switch to the control or annunciator panel shows no signs
of significant aging. Replace the cable if it shows signs of aging, such as cracking. As a general rule, the
cable should be replaced if the alarm switch is replaced.
Consideration should be given to installing pressure relief devices with a greater flow rate than on the
original factory installation. These devices provide greater transformer tank protection under fault conditions
than traditional devices. Consult individual device manufacturers for latest pressure protection
recommendations.
Consideration should also be given to installing discharge directional control devices that direct the flow
should the pressure relief device operate. Any transformer installation that could have personnel working
near the tank places these workers in peril should the relief device operate. Discharge directional control
devices will direct the flow during operation of the relief device away from control panels and cooling
equipment, which could spray discharge further.
6.6. Controls, alarms, and annunciators
6.6.1. Cooling equipment controls
Cooling equipment controls are devices that are interposed electrically or mechanically between the control
device (e.g., LTI, WTI), the cooling impetus (e.g., fans, pumps), and media containment (e.g., radiators,
tanks). Typical controls include bypass, bank selector, and mode switches; interposing contactors; and shut-
off valves.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.6.2. Bypass, bank selector, and mode switches
Bypass switches turn cooling apparatus on and off independent of the LTI or WTI. Bank selector switches
select the order in which cooling stages are operated so that operating times may be equalized. Mode
switches have manual and automatic positions that determine the source of control. These switches may be
rotary or toggle switches. They may or may not have a locking feature.
Switches should operate freely without binding or sticking. Making and breaking of the circuit(s) under
control should be instantaneous, discounting the action of any delay devices that may modify the action of
the switch. Locking mechanisms should have the unlocking means available and functional. There should be
no signs of corrosion, overheating, or discoloration on the switch case, actuators, connections, or associated
wiring.
6.6.3. Control contactors
Interposing contactors should be examined for evidence of deterioration, which could shorten their extended
life. On open-frame types, pivot points should be examined for excessive wear, and contacts should exhibit
no excessive pitting. Coils should show no signs of overheating or insulation deterioration. If doubt of
continued reliable operation exists, the contactor should be replaced.
The switching capacity of the contactor should be reviewed if there is the possibility of the addition of higher
capacity cooling equipment in the future.
6.6.4. Time delay controls
Mechanical delay devices should be operated over the full range of delay settings to ensure adjustability and
delay period accuracy. At the expiration of the set delay period, interruption or making of the circuit should
be instantaneous. Contact resistance should be checked when visual inspection of contact condition is not
possible.
6.6.5. Overtemperature station trip controls
The overtemperature station trip control is normally actuated by the WTI through an interposing contactor,
which operates load-shedding breakers. The actuating circuit is frequently supervised by a second contactor
that interrupts the trip in the event of a false alarm due to sensor or WTI failure. This supervisory circuit may
or may not be part of the WTI feature set.
The contactors in the circuit should be evaluated as indicated in 6.6.3. When testing the station trip circuit,
the contactor should actuate, the alarm annunciator should light, and the alarm signal should be verified at the
load-shedding breaker. In addition, a simulated sensor and WTI failure should be performed to verify that the
trip lockout functions properly.
6.6.6. Liquid level alarm
The liquid level alarm is an interposing contactor that is responsive to the liquid level sensor, an alarm
annunciator, and wiring that connects the alarm to an external retransmission device. The contactor should be
evaluated as indicated in 6.6.3. When testing the level sensor, the contactor should actuate, the annunciator
should light, and the contact closure should be verified at the remote wiring connection point.
6.6.7. Rapid rise alarm
The rapid pressure rise alarm circuit operation is similar to the liquid level alarm, but is responsive to rapid
pressure increases inside the tank. The alarm circuits function is examined in the same manner as in 6.6.6.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
6.6.8. Lighted annunciators
Lighted annunciators should provide an illumination level that is clearly visible in direct sunlight. Lenses
should be free from cracks and be of the correct color. If the lens is exposed to weather, the sealing gasket or
o-ring should be replaced. It is recommended that incandescent lamps be replaced with high-intensity,
clustered light-emitting diode types wherever possible.
6.6.9. Mechanical target annunciators
Drop-down or pop-up flags, or mechanical target annunciators, should be operated several times to verify
operation without sticking or hesitation of any kind. Viewing windows should be free of haze or scratches
that obscure clear viewing of the flag. For increased reliability, mechanical annunciators should be replaced
with illuminated annunciators (of the high-intensity clustered light-emitting diode type) wherever possible.
6.7. Pumps
6.7.1. External inspection
Visual inspection of the transformer oil-cooling loop components should be performed as regularly as
prudent, but should not exceed 12 mo. Pumps should be manually energized to ensure proper operation. Any
significant noises (e.g., grinding, rubbing, scraping) should be noted, investigated further, and corrected.
Flow gauges should indicate full flow without fluctuation. All areas including piping, valves, and
surrounding ground area must not show evidence of oil leakage. Pump nameplate data should be reviewed to
determine age, style, or model. Pumps equipped with a bearing condition monitor should have readings taken
annually to ensure bearing integrity.
6.7.2. Internal inspection
Original equipment pumps have no reliable means of condition assessment without being physically removed
from the cooling loop and disassembled.
An internal inspection should include the following:
a) Visually inspect thrust collar and bearing for wear and for any scoring on the shaft.
b) Measure end play and analyze for proper clearance.
c) Analyze thrust collar and thrust bearing finishes for finish.
d) Measure bearing inside diameter and on-shaft journals and compare, analyze, and check for
proper clearance.
e) Take readings of insulation resistance and winding resistance to assess electrical motor condition.
f) Perform high potential test for grounds or breakdown of insulation.
Disassembly of the pump should not be attempted by a novice. Extensive experience is required to ensure
that bearing and rotor clearances and other critical criteria are maintained. Disassembly of a pump that is still
under warranty may likely void the manufacturers warranty.
6.7.3. Reconditioning of pumps
Transformer oil pumps are vital to the reliability and performance of power transformers. Reconditioning of
a pump should not be attempted by anyone other than the original equipment manufacturer or a fully
qualified pump remanufacturing facility. Failure to maintain clearances, bearing and thrust collar materials,
surface finish requirements, and alignment of pump rotating components can result in premature failure of
the pump and potential introduction of metallic components into the transformer insulation system.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Pumps with ball bearings are particularly vulnerable to in-service failure. Therefore, any pumps with ball
bearings older than the equivalent of 5 yr continuous duty should be considered for replacement by pumps
with sleeve bearings. All original sleeve bearing pumps that have been in service for an equivalent of 10 yr or
more of continuous duty should be inspected and checked to determine viability for continued operation and
possibly be remanufactured or replaced. For very large and/or critical installations, an internal bearing
condition monitor system could be considered (if not already installed) to monitor the life of pump bearings.
The work identified in 6.7.3.1 through 6.7.3.6 should be performed for each of the systems in the pump.
6.7.3.1. Thermal system
Ensure positive oil flow for pump motor winding cooling to minimize the temperature rise to 5 C over the
temperature of the motor windings.
6.7.3.2. Mechanical system
Convert to a sleeve bearing system by rebuilding the pumps with a new reengineered shaft, thrust collars, and
journal thrust bearings (high-quality bearing bronze); or replace the pumps with ones having appropriate
sleeve bearings.
The lubrication system for the bearings should utilize radial oil feeder grooves in the thrust bearing surface
and provisions for adequate lubrication of the journal surfaces.
If the impeller is found in a worn or damaged condition, it should be replaced with a new impeller that has
been properly balanced. Shaft, rotor, and impeller assemblies weighing more than 16 kg (~ 35 lb) should be
dynamic balanced to 1 mil or less.
Thrust bearings should have a nominal 6.35 cm (2.5 in) diameter face as a minimum. The journal bearings
should be set in position, indexed respective to each other, and line reamed to ensure proper alignment.
Thrust collars should have a diameter equal to the diameter of the face of the thrust bearing.
6.7.3.3. Sealing system
All gaskets should be of a confined gasket groove design and should be constructed of fluorocarbon (or
nitrile (Buna-N)) elastomer with a hardness of 60 or 70 durometers. All gasket seals should be replaced. All
o-ring seals should be replaced with new fluorocarbon (or nitrile (Buna-N)) o-rings with a hardness of
60 durometers. Compression set specifications should be in accordance with ASTM D395. Gasket sizing
should be recommended to fill approximately 90% of the retaining groove at 25% to 33% compression.
6.7.3.4. Fluid system
Any remanufactured pump should duplicate the original pumps hydraulic performance criteria, including
capacity flow, total dynamic head, speed, and electrical power requirements.
6.7.3.5. Electrical system
Remanufactured motors should be disassembled, tested, and rewound with Class F or higher insulation. New
windings should be double-dipped and baked with an epoxy varnish. New (12 gauge minimum) motor leads
should be installed. The electrical connector should be replaced and installed with new seals.
6.7.3.6. General requirements
The user should consider performance testing of new or remanufactured pumps. Any performance test should
use only transformer oil as the pumped fluid, and the results should be recorded. The performance test
should include flow conditions throughout the performance curve. The following are the minimum tests
required on the remanufactured transformer oil pumps:
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
a) Measure motor resistances ohms in all phases from A to B, A to C, and B to C.

b) Measure and record the inside diameter on the front and rear bearing.
c) Measure and record motor endplay.
d) Install electrical connector and cord assembly, and conduct insulation resistance test of motor
(minimum insulation resistance 200 M).
e) Perform dc high potential and surge test.
f) Perform leak test on the pump with oil during performance test for 30 min.
g) Document pump performance data for a minimum of three flow conditions ranging from shutoff
to end-of-curve using the actual performance tests for each pump. The following data should be
included for each flow condition:
1) Suction pressure
2) Discharge pressure
3) Total dynamic head
4) Flow rate in liters per minute (gallons per minute)
5) Voltage (actual)
6) Current of each phase under load conditions
6.8. Radiators, coolers, and fans
6.8.1. Radiators and fans
Visual inspection of the transformer oil-cooling loop components should be performed as regularly as
prudent, but should not exceed 12 mo. Fans should be manually energized to ensure proper operation. Any
significant noises (e.g., grinding, rubbing, scraping) should be noted, investigated further, and corrected. Fan
blade guards must meet government safety standards. Obvious airflow obstruction through coolers via debris
should be noted and cleaned. Periodic infrared imaging of the coolers/radiators should be taken to ensure
proper oil flow and cooler/radiator heat transfer. All areas including piping, valves, and surrounding ground
area must not show evidence of oil leakage. Typical leakage points will include all pipe flange connections,
valve stems, pump electrical connections, radiator/cooler headers, etc.
Any missing, failed, or defective fans should be repaired or replaced. If the transformers future expected
service includes normal loading beyond nameplate kilovoltamperes, considerations should be given to
increasing the number of fans as part of the reconditioning of the transformer. However, any cooling
revisions should be developed by someone with specific knowledge of the transformers cooling design.
6.8.2. Forced oil coolers
Forced oil and air coolers can be found on almost all generator step-up transformers and mobile transformers
and on some substation transformers. These coolers depend upon both the full air flow from their fans and
full oil flow from their associated pumps in order to provide the amount of cooling required to dissipate the
transformer losses. Without both the fans and pumps operating, these coolers are essentially nonfunctional.
Depending on the environmental conditions where the transformer is in service, after about 20 yr in service,
the coolers deteriorate to the extent that they approach their end of life. One or more of the conditions
described in 6.8.2.1 through 6.8.2.4 may hasten the end of life for these coolers.
6.8.2.1. Thermal degradation of the cooler tube bundle
Thermal degradation of the cooler tube bundle occurs when the finned surface is fouled or clogged with
debris from airborne particles. This condition might be remedied with the use of high-pressure spray
cleaning. Care needs to be taken to avoid deformation of cooling fins by high-pressure spraying because this
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
action may constrict the air flow paths intended by the supplier. Other forms of thermal degradation occur
when there is mechanical damage or deformation of the fins or when there is a general deterioration of the
fins due to corrosion (which then helps to hold debris inside the tube bundle). The end result is that any of
these conditions reduces the air flow and heat transfer capability of the coolers and causes the transformer to
operate at higher temperatures. Overheating of the transformer windings resulting from fouled coolers causes
excessive thermal aging of the insulation, which reduces the overall life of the transformer.
6.8.2.2. Water spraying
Some users spray their transformers with water during emergency overload conditions. The transformer
design engineers of the original equipment manufacturer may utilize the transformer tank surface and the
cooling system (radiators or coolers) to help radiate the losses that are generated. Unfortunately, when the
sprayed water evaporates, the tank wall and cooler surfaces are coated with layer after layer of mineral
deposits, and possibly dirt, depending upon the quality of the water. This condition reduces the overall heat
transfer capability of the cooling system. Once the minerals are baked on the surface, they are virtually
impossible to remove, and the overall life of the transformer is reduced.
6.8.2.3. Galvanic corrosion
Corrosion due to galvanic action of dissimilar metals is a function of the metals used in the construction of
the cooler and the ambient conditions in which the coolers are operated. The corrosion usually occurs
between dissimilar metals in the lower portion of the cooler at the juncture of the tubes and the tube sheet and
is readily seen when oil leaks are observed. Some field repairs have prolonged the life of forced-oil and
forced-air coolers; however, this correction is considered to be short term. Left unattended, the oil leaks
could eventually cause an environmental concern.
6.8.2.4. Thermal expansion
Occasionally, oil leaks may occur where the tubes meet the tubesheet and can be attributed to thermal
expansion and contraction that deform the relatively soft tubes and allow oil to leak from this joint. Cooler
designers must take thermal expansion and contraction into account to prevent such leaks. Cooler
manufacturers installation instructions must be followed to avoid eliminating features that accommodate the
thermal stresses.
In summary, in order to extend their efficiency, forced-oil and forced-air coolers should be maintained over
their life span. However, when indications show that they are at the end of their life, plans should be made to
replace them in order to extend the reliability and the life of the power transformer.
7. Degassing and moisture removal
7.1. Recirculation method
Recirculation of insulating oil is performed on a transformer to increase the dielectric strength of the
transformer internal insulation system. It is the most common field method for drying and/or reimpregnating
the cellulose insulation. Recirculation is not normally required for the majority of new medium or large
power transformer installations. A recirculation process on new or aged transformers should not exceed the
mechanical or thermal design limitations of the transformer or the transformers ancillary equipment. A
recirculation process may be performed for the following reasons:
a) The transformer manufacturer may require a recirculation process for the installation of a new
transformer. When recirculation is required, the manufacturer should provide the process criteria
along with limiting mechanical and thermal criteria as part of the instruction literature.
b) The transformer manufacturer may require a recirculation process on a new transformer for the
following additional reasons:
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
1) The transformer has been out of oil for a period of time that will require reimpregnating the
cellulose insulation. The period of time and recirculation criteria should be determined by the
original manufacturer and the user based on all available information on the existing
insulation condition.
2) It has been determined that the cellulose insulating materials absorbed an unacceptable
amount of moisture during shipment or storage.
c) The end user may determine a recirculation process is necessary for one of the following reasons:
1) To reimpregnate the cellulose insulating materials after being out of oil for a prolonged
period of time.
2) To remove excessive moisture from the transformer insulating system (cellulose and/or oil).
7.1.1. Important factors
The most important factors in recirculation are temperature, vacuum, and set time (often referred to as
absorption). These factors are required to remove moisture from the transformer oil, remove moisture from
the cellulose insulation, and/or to reimpregnate the cellulose insulation. The intent is to heat, filter, and
degasify the oil while circulating the oil through the transformer tank under vacuum. After heating the
cellulose, the oil is drained from the tank, and vacuum is applied to the exposed, heated cellulose insulation.
Final oil filling may occur after using one or more of the following methods to determine dryness:
a) A designated period of vacuum time

b) Monitoring of oil quality, vacuum, and moisture extraction
c) Measuring the amount of extracted water
d) Monitoring the internal tank relative humidity/dew point
An insulation power factor measurement is recommended after the required transformer set time
(reimpregnation of the cellulose insulation) in oil. See Table 6 for recommended set times. The insulation
power factor measurement should be the final verification on the integrity of the insulation system.
Table 6Recommended minimum set time (i.e., absorption) after final oil fill
Voltage class Minimum set time

(kV) (hr)
69 48
138 48
230 48
345 60
500 72
765 96
NOTEExtended set times may be required if the core and/or coil assembly was out of the oil for a prolonged period.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
7.1.2. Field instructions
The following are generic field instructions for recirculation and transformer set time before energization. In
addition to the CAUTION notes provided with the items below, the manufacturers instruction literature
should be consulted for other electrical, mechanical, or thermal design limitations that may prohibit the use
of this or other recirculation field processes. Mechanical and thermal recommendations for the recirculation
process are as follows:
a) General equipment recommendations are as follows (specifications may vary based on the size of
the transformer and ambient temperatures):
1) Degasification trailer capable of circulating 113 lpm (30 GPM) @ 70 C, 190 kW heating
capacity. Trailer intake filter 5.0 m, trailer discharge filter 0.5 m.
2) Vacuum pump with 4.25 m3/min to 8.5 m3/min (150 CFM to 300 CFM) capacity or greater
with attainable blank off pressure of 0.02 Torr or less. An additional option is a booster pump
with a capacity of 34 m3/min to 38 m3/min (1200 CFM to 1350 CFM).
3) Positive displacement pump 151 lpm (40 GPM) for oil discharge from the main transformer
tank.
4) Optional monitoring and test equipment: on-line total dissolved gas monitor, on-line
hygrometer or standard dew point equipment, test equipment for monitoring winding
resistance, cold trap for cryogenic-vacuum processing, moisture content and dielectric
strength oil test equipment, oil power factor tester, and insulation power factor tester.
b) Oil entrance into the transformer tank should be through the top main cover or at the top main
tank walls as close to the cover as possible.
CAUTION
If ambient temperatures are 5 C or less, the oil should be heated gradually and directed so that it does not
splash on bushing porcelain. Failure to comply with this requirement may result in breakage of bushing
porcelains due to thermal shock.
c) Vacuum connections should be at the top of the transformer tank as far away as possible from the
oil entrance.
CAUTION
Review the transformer instruction literature to be sure that the main transformer tank, auxiliary tanks,
terminal boards between walls and all ancillary items can withstand designated full vacuum 103 kPA (15 psi)
at elevated temperatures. Epoxy or nonmetallic terminal boards may not be able to withstand full vacuum at
elevated temperatures. Ancillary devices such as fault pressure relays or monitoring devices may require
removal or valving-off if not able to withstand full vacuum.
Conservator tanks with rubber bladders may be designated as being capable of withstanding full vacuum.
Vacuum applied to the conservator tank may damage or weaken the rubber bladder.
If external bushing connections are made, be certain there is sufficient slack in the external line connections
to allow for bushing movement caused by the flexing of the transformer cover and/or walls. Failure to relieve
this stress at the bushing connection may result in bushing seal damage and a loss of oil.
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
d) Oil discharge from the main transformer tank should be from the bottom of the tank. A positive
displacement oil pump should be used at the tank discharge valve within 1.5 m (5 ft) of the tank
wall. Vacuum should be maintained at the best possible level with the lowest possible oil level in
the transformer tank to maintain oil discharge without pump cavitation. A minimum oil head of
approximately 0.9 m (36 in) is required to maintain oil flow 151 lpm (40 GPM) under full vacuum
with a positive displacement pump. Table 7 provides recommended vacuum levels for
recirculation and final oil fill. The vacuum level will initially be affected by the oil quality and
moisture level in the oil. Ideally, the oil level in the main tank should be below all major
insulation.
e) Additional recommendations for the oil circulation and vacuum dry process include the following:
1) Prior to vacuum and oil circulation, close all valves to cooling equipment. Close all valves to
ancillary items that will not withstand full vacuum.
2) Oil circulation through the tank should continue until the moisture and gas levels of the oil
are acceptable and the cellulose insulation is heated sufficiently to facilitate moisture
extraction under vacuum.
3) When ambient temperatures are below 0 C, an oil level greater than 0.9 m (36 in) may be
necessary to act as a heat sink to obtain the desired temperatures. Thermal blankets on the
exposed tank walls may also be necessary.
4) Circulate 85 C oil through the tank until the oil discharge temperature stabilizes at 50 C or
higher.
5) When oil discharge temperature stabilizes at 50 C or greater, drain the oil to a level below
the coil assemblies or drain complete. Apply vacuum as indicated in Table 7 based on one of
the following options:
i) Designated period of vacuum time
ii) Monitoring of oil quality, vacuum, and moisture extraction
iii) Measuring the amount of extracted water
iv) Monitoring the internal tank relative humidity/dew point
6) Final verification of the dielectric strength of the insulation system should be an insulation
power factor test. An acceptable insulation power factor value for a new transformer is
< 0.5% or as specified by the manufacturer. See 6.1.6.2 and 6.1.6.8 in IEEE Std 62.
Table 7Recommended vacuum levels for recirculation and final oil filling
(insulation exposed)
Voltage class Vacuum final oil filling

(kV) [m (mm Hg)]
69 2000 (2)
138 2000 (2)
230 2000 (2)
345 1000 (1)
500 1000 (1)
765 1000 (1)
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IEEE Std C57.140-2006
7.2. On-line oil dryout method
On-line transformer moisture removal and management systems have become increasingly popular in many
parts of the world. Europe, Australia, and Africa have several hundred units installed on up to 800 MVA,
765 kV transformers.
The most common system is an absorption or molecular sponge dryout (MSD) process using ceramic sylo
beads to remove moisture from the oil and paper insulation. The objective is to prolong the life of in-service
transformer paper insulation by constantly maintaining a low-moisture content in the oil. The system is
permanently installed on the transformer or on a nearby custom frame.
The MSD system is not intended to replace the factory vapor phase dryout system or the standard oil
reconditioning systems.
The criteria in 7.2.1 through 7.2.4 should be considered.
7.2.1. Desired features
The following criteria describe the desired features of an MSD system:
The system must not present any electrical risk to the transformer.
The system must manage the moisture removal process to ensure that the paper is not completely dried
out. Solid insulation that is excessively dried will be detrimentally affected from both the mechanical
and dielectric standpoint.
The system must not release moisture back into the oil when the filters become saturated.
The filters should be capable of changeout while the transformer is under load.
The system should not introduce oxygen into the transformer and should be equipped with a de-aerator.
On-line processing systems should maintain the transformers normal operating oil pressure and oil level
at all times. A significant drop in the oil level may expose energized parts and lead to a flashover and
failure. A change in oil temperature or pressure will change the equilibrium of any dissolved gasses and
moisture in the transformers oil, and that change in equilibrium may cause bubbling and also lead to a
flashover and failure.
7.2.2. Effectiveness
The following criteria relate to the effectiveness of an MSD system:
Care should be exercised to ensure that the DGA analysis is not affected by any dryout system.
Any on-line system that masks the trend of the dissolved gasses should not be used.
The on-line system should dry out both the oil and paper insulation system and maintain the moisture
content at or near factory levels.
7.2.3. Warranty integrity
The systems should not adversely affect the transformer manufacturers warranty. Rather, they should
enhance it.
7.2.4. Saturation measurement
MSD systems must have provision to permit measurement of the parts per million and temperatures at both
the inlet and outlet points. When both readings are similar, it gives a clear indication that the filters are
saturated.
63
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
7.3. Refrigeration method
Another on-line transformer moisture removal system in common use around the world makes use of the
refrigerating breather. This device makes use of the Peltier effect to freeze the moisture in the air space above
the oil in a free breathing expansion vessel. A series of thermoelectric modules are used to alternately cool
and heat the units vertical central duct in an automatic continuously repeated cycle. As a result, the system
extracts moisture as frost and ice and melts it to escape via a drain tube. It thus dries the air continually day
and night without any moving parts and eliminates the need for regular maintenance. The dryness of the air
in the expansion vessel (or conservator) causes moisture to migrate from the oil into the air for removal. The
resulting dryness of the oil causes moisture to migrate from the insulation into the oil and hence into the air
for removal. Although this process is slow and depends on thermal cycling of the transformer to move oil in
and out of the conservator, it has been found to be an efficient, economical solution to maintaining dry
insulation.
64
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
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7th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, p. 139, 1991.
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Oct. 1993.
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65
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
[B15] Haviland, G. S., Design with threaded fastener, Mechanical Engineering, pp. 1729, Oct. 1983.
[B16] Horning, M., Kelly, J., Myers, S., and Stebbins, R., Transformer Maintenance Guide. Tallmadge, OH:
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Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems (CIGRE), Paper 12-210, 1998.
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experience, International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems (CIGRE), Paper 12-203,
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[B20] Kochler, A. J., et al., Pros and contras of on-site tests on power transformers and reactors,
International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems (CIGRE), Paper 12-201, 1998.
[B21] Lat, M. V., and Carr, J., Application guide for surge arresters on distribution systems, CEA report
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66
IEEE Std C57.140-2006
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67

IEEE Guide For The Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed Power Transformers

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IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and

Reconditioning of Liquid Immersed

IEEE Power Engineering Society

IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and

Approved 16 November 2006

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright 2007 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Print: ISBN 0-7381-5268-4 SH95590

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Rowland James, Chair

Richard Amos Hamish Hayward Paul Pillitteri

William J. Ackerman Jerry L. Corkran Gary R. Hoffman

Steve M. Mills, Chair

Mark D. Bowman William B. Hopf T. W. Olsen

Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

1.1. Scope ............................................................................................................................................1

2. Normative references .............................................................................................................................1

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations..............................................................................................2

4. Risk assessment .....................................................................................................................................3

4.1. Impact on the system....................................................................................................................4

5. Diagnostic tests ....................................................................................................................................15

5.1. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)....................................................................................................15

6. Condition assessment and reconditioning ............................................................................................26

6.1. Core and coil assembly...............................................................................................................27

7.1. Recirculation method .................................................................................................................59

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ..........................................................................................................65

ASTM D395, Standard Test Methods for Rubber PropertyCompression Set. 1

IEC 60099-5, Surge ArrestersPart 5: Selection and Application Recommendation. 2

IEEE Std C57.91, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers.

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

3.2. Acronyms and abbreviations

BIL basic impulse level

a) Priority screening of transformer fleet

4.1. Impact on the system

Will the transformer meet future load projections?

4.3. Vacuum withstand capability

4.4. Paper and pressboard

4.4.1. Thermally upgraded versus nonthermally upgraded paper

4.4.2. Low-density versus high-density paper and pressboard

4.5. Accessibility and spare parts availability

4.6. Operational history

Condition of coolers is an equally important consideration in assessing transformers. Replacement of coolers

4.7. Type of construction

4.8. Failure history

4.10. Operating environment

4.11. Failure mechanisms

4.12. Problems with determining component failure probability as function of

4.13. Modified event tree matrix and fault tree diagram

Pf is the probability of failure

Pf = 1 (1 .33)(1 .001) = .33067

Pf = 1 (1 .003)(1 .001)(1 .33067 ) = .3333

Pf = 1 (1 .3333)(1 .001) 6 = .3374

Table 1Event tree

Tests and Condition Assessment Tools

Bushing Condenser Insulation Breakdown Overvoltage/Elevated Operating Increased Power Factor X

Table 1Event tree (continued)

Tests and Condition Assessment Tools

Table 1Event tree (continued)

Tests and Condition Assessment Tools

Transformer testing history available: Yes _ No _