IEEE STD C57.149-2012

IEEE Guide for the Application and
Interpretation of Frequency Response

Analysis for Oil-Immersed
Transformers
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.149™-2012
New York, NY 10016-5997
USA
8 March 2013
Authorized licensed use limited to: Mount Royal University. Downloaded on February 27,2018 at 03:38:28 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.149™-2012

Transformers
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Approved 5 December 2012
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: The measurement of Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) of oil-immersed power
transformers is applicable in this guide. It is intended to provide the user with the requirements
and specifications for instrumentation, procedures for performing the tests, techniques for
analyzing the data, and recommendations for long-term storage of the data and results.
Keywords: admittance, attenuation, Bode Plot, deviation, frequency domain, Frequency
Response Analysis (FRA), IEEE C57.149™, impedance, magnitude, phase angle, resonance,
RLC network, transfer function
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v
Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Transformer Frequency Response Working Group had the
following membership:
Charles Sweetser, Chair

Peter M. Balma, Technical Editor
Greg Anderson Ramsis S. Girgis Paulette Payne

Jeffrey Britton David Goodwin Mark Perkins
Kent Brown Ernst Hanique Bertrand Poulin
Donald Chu Matt Kennedy Kurt Robbins
Larry Coffeen Alexander Kraetge H. Jin Sim
John Crouse Mario Locarno Roger Verdolin
Alan Darwin James McBride David Vinson
Bob Degeneff Tony McGrail May Wang
Fred Elliot Peter J. McKemmy Barry Ward
Don Fallon Dennis Marlow Joe Watson
George Frimpong Peter Werelius
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Michael Adams Timothy Hayden Dennis Neitzel

Satish Aggarwal Roger Hayes Michael S. Newman
Stephen Antosz Jeffrey Helzer Joe Nims
Peter M. Balma William Henning Lorraine Padden
Martin Baur Gary Heuston Mirko Palazzo
Robert Beavers Scott Hietpas Bansi Patel
William J. Bergman Gary Hoffman Shawn Patterson
Wallace Binder Philip Hopkinson Brian Penny
Thomas Bishop R. Jackson Christopher Petrola
Thomas Blackburn Laszlo Kadar Paul Pillitteri
William Bloethe Innocent Kamwa Donald Platts
W. Boettger Gael Kennedy Alvaro Portillo
Jeffrey Britton Sheldon Kennedy Bertrand Poulin
Chris Brooks James Kinney Lewis Powell
Kent Brown Joseph L. Koepfinger Tom Prevost
Preston Cooper Neil Kranich Iulian Profir
John Crouse Jim Kulchisky Johannes Rickmann
Jorge Fernandez Daher Saumen Kundu John Roach
Alan Darwin John Lackey Michael Roberts
Gary Donner Chung-Yiu Lam Robert Robinson
Randall Dotson Stephen Lambert Oleg Roizman
Fred Elliott Benjamin Lanz Marnie Roussell
Gary Engmann Thomas La Rose Thomas Rozek
C. Erven Mario Locarno Dinesh Sankarakurup
James Fairris Greg Luri Daniel Sauer
Rabiz Foda Omar Mazzoni Bartien Sayogo
Joseph Foldi William McBride Devki Sharma
Marcel Fortin Nigel Mcquin Gil Shultz
Saurabh Ghosh Joseph Melanson H. Jin Sim
Jalal Gohari Gary Michel James Smith
James Graham Michael Miller Jerry Smith
William Griesacker Daniel Mulkey Brian Sparling
Randall Groves Jerry Murphy Gary Stoedter
Bal Gupta Ryan Musgrove Charles Sweetser
John Harley K. R. M. Nair Malcolm Thaden
David Harris Arun Narang Eric Udren
vi
John Vergis Joe Watson John Wilson
Loren Wagenaar Peter Werelius Wael Youssef
David Wallach Kenneth White Jian Yu
Barry Ward Matthew Wilkowski James Ziebarth
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 5 December 2012, it had the following
membership:
Richard H. Hulett, Chair

John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert M. Grow, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houzé Ted Olsen
Peter Balma Jim Hughes Gary Robinson
William Bartley Young Kyun Kim Jon Walter Rosdahl
Ted Burse Joseph L. Koepfinger* Mike Seavey
Clint Chaplin John Kulick Yatin Trivedi
Wael William Diab David J. Law Phil Winston
Jean-Phillippe Faure Thomas Lee Yu Yuan
Hung Ling
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Michelle D. Turner
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Erin Spiewak
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vii
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.149-2012, IEEE Guide for the Application and Interpretation of
Frequency Response Analysis for Oil-Immersed Transformers.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) testing has gained popularity for assessing the mechanical integrity of
oil immersed transformers. Due to limited understanding and available information regarding FRA
requirements and specifications for instrumentation, procedures for performing the tests, and analysis of
results, the Performance Characteristics Subcommittee formed the Working Group PC57.149. The primary
objective of the Working Group PC57.149 was to compile and validate FRA experiences and techniques to
develop a FRA application and interpretation guide that would benefit the industry.
viii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
2. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2
3. FRA measurement overview ...................................................................................................................... 4

3.1 Use of FRA .......................................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 FRA base line measurement ................................................................................................................ 5
3.3 FRA diagnostic application ................................................................................................................. 5
3.4 Recommended FRA measurement test parameters ............................................................................. 6
4. Making an FRA measurement .................................................................................................................... 6

4.1 Test procedures .................................................................................................................................... 6
4.2 Test environment preparation .............................................................................................................. 6
4.3 Test object preparation ........................................................................................................................ 7
4.4 Test set ................................................................................................................................................. 7
4.5 Test leads ............................................................................................................................................. 8
4.6 Measurement types .............................................................................................................................. 9
4.7 Load Tap Changer (LTC) and De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC) positions ................................... 9
4.8 Test connections .................................................................................................................................10
5. Test Documentation...................................................................................................................................17
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................17
5.2 Test records ........................................................................................................................................17
6. Measurement analysis and interpretation ..................................................................................................20

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................20
6.2 Trace characteristics ...........................................................................................................................20
6.3 Trace comparison ...............................................................................................................................21
6.4 FRA relationship to other transformer diagnostics .............................................................................24
6.5 Failure modes .....................................................................................................................................25
6.6 Modeling.............................................................................................................................................51
Annex A (informative) FRA theory ..............................................................................................................53
Annex B (informative) Bibliography.............................................................................................................60
ix
Transformers
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide is applicable to the measurement of Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) of an oil-immersed
power transformer. The guide will include the requirements and specifications for instrumentation,
procedures for performing the tests, techniques for analyzing the data, and recommendations for long-term
storage of the data and results. This guide can be used in both field and factory applications.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this guide is to provide the user with information that will assist in making frequency
response measurements and interpreting the results from these measurements. It will provide guidance for
all current methods employed in taking these measurements.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
IEEE Guide for the Application and Interpretation of Frequency Response Analysis for Oil-Immersed Transformers
2. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause. 1
Baseline measurement: Provide a set of Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) waveforms for future
comparative purposes for investigative or diagnostic analysis.
Capacitive inter-winding measurement: Performed over a wide range of frequencies between two
electrically isolated windings. Voltage is injected into one end of a winding, the input, and the response, the
output, is measured at another winding, with all other terminals floating.
CL: Is defined as the low-voltage winding-to-ground insulation and includes the low-voltage terminals. It
is commonly used in the description of transformer insulation designations.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA): A sensitive diagnostic technique for detecting changes in the
electrical characteristics of power transformer windings. Such changes can result from various types of
electrical or mechanical stresses (shipping damage, seismic forces, loss of clamping pressure, short circuit
forces, insulation failure, etc.). The test is non-destructive and non-intrusive and can be used either as a
stand-alone tool to detect winding damage, or as a diagnostic tool to pinpoint damages detected in other
tests (e.g., insulation power factor, dissolved gas analysis, or short circuit impedance tests). FRA consists
of measuring the admittance or impedance of the capacitive and inductive elements comprising the
transformer windings. The measurement is performed over a wide range of frequencies and the results are
compared with a reference “signature” or “fingerprint” of the winding to make a diagnosis.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) magnitude: The FRA magnitude is the signal amplitude
relationship between the reference (input, Vin) and measured (output, Vout) signals. It is often represented
as decibels: MAG(dB) = 20*log10(Vout/Vin), and contains the effect of the characteristic impedance of the
measurement system.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) phase angle: The phase angle shift of the response relative to that
of the injected signal.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) resonance frequency: The term FRA resonance frequency is
generally used to describe FRA Magnitude maxima or minima appearing in the frequency response
function of a transformer, accompanied by a zero value appearing in the phase angle of the frequency
response function. In practice, a power transformer is represented by a complex, distributed RLC circuit,
which may include several FRA Resonance Frequencies over a given frequency range. FRA Magnitude
maxima occur at frequencies where the inductive and capacitive reactive impedance elements comprising
the equivalent circuit are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in zero net reactive impedance or
alternatively as an infinite net reactive impedance as viewed from the terminals. The number of FRA
Resonance Frequencies occurring over a given frequency range depends on the design and construction of
the transformer.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) transfer function: The FRA transfer function is a complex
function of frequency consisting of FRA magnitude and FRA phase angle
Frequency displacement: Is the frequency shift of the recognizable areas of the Frequency Response
Analysis (FRA) wave shape, most notably the resonant frequency points, between the amplitude or phase
angle measurement of the test specimen and the reference measurement.
1
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at:
http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.
2
IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Impulse voltage method: In the impulse voltage method, also referred to as LVI (Low Voltage Impulse)
method, for making Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) measurements, the wide range of required
frequencies is generated via one or more voltage impulses injected into one terminal. If more than one
impulse is used, the wave shapes are very similar so as to provide a more uniform test result.
Inductive inter-winding measurement: Performed over a wide range of frequencies between two
electrically isolated windings that each has one end of the winding referenced to ground. Voltage is injected
into one end of a winding, the input, and the response, the output, is measured at another winding.
Measurement ground: The reference connection for the Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
measurement is typically the ground connection between the source/reference measurement cables and the
measuring cables. These ground connections are generally made at each bushing flange.
Mechanical movement: Detecting mechanical movement damage to transformer windings is one of the
main interests of Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) test measurement. Mechanical movement refers to
the actual movement of transformer parts (coils, core, leads, or accessories) with respect to each other or to
ground in such a manner as to change the internal inductances or capacitances of the test specimen. This
may be caused by seismic or shipping forces or by in-service conditions such as through-faults, load
currents, mechanical breakdown of components, or failures.
Minor deviation: A change in amplitude, phase angle, or frequency displacement that is considered to be
within the normal deviation for a test configuration.
Noise and interference: These are unwanted disturbances that may be superimposed upon a useful
(desired) signal. Noise tends to obscure the information content of the useful signal. Common noise and
interference sources encountered in Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) measurements may include
power frequency and harmonic noise, power line carrier, broadcast and communication signals,
atmospheric disturbances and electrical equipment disturbances.
Open-circuit measurement: The open-circuit measurement is performed over a wide range of frequencies
where voltage is injected into one end of a winding, the input, and the response, the output, is measured at
the other end of the winding. Open-circuit measurements are made on a winding with all other windings
complete and floating.
Phase angle displacement: The difference between the phase angle of a previous Frequency Response
Analysis (FRA) “fingerprint” measurement (e.g., baseline measurement at the factory, at an earlier date in
the substation or before a short-circuit test) and a new measurement (e.g., after transformer relocation, after
suspected damage or after short-circuit test). The difference can also be between phase angle
measurements on two different phases of the same transformer or between a transformer and a duplicate or
near-duplicate transformer.
Short-circuit measurement: Performed over a wide range of frequencies where voltage is injected into
one end of a winding, the input, and the response, the output, is measured at the other end of the winding.
Short-Circuit measurements are made on a winding with one or more windings shorted.
Significant deviation: A change in amplitude, phase angle, or frequency displacement that is considered to
be outside the normal deviation for a test configuration. A significant deviation may warrant further
investigation or be considered as diagnostic evidence of change in the internal configuration of a
transformer.
Square pulse method: In the square pulse method for making Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
measurements, the wide range of required frequencies is generated via square pulses injected into one
terminal. The square pulse shapes are different so as to provide a more uniform spectral density for
calculating the results.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Sweep frequency method: In the sweep frequency method for making Frequency Response Analysis
(FRA) measurements, the wide range of required frequencies is generated via a sweep of individual
sinusoidal signals injected into one terminal. The magnitude of the excitation source remains constant for
all frequencies used for the test.
Test specimen: The particular winding or winding segment being tested.
3. FRA measurement overview

The FRA measurement provides diagnostic information, in the form of a transfer function, related to the
RLC network of the specimen under test. The RLC network is integrally related to the physical geometry
and construction of the test specimen.
Physical changes within the test specimen alter the RLC network, and in turn can alter the transfer function.
The transfer function behavior can reveal a wide range of mechanical or electrical changes in the test
specimen. Different transformer failure modes can have different effects on the network admittances, may
alter the transfer function. It is also possible that a particular failure mode may have no recognizable effect
on the transfer function at all.
FRA can often detect gross transformer defects, as can other electrical tests. However, because of the
sensitivity of the test, a primary benefit of FRA is the potential for detection of defects in the mechanical or
electrical integrity of the transformer that are not apparent with other electrical tests.
3.1 Use of FRA
Since the FRA test is used to detect mechanical movement or damage in a transformer, it is most
appropriately used after some event or condition that has the possibility of causing mechanical movement
or electrical damage to the transformer assembly. Some of the typical scenarios where FRA measurements
may be used include the following:
 Factory short-circuit testing

 Installation or relocation
 After a significant through-fault event
 As part of routine diagnostic measurement protocol
 After a transformer alarm (i.e., sudden pressure, gas detector, Buchholz)
 After a major change in on-line diagnostic condition (i.e., a sudden increase in combustible gas,
etc.)
 After a change in electrical test conditions (i.e., a change in winding capacitance)
 System Modeling Purposes
There are two distinct categories for application of FRA measurement: baseline measurement and
diagnostic measurement. In both cases, the procedures and precautions used to generate a good
measurement are the same. However, there is a difference in motivation for the tests in each category.
4
IEEE Std C57.149-2012
3.2 FRA base line measurement
The base line FRA measurement may be done in either the factory or the field, and it provides information
that can be used for some future need. The several distinct reasons to generate base line FRA measurements
are as follows:
 To provide a standard of comparison for future diagnostic FRA measurements

 Transportation diagnostics prior to relocation and commissioning
 Required by Customer Specification
 Prior to short-circuit testing
 Quality assurance
Important factors to consider when performing baseline FRA measurements include determining the
necessary tests and connections that might later be needed for diagnostic purposes, documentation of
methods and connections, archiving data, verification of results, and repeatability of the methods and
results. This guide provides assistance in each of these areas.
The test configuration can have an impact on the test results. It may be difficult to determine if these minor
variations are due to differences in test configuration or some other physical change. Therefore it is
important to document the test configuration and connections for future test repeatability.
3.3 FRA diagnostic application
The several distinct reasons to generate diagnostic FRA measurements within a factory or field
environment are as follows:
 Verification that no damage occurred during a short circuit test

 Relocation and commissioning validation
 Post incident verification: lightning, external through-fault, internal short circuit, seismic event, etc.
 Routine diagnostic purposes
 Condition assessment of older transformers
 Evaluation of used or spare transformers
 Shipping and receiving
Important factors to consider when performing diagnostic FRA measurements include matching the set up
and instrumentation parameters used for the baseline measurements. When baseline data is not available,
then data on duplicate transformers or other identical phases of a three-phase transformer may be used.
Typical data from other transformers of the same type may also be helpful for comparison. Special methods
or preparation may be needed in certain field applications due to aging of the equipment and connections,
field applied treatment to bushings, modification to the transformer since the baseline measurements were
made, or problems in making good ground connections due to field painted surfaces. This guide provides
assistance in these areas.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
3.4 Recommended FRA measurement test parameters
Test equipment must produce a frequency response measurement with the following characteristics:
 The test should be made over a wide range of frequencies so as to be able to diagnose problems in
the core, clamping structure, windings and interconnections.
 Successive measurements should have adequate resolution to give unambiguous diagnosis.
The test equipment should have the following attributes:
 Calibrated to an acceptable standard.

 The output power of the excitation source should provide adequate power over the entire frequency
range to allow for consistent measurement of the transfer function across the frequency range.
 The test set should be capable of measuring sufficient dynamic range, over the frequency range in
order to accommodate most transformer test objects.
 The test set should be capable of collecting a minimum of 200 measurements per decade, either
spaced linearly or logarithmically.
 The test system (set and leads) should provide a known and constant characteristic impedance. The
test set and lead characteristic impedances should be matched.
 A three lead system, signal, reference and test, should be used to reduce effect of leads in the
measurement.
 Test leads should be coaxial cables as close to the same length as possible and less then 30 m
(100 ft) long. Shielded test leads should have the ability to be grounded at either end.
 Both the Magnitude and Phase Angle of the measured transfer function should be presented.
4. Making an FRA measurement
4.1 Test procedures
As with any electrical test, making a frequency response measurement should be done in a safe and
controlled manner irrespective of test location. Considerations for electrical safety in testing apply not only
to personnel, but also to the transformer and test equipment. Prior to testing, involved personnel should
discuss the test procedure and environment for ensuring that the work to be performed and any safety
precautions are clearly understood. Other safety aspects are covered in industry standards, company or
local regulations and manufacturer’s instruction manual.
4.2 Test environment preparation
 Any transformer under test shall be completely isolated from any high voltage source or power
system source.
 The transformer tank shall be grounded.
 All instrumentation shall be grounded appropriately for the specific test setup, and isolated from
any high voltage source or power system source. Avoid subjecting the test instrument, test leads, or
power supply to station wiring surges, and external interference, including transferred potentials.
 During the test, there shall be strict adherence to local safety regulations and guidelines.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
4.3 Test object preparation
It is recommended that the configuration of the transformer be in as close to ‘in service’ configuration as
possible.
All external bushing connections should be disconnected. This includes phase connections, neutral
connections, stabilizing windings, and tertiary grounds.
Whenever possible, all test lead connections should be made directly to the bushing terminals. Any extra
conductor length that is included in the test circuit path will influence the FRA test result. Short lengths of
bus bar attached to the transformer will not appreciably influence the measurement, as long as the test leads
are connected directly to the bushing terminals after the attached bus bar, so that the bus bar is not part of
the test circuit.
In instances where it is impossible to connect directly to a transformer bushing, it is possible to perform

frequency response measurements with a short section of bus bar attached. This will affect the results but
may be acceptable as a test technique where it is impossible to exclude such short lengths from the circuit.
Examples include rigid connections in confined workspaces. It is important to note the state of the
transformer under test so as to provide a consistent method of testing. Where a transformer in the field has
been tested previously with small lengths of bus bar attached, it should be tested in the same way
subsequently, if a comparison to historical data is necessary. Analysis of results must take in to account
possible variations that may be caused by connections and their supports. As a general guideline, external
bus bar connections should be avoided.
Special consideration shall be given to safety when testing a transformer without oil so that excessive
voltages are not applied or induced in a combustible environment. The results of frequency response
measurements differ as a consequence of removing the oil. Testing with oil is the most common and
preferred method for frequency response analysis.
When a transformer is equipped with a de-energized tap changer, it is a decision for the transformer owners
as to whether they wish to operate the de-energized tap changer.
If internal current transformers are present, they should be configured for in-service conditions.
4.4 Test set
The test set should be grounded according to the recommendations of the test equipment manufacturer, or
to the same point as the transformer under test, in the absence of equipment manufacturer’s
recommendations. Generally, the transformer tank ground should be considered as reference potential for
the FRA measurement. It should be noted that in all FRA measurements, the grounding techniques will
have a significant effect on test results. Grounding techniques, including selection of ground conductors as
well as their routings, should therefore be precise, repeatable, and documented.
The test equipment should always be within the recommended calibration interval. When possible prior to
use, a self-check of the operation of the test equipment using a standard test object with a known FRA
response may be employed as a means of assuring correct operation of the equipment. This check is
especially valuable for checking FRA test equipment, since there is generally no intuitive way of knowing
if the test equipment is giving correct results when making field measurements.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
4.5 Test leads
The following three coaxial leads should be used:
 Excitation “source”
 Specimen Input “reference”
 Specimen Output “measure”
These leads should be as close to the same length as possible and have a characteristic impedance matched
to the test set. Ideally the leads will be the same length. As a minimum, the “reference” and “measure”
leads should be identical.
Test leads should be checked for continuity and integrity before use. The best means for checking lead
integrity is to perform the FRA self-check using a standard test object.
Where shorting leads are used as part of a test set up between bushing terminals, these should be insulated
from ground, and be as short as possible. The impedance of these leads will influence the test results.
Therefore, when the test procedure requires shorting of terminals, selection of shorting conductors as well
as their routings should be precise, and repeatable, and documented.
Where local recommendations and/or guidelines require test grounds be applied to separate windings not
under test, these grounds should be as short as possible and connected to the same ground as the
transformer. It should be recognized that while the FRA response is not invalidated by the presence of
additional winding grounds, the response with these grounds in place may be unique, and should not be
compared with previous FRA test results obtained without the grounds installed. For the test to yield
maximum value, every effort should be made to configure the test object exactly as recommended by the
test equipment manufacturer. If necessary, requests may be made to the appropriate authority whenever it
is deemed necessary to temporarily disconnect ground connections to separate windings, as long as the
transformer is fully isolated from other power sources, and no hazards to safety are generated by the
proximity of the transformer terminals to other energized substation equipment. In all cases, special
permission should be received from the appropriate authority to deviate from any local recommendations
and/or guidelines.
General lead connection diagrams are shown below in Figure 1, which provide examples of a typical test
setup.
Figure 1 —General lead connection diagram
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
4.6 Measurement types
4.6.1 Open-circuit measurement
An open-circuit measurement is made from one end of a winding to another with all other terminals
floating. The open-circuit test can be applied to both single phase and three phase transformers. Open-
circuit tests generally fall into the following five winding categories: High Voltage, Low Voltage, Tertiary,
Series, and Common. The Series and Common categories are applied to autotransformers.
Open Circuit tests are primarily influenced by the core properties at or around the fundamental power
frequency. The Open Circuit tests can be used in conjunction with exciting current tests in determining
failure modes that affect the magnetic circuit of the transformer.
4.6.2 Short-circuit measurement
The short-circuit measurement is made from one end of a high-voltage winding to another while the
associated low voltage winding is shorted. For repeatability purposes, it is recommended that all low
voltage windings are shorted on three phase transformers to create a three phase equivalent short-circuit
model. This ensures all three phases are similarly shorted to give consistent impedance. Any available
neutral connections should not be included in the shorting process.
The short-circuit test isolates the winding impedance from the core properties at or around the fundamental
power frequency. The short-circuit results should produce similar and comparable diagnostic information
as seen in both leakage reactance and dc winding resistance measurements.
4.6.3 Capacitive inter-winding measurement
The capacitive inter-winding measurement also known as the inter-winding measurement is performed
between two electrically isolated windings. A capacitive inter-winding measurement is made from one end
of a winding and measuring the signal through one of the terminals of another winding, with all other
terminals floating. Capacitive inter-winding measurements are capacitive in nature. These measurements
exhibit a high impedance at low frequencies (<100 Hz); the impedance generally decreases as frequency
increases. This would include, for example, H1 to X1 on a two winding transformer, or H1 to Y1 on an
autotransformer with a tertiary. Note that H1 to X1 on an autotransformer is not an inter-winding
measurement but an open-circuit measurement on the series winding.
4.6.4 Inductive inter-winding measurement
The inductive inter-winding measurement, also known as the transfer voltage measurement, is performed
between two windings with one end of each winding grounded. All other winding terminals not under test
should remain floating. The inductive inter-winding measurement most closely resembles the turns ratio
test properties at or around the fundamental power frequency.
4.7 Load Tap Changer (LTC) and De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC) positions
The tap positions shall be noted on the test report for each test. Generally, tests on windings with a LTC
should be in the tap combination that places all sections of the tap windings in the circuit. It is
recommended that the LTC be in the extreme raise position.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
However, when tests are performed at the LTC neutral tap position, the previous tap position should also be
recorded, as the resulting winding connection through the reversing switch will influence the test result.
Consistency with previous test applications is key for subsequent analysis. It is recommended that neutral
tap position measurements be made after arriving from the raised tap positions.
It is recommended that the DETC be in the position that is dictated by in service conditions.
Transformers in service occasionally have problems due to DETC movement; it is not recommended that
the DETC position be altered for the FRA test. The exception is in factory tests on a new transformer,
where it can be assumed that the DETC is in satisfactory condition.
The recommended position for the LTC and DETC are as follows:
 LTC – Extreme Raise

 DETC – As Found
4.8 Test connections
The basis of FRA analysis is comparison with reference measurements; if reference measurements are
available, it is strongly recommended to repeat those measurements exactly as the reference measurements
were set up.
All new measurements should follow the basic principle to measure the windings from “head-to-tail” and
consequently the recommended test connections will depend on winding configuration. The test
connections in the tables in this section are for configurations Group 1 (no lead/lag) and Group 2 (30
degree lag). Where transformer winding configurations are required which are not covered in Tables 1
through Table 6 below, please refer to the transformer nameplate. The configuration vectors will determine
the test procedure.
The test connections described here do not include repeat tests for different tap positions. Bushings not
under test, including neutrals, should be disconnected from ground, unless grounding is required under
local recommendations and/or guidelines.
It is recommended that all open-circuit tests and all short-circuit tests be performed, e.g., Test 1 to Test 9 in
Table 1. At a minimum, it is recommended that the tests highlighted and within the bold border should be
performed.
Alternatives to the test sequences suggested below can be selected based on the recommendations of the
transformer manufacturer, test equipment manufacturer, the test equipment user, and the type of test
voltage applied.
All windings should be tested as shown below in the test connection tables. The tables are as follows:
 Table 1–Two winding transformers

 Table 2–Autotransformer without tertiary
 Table 3–Autotransformer with tertiary
 Table 4–Autotransformer with buried tertiary
 Table 5–Three winding transformer Part 1
 Table 6–Three winding transformer Part 2
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Table 1 —Two winding transformers – 15 tests

3φ Δ-Υ 3φ Υ-Δ
3φ Δ-Δ 3φ Υ-Υ
Group 2 Group 2
Test type Test # Group 1 Group 1 1φ
θ ⇒ 30° θ ⇒ 30°
θ ⇒ 0° θ ⇒ 0°
LAG LAG
HV Open Circuit (OC) 1 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H2
All Other Terminals Floating 2 H2-H1 H2-H0 H2-H1 H2-H0 (H1-H0)
3 H3-H2 H3-H0 H3-H2 H3-H0
LV Open Circuit (OC) 4 X1-X0 X1-X2 X1-X3 X1-X0 X1-X2
All Other Terminals Floating 5 X2-X0 X2-X3 X2-X1 X2-X0 (X1-X0)
6 X3-X0 X3-X1 X3-X2 X3-X0
Short Circuit (SC) 7 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H3 H1-H0 H1-H2
Short [X1-X2-X3]a 8 H2-H1 H2-H0 H2-H1 H2-H0 Short
9 H3-H2 H3-H0 H3-H2 H3-H0 [X1-X2]a
Capacitive Inter-Winding 10 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
All Other Terminals Floating 11 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2
12 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3
Inductive Inter-Winding 13 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
High (H) to Low (L) 14 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 Ground
Ground (H- and X-)b 15 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 [H2, X2]
a
Indicates short circuit tests terminals are shorted together, but not grounded. The neutral is not included for 3φ Wye
connections, but may be included for 1φ connections.
b
Denotes other end of winding; opposite of the reference and measure connections.
Table 2 —Autotransformer w/o tertiary – 12 tests
Test type Test # 3φ 1φ

Series Winding (OC) 1 H1-X1 H1-X1
All Other Terminals Floating 2 H2-X2
3 H3-X3
Common Winding (OC) 4 X1-H0X0 X1-H0X0
All Other Terminals Floating 5 X2-H0X0
6 X3-H0X0
Short Circuit (SC) 7 H1-H0X0 H1-H0X0
High (H) to Low (L) 8 H2-H0X0 Short
Short [X1-X2-X3]a 9 H3-H0X0 [X1-H0X0]a
Inductive Inter-Winding 10 H1-X1 H1-X1
High (H) to Low (L) 11 H2-X2 Ground
Ground (H0X0) 12 H3-X3 [H0X0]
a
Indicates short circuit tests: terminals are shorted together, but not grounded. The neutral is
not included for 3φ Wye connections, but may be included for 1φ test connections.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Table 3 —Autotransformer with tertiary – 33 tests

3 H3-X3
6 X3-H0X0
Tertiary Winding (OC) 7 Y1-Y2 Y1-Y2
All Other Terminals Floating 8 Y2-Y3 (Y1-Y0)
9 Y3-Y1
High (H) to Tertiary (Y) 14 H2-H0X0 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 15 H3-H0X0 [Y1-Y2]a
Short Circuit (SC) 16 X1-H0X0 X1-H0X0
Low (L) to Tertiary (Y) 17 X2-H0X0 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 18 X3-H0X0 [Y1-Y2]a
Capacitive Inter-Winding 19 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
High (H) to Tertiary (Y) 20 H2-Y2
All Terminals Float 21 H3-Y3
Capacitive Inter-Winding 22 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Low (L) to Tertiary (Y) 23 X2-Y2
All Terminals Float 24 X3-Y3
Inductive Inter-Winding 28 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
High (H) to Tertiary (Y) 29 H2-Y2 Ground
Ground (H0X0 and Y-)b 30 H3-Y3 [H0X0, Y2]
Inductive Inter-Winding 31 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Low (L) to Tertiary (Y) 32 X2-Y2 Ground
Ground (H0X0 and Y-)b 33 X3-Y3 [H0X0, Y2]
a
b
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Table 4 —Autotransformer with buried tertiary – 18 tests

3 H3-X3
6 X3-H0X0
Capacitive Inter-Winding 10 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
High (H) to Tertiary (Y) 11 H2-Y1
All Terminals Float 12 H3-Y1
Capacitive Inter-Winding 13 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Low (L) to Tertiary (Y) 14 X2-Y1
All Terminals Float 15 X3-Y1
a
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Table 5 —Three winding transformer Part 1 – 36 tests

3φ 3φ 3φ
3φ
Δ-Δ-Υ Δ-Υ-Δ Δ-Υ-Υ
Δ-Δ-Δ 1φ
Test type Test # Group 2 Group 2 Group 2
Group 1
θ ⇒ 30° θ ⇒ 30° θ ⇒ 30°
θ ⇒ 0°
LAG LAG LAG
HV Open Circuit (OC) 1 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H3 H1-H2
All Other Terminals Floating 2 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 (H1-H0)
3 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2
LV (X) Open Circuit (OC) 4 X1-X3 X1-X3 X1-X0 X1-X0 X1-X2
All Other Terminals Floating 5 X2-X1 X2-X1 X2-X0 X2-X0 (X1-X0)
6 X3-X2 X3-X2 X3-X0 X3-X0
LV (Y) Open Circuit (OC) 7 Y1-Y3 Y1-Y0 Y1-Y3 Y1-Y0 Y1-Y2
All Other Terminals Floating 8 Y2-Y1 Y2-Y0 Y2-Y1 Y2-Y0 (Y1-Y0)
9 Y3-Y2 Y3-Y0 Y3-Y2 Y3-Y0
High (H) to Low (X) 11 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 Short
Short [X1-X2-X3]a 12 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 [X1-X2]a
High (H) to Low (Y) 14 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 H2-H1 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 15 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 H3-H2 [Y1-Y2]a
Short Circuit (SC) 16 X1-X3 X1-X3 X1-X0 X1-X0 X1-X0
Low (X) to Low (Y) 17 X2-X1 X2-X1 X2-X0 X2-X0 Short
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 18 X3-X2 X3-X2 X3-X0 X3-X0 [Y1-Y2]a
Capacitive Inter-Winding 19 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
High (H) to Low (X) 20 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2
All Terminals Float 21 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3
Capacitive Inter-Winding 22 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
High (H) to Low (Y) 23 H2-Y2 H2-Y2 H2-Y2 H2-Y2
All Terminals Float 24 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3
Capacitive Inter-Winding 25 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Low (X) to Low (Y) 26 X2-Y2 X2-Y2 X2-Y2 X2-Y2
All Terminals Float 27 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3
Inductive Inter-Winding 28 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
High (H) to Low (X) 29 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 H2-X2 Ground
Ground (H- and X-)b 30 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 [H2, X2]
Inductive Inter-Winding 31 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
High (H) to Low (Y) 32 H2-Y2 H2-Y2 H2-Y2 H2-Y2 Ground
Ground (H- and Y-)b 33 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 [H2, Y2]
Inductive Inter-Winding 34 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Low (X) to Low (Y) 35 X2-Y2 X2-Y2 X2-Y2 X2-Y2 Ground
Ground (X- and Y-)b 36 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 [X2, Y2]
a
Indicates short circuit tests: terminals are shorted together, but not grounded. The neutral is not included for 3φ Wye
connections, but may be included for 1φ test connections.
b
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Table 6 —Three winding transformer Part 2 – 36 tests

3φ 3φ 3φ
3φ
Υ-Υ-Δ Υ-Δ-Υ Υ-Δ-Δ
Υ-Υ-Υ
Test type Test # Group 2 Group 2 Group 2
Group 1
θ ⇒ 30° θ ⇒ 30° θ ⇒ 30°
θ ⇒ 0°
LAG LAG LAG
HV Open Circuit (OC) 1 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0
All Other Terminals Floating 2 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0
3 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0
LV (X) Open Circuit (OC) 4 X1-X0 X1-X0 X1-X2 X1-X2
All Other Terminals Floating 5 X2-X0 X2-X0 X2-X3 X2-X3
6 X3-X0 X3-X0 X3-X1 X3-X1
LV (Y) Open Circuit (OC) 7 Y1-Y0 Y1-Y2 Y1-Y0 Y1-Y2
All Other Terminals Floating 8 Y2-Y0 Y2-Y3 Y2-Y0 Y2-Y3
9 Y3-Y0 Y3-Y1 Y3-Y0 Y3-Y1
Short Circuit (SC) 10 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0
High (H) to Low (X) 11 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0
Short [X1-X2-X3]a 12 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0
Short Circuit (SC) 13 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0 H1-H0
High (H) to Low (Y) 14 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0 H2-H0
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 15 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0 H3-H0
Short Circuit (SC) 16 X1-X0 X1-X0 X1-X2 X1-X2
Low (X) to Low (Y) 17 X2-X0 X2-X0 X2-X3 X2-X3
Short [Y1-Y2-Y3]a 18 X3-X0 X3-X0 X3-X1 X3-X1
Capacitive Inter-Winding 19 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
All Terminals Float 21 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3
Capacitive Inter-Winding 22 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
All Terminals Float 24 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3
Capacitive Inter-Winding 25 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
All Terminals Float 27 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3
Inductive Inter-Winding 28 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1 H1-X1
Ground (H- and X-)b 30 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3 H3-X3
Inductive Inter-Winding 31 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1 H1-Y1
Ground (H- and Y-)b 33 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3 H3-Y3
Inductive Inter-Winding 34 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1 X1-Y1
Ground (X- and Y-)b 36 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3 X3-Y3
a
Indicates short circuit tests: terminals are shorted together, but not grounded. The neutral is not
included for Wye connections.
b
Where transformer winding configurations are required which are not covered in Tables 1 through Table 6,
please refer to the transformer nameplate. The configuration vectors will determine the test procedure.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
4.8.1 FRA shipping configuration
Performing the test under the same conditions is important for comparison purposes since the premise of
the test is to detect changes in the winding geometries. For this reason, the optimal method for performance
of the FRA test to verify that no changes have taken place during transportation is to require the test be
performed at the factory on the transformer in its shipping configuration. This will then allow the FRA test
to be performed at any time during transit, and provide data for comparison to potentially aide in the
determination of when shipping damage may have occurred.
It is important that the “shipping configuration” of the equipment be identified and duplicated exactly for
pre and post movement tests. Five primary items that must be specified for shipping configuration tests are
as follows:
a) Oil level and presence
b) De-energized tap changer tap position
c) Load tap changer tap position
d) Bushings and placement
e) Test/transformer and earthling configuration
Additionally, it may be necessary to identify more than one shipping configuration during transport of the
transformer. The transformer may undergo several legs of transport to include truck, ship, railroad, crane
off-loading, and final movement to the installation pad. Any of these transportation legs can exert undue
physical shock to the transformer. It is important to identify these different legs of transport and identify
the entities who have legal responsibility. Testing before and after transport legs that have different legal
custodies is an additional option that can be considered Since the transformer may be in different shipping
configuration due to physical constraints, shipping configurations must be clearly identified for each
transportation leg.
For new equipment, this may require the performance of two FRA tests after receipt of the equipment at the
final destination; 1) one test with the transformer in its shipping configuration, 2) and one test with the
transformer assembled and oil-filled as required for insulation resistance testing, to be used as baseline data
for future testing. If no shipping damage is suspected, the test in the as shipped configuration may not be
necessary as a receipt test.
4.8.2 Oil level and presence
The equipment may be shipped with or without oil depending on size and shipping restrictions. It may also
be filled then drained prior to shipment, thus leaving residual oil within cellulosic insulation in the
windings. Oil is known to cause variations in the FRA test readings across a broad range of test
frequencies. The reason for the variation is that the dielectric constant of oil is different than that of air (by
a factor of approximately 2) and changes the capacitance of any insulation system within equipment
involving oil. The FRA transfer function measured is a complex network measurement that not only
involves bulk measurements but also turn-to-turn. Therefore, all the unique resonances formed by this
network will be shifted higher in frequency by the presence of oil. There are also indications that some
equipment will display unique FRA characteristics with and without oil.
If the equipment is to arrive drained of oil, the shipping configuration should specify that it will be tested
pre and post movement without oil. If the equipment is to be shipped after being drained of oil, it should be
tested pre-movement without oil. Testing the unit prior to shipment in this case without oil and prior to a
first fill, may not be adequate and could lead to false failures due to residual oil being held in the windings,
or additional oil draining from the winding during weeks of shipment. If the equipment is to be shipped
with oil, it should be fully filled for both pre and post movement tests. If the equipment is to be shipped
partially filled, it should be tested with the same level of oil, or preferentially after oil has been added.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Ensuring oil is at the same level before and after transportation for partially filled transformers can be
difficult and sometimes leads to incorrect assessments.
4.8.2.1 De-energized and on-load tap changer position
Both the DETC and LTC position will change the FRA test results as the number of winding turns and tap
changer components are different for different positions. As a result, the equipment must be tested in the
exact same positions for every pre and post movement leg. It is recommended to test the equipment in the
nominal DETC tap position and the LTC fully raised position.
4.8.3 Bushings and placement
For performance of the FRA test with the equipment in its shipping configuration and with bushings
removed for shipment, it may be beneficial to install a small FRA test bushing in each removed bushing’s
cover-plate to facilitate testing. The FRA test bushings should be of robust construction so as to minimize
the potential of damage during shipment, and should be gasketed to maintain the shipping pressure on the
tank. Typical ratings for these bushings would be 1.2 kV voltage class, 30 kV BIL. The winding leads
should be connected to the FRA test bushings, and sufficiently braced to avoid movement during transit.
Any jumpers used for connection of the winding leads to the test bushings should be appropriately marked,
to assure removal during the final equipment assembly after transportation. If the equipment is to be tested
with the as-installed bushing, the bushings must be placed in the same tank positions. The different
capacitance to ground values of condenser style bushings can sometimes influence the FRA test results.
5. Test documentation
5.1 Introduction
The Frequency Response Measurement is one that provides a wealth of information regarding the internal
geometry of a transformer.
To gain value from the measurement, it is important that measurements are made in a consistent manner.
Unlike power factor measurements, where it is possible to make consistent measurements based on an
analysis of the transformer design and some basic electrical engineering “first principles,” FRA requires
measurements to be made consistent with previous measurements or with those on similar units.
Accordingly, it is important that any test parameter that could affect test results is recorded in a clear,
concise, format such that the FRA signatures can be reconstructed without the use of proprietary software.
5.2 Test records
A number of different elements of a particular test need to be recorded – these ensure that the same test set
up is possible on subsequent tests, and with respect to tests on other transformers.
The details given here are separated out into separate elements of a test set up, but should not be taken as a
prescription of how data should be stored.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
In each area, the suggested minimum information required is marked as “required;” some other data can be
inferred from asset management systems within the transformer owner’s organization.
5.2.1 Data format
Data should be viewable in most standard applications to allow flexible analysis of the results, comparison
between results from different test systems, and inclusion in reports. Because FRA records can be stored
for many years before being recalled for comparison, it is recommended to avoid any file format associated
with current applications or instruments, as these can change with time or might not be supported 15 or 20
years after they have been stored. Because of this, we suggest that the XML file format is used. It is a well-
known and open format which has been available since the 1990s.
5.2.2 Data elements
The object of a test is a transformer. Clearly, nameplate data for the transformer must be recorded, but there
are other factors that may vary between tests, which may affect results. These include the following:
a) Transformer: what is tested, nameplate data

b) Test Equipment: especially if we are comparing data from a number of different OEM sets
c) Test Organization: to detect any systematic errors, which may result from poor procedures
d) Test Setup: state of transformer, oil level, bushings, tap position, temperature, etc.
e) Test Results: date, time, frequency, magnitude and phase angle
5.2.3 Transformer data
This is the “static” data which does not vary between tests on a particular transformer:
a) Manufacturer – Required
b) Year of Manufacture
c) Serial Number – Required
d) MVA Rating for Various Cooling Modes (ONAN, OFAF, ODAF, etc.)
e) Voltage Rating for: HV, LV1, LV2, Tertiary
f) Special ID (transformer ID) – Required
g) Vector Group Configuration
h) Number of Phases
i) Impedance – e.g., HV-LV1, HV-LV2, HV-Tertiary; LV-Tertiary
j) Transformer Type – GSU, Power XFMR, Dist, Furnace, etc.
k) Winding Type – Auto, Double Wound, etc.
l) Transformer Construction – Core Form, Shell Form, Winding Type, etc.
m) LTC Fields: Manufacturer, Serial Number, Manufacture Year, Range, Notes
n) DETC Fields: Manufacturer, Serial Number, Manufacture Year, Range, Notes
o) Free Form Data Entry Fields for User Specific Details
p) Connection and grounding condition of any buried tertiary windings
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5.2.4 Test equipment data
Recording the test data equipment is key to ensuring that good equipment is used for the measurement.
a) Equipment Name and Model number

b) Manufacturer
c) Test Equipment Serial Number
d) Calibration Date
e) Measurement Impedance
f) Free Form Data Entry Fields for User Specific Details
5.2.5 Test organization data
This records who did the testing.
a) Company – Required
b) Location – Required
c) Operator
d) Free Form Data Entry Fields for User Specific Details
5.2.6 Test set-up data
These are elements that may vary between tests on a given transformer on a given day.
a) Oil Temperature
b) Oil Level
c) Oil Status (whether immersed or not) – Required
d) External Circuits Connected to Bushings (length of bus, etc.) – Required
e) Reason for Test
f) Free form Data Entry Fields for User Specific Details
5.2.7 Test results
The Test Results contain the actual data points and test setup data specific for the measurement. Every
measurement in the test is represented by a data block.
a) Name
b) Date and Time of Measurement – Required
c) LTC Position, Including Previous Position if at Neutral – Required
d) DETC Position – Required
e) Measurement Type (OC, SC, IW, TA) – Required
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f) Terminals: Source, Reference, Measure, Shorted, Grounded – Required

g) Data Points: Frequency, Amplitude, Phase Angle
h) Free Form Data Entry Fields for User Specific Details
i) Applied Test Voltage - Required
6. Measurement analysis and interpretation
6.1 Introduction
This clause looks at the analysis value from FRA measurements. Two basic analysis strategies are deployed
in this clause: identifying expected trace characteristics, and comparing a trace with reference results. The
primary goal of FRA analysis is to determine the physical condition of the transformer, thus ensuring
internal components have not moved as a result of transportation, severe insulation damage, or fault
currents.
6.2 Trace characteristics
Since transformer designs and applications vary, the FRA results exhibit diverse properties and
characteristics. However, the FRA trace, over specified frequency ranges, has a degree of predictability;
caused by low frequency core effects, main winding effects, and short circuit responses. These expected
responses can be used to identify basic problems that may exist within a transformer. In addition, different
winding configurations generally exhibit distinct patterns due to their relationship between phases and the
core. With an understanding of the relationship between frequency range and transformer configuration,
physical deformations can be narrowed down to specific sections of the transformer.
The different measurement types produce different characteristic trace wave shapes, but the expected
changes in the traces are generally similar. Some trace characteristics indicate more significant winding
deformation and insulation degradation than others. One of the most significant change indicators is the
presence of an additional resonance peak(s) in the magnitude trace or the loss of an existing resonance
peak(s). The next most significant change indicator is usually a shift in frequency for an existing resonance
peak(s). These are usually examples of winding deformation. Another trace characteristic indicator is when
a trace continues to increase in magnitude compared with the original trace, while maintaining a similar
shape, as frequency increases. This may be an indicator of winding looseness, especially for higher
frequencies. Most significant trace magnitude differences are also accompanied by significant trace phase
angle differences.
The type of FRA test greatly affects the expected trace characteristics. Specific characteristic can be
identified depending on the type of test.
6.2.1 Open-circuit test
The open-circuit test is the most common FRA test performed. Similar to an excitation current test, each
winding is excited individually while all other terminals float. Voltages with reference to ground are
measured at each end of the excited winding. This test is most influenced by the effects of the core, main
windings, tap winding, and tap leads. Depending on the winding configuration, the low frequency section
(core) will usually take on a distinct shape.
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High-voltage windings display the most distinguishable pattern in the low frequency region. Wye
connected windings often show a single distinct resonance or two closely placed null resonance between
20 Hz and 5 kHz. Delta connected windings will usually show two further resonances spaced apart in this
same frequency range. Low or tertiary voltage windings tend to follow the same pattern, but can be heavily
influenced by the high voltage winding.
The mid frequency region is dominated by the network impedances created by the winding stack itself.
There could be either a complex series or simple series of resonances created.
Above 500 kHz, the results will continue to be influenced by the main winding’s impedance network, but
tends to be more sensitive to smaller geometric sections such as tap windings, tap leads, and displaced
turns.
6.2.2 Short circuit test
Short-circuit tests are designed to allow for the inspection of the winding without the influence of the core.
The transformer core’s reluctance circuit influences the lowest frequencies. To analyze the bulk inductance
of the winding without the influence of the core, the secondary windings are short circuited. This
configuration is similar to a short circuit impedance test or leakage reactance test.
The short-circuit test’s trace characteristic is similar to the open circuit test with the exception of the low
frequency region. At these low frequencies, the increased impedance associated with the core reluctance is
removed. This results in an overall increase in the FRA trace’s magnitude in this region as well a more
inductive phase angle. The shape in the low frequency is dominated by the first order roll-off characteristic
of the windings' main inductance. If the results are examined on a Bode plot, a predictable inductive roll-
off section can often be identified as is expected with first-order systems.
6.2.3 Capacitive inter-winding
Capacitive inter-winding tests measure the network impedance between two voltage class windings. Given
that this measurement does not offer a galvanic connection between the windings involved in the
measurements, as the two windings are isolated, this trace shows an increasing magnitude as a function of
frequency. At the lowest frequencies, the measurement is highly capacitive as would be expected by the
open circuit configuration between the two test terminals. As the frequency is increased, a series of
resonances will be formed with an overall trend of increasing magnitude. These resonances are formed by
the network impedances between the two voltage class windings.
6.2.4 Inductive inter-winding
The inductive inter-winding test is designed to measure the voltage ratio between two windings. In this test
configuration, the two vector matching terminals are measured across while grounding the associated leg
terminal on each side. This configuration is similar to a single phase turns ratio test. The trace is dominated
by a flat magnitude response at the lowest frequencies. The magnitude in the low frequency region is equal
to the voltage ratio formed by the voltage class ratio between the two windings under test. At the higher
frequencies, a series of resonances are formed that are generally not examined, as it is not the primary focus
of this test.
6.3 Trace comparison
Trace comparison is the primary method for the analysis of FRA results. Comparisons can be made against
baselines and previous data, sister unit results, or between phases. Traces can also be examined for
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expected patterns as mentioned in 7.2; this type of comparison requires more experience but can prevent
erroneous data from being collected. Assuming the test equipment is compatible, connections are the same,
and there is not residual magnetism, the initial expectation is that any data comparison should result in near
perfect overlays.
Various tools and algorithms are available for comparing and analyzing FRA measurements.
6.3.1 Plot inspection
Plot inspection involves plotting the FRA transfer function and examining the results. This method of
analysis is the most common and relies upon a reasonable level of skill. Specialized computer software or
spreadsheets are commonly used to present data. Common practice is to display the plot in decibels (dB)
versus logarithmic frequency. This type of plot is also known as a Bode plot. Bode plots allow easier
inspection of resonances as it simplifies the display of exponentially changing impedances and are used
cross-industry for the analysis of transfer functions. Plots can also be graphed as impedance or admittance
versus frequency; either linear or logarithmic scales can be applied.
The plots are inspected for expected general patterns due to transformer configuration and comparing the
results with other traces. The other traces can be different phases, sister units or baseline results. This
method relies upon careful scrutiny of the trace resonances and magnitude/phase angle deviations. Please
refer to 7.2 for a discussion on frequency range to component correlation and expected patterns.
Deviations noted due to comparison with another unit or phase could indicate physical deformation of a
transformer’s component.
6.3.2 Difference plotting
Difference plotting was one of the first methods of analysis used for transformer FRA tests. This type of
analysis takes two traces for comparison and subtracts one from the other. A difference trace is the result.
Regions in the difference plot that deviate from zero (i.e., no variation between the two traces) could
indicate problems and would require greater scrutiny. Resonance shifts or deviation in FRA magnitude
would show the greatest variation on the plot. This method does not necessarily assist ascertaining the
cause of the problem, but can assist in identifying suspect frequency regions. Difference plotting is not used
on phase angle plots due to the sensitivity of the phase angle measurement.
6.3.3 Correlation coefficients
Correlation coefficients provide an indication of similarity between two traces. Another common term for
correlation is the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient or Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation. Correlation
allows for the expression of how random (or similar) a range of numbers is. Correlation has a value
between −1 and 1. If the value is zero (0), this indicates complete randomness between the two traces under
inspection. The closer the correlation is to one (1), the more similar the two traces are. If the value is −1.0
this indicates a complete inverse relationship. The goal for analysis is to get a number as close to one (1) as
possible, indicating correlation between the two traces.
Individual frequency ranges can be analyzed for correlation by changing the frequency bounds of the
correlation algorithm. Correlation is an algorithm, and is often calculated with the help of specialized FRA
software or commercially available mathematical programs. Correlation coefficients are calculated by
determining the covariance of the two traces under test. Covariance is expressed as σxy. Covariance
calculates how much two traces deviate from each other. This is expressed in Equation (1) and Equation
(2). In the case of isolating certain regions, the bounds would be changed from plus or minus infinity to the
spectrum under question.
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cov ( X , Y ) = σ xy (1)
σ
= xy  (
E  X − X Y −Y 
 )( ) (2)
σ xy
=ρ −1 ≤ ρ ≤ 1 (3)
σxσ y
Where
σxy is the covariance of the x and y measured values

E[ ] is the mean of the covariance of the X and Y variables
X is trace X and its measured values
X is the mean of the X trace measured values
Y is trace Y and its measured values
Y is the mean of the Y trace measured values
ρ is the correlation constant which is greater than or equal to −1 and less than or equal to 1
σx is the standard deviation of trace x measured values
σy is the standard deviation of trace y measured values
Finally, the correlation constant ρ is calculated by taking the covariance of the two traces under question
and then dividing them by the product of the standard deviation of each trace, thus normalizing the constant
for easy inspection.
6.3.4 Baseline data
An FRA baseline measurement can be produced in the factory when the transformer has been filled with oil
and dressed as part of factory commissioning tests, or as part of routine testing for units already in-service.,
or at an earlier date in the substation.
Baseline or previous data should be repeatable. If internal movement or change does not occur within the
test specimen, the matched traces should overlay well. Matched traces are defined as FRA results obtained
from the same test terminals and transformer configurations. An example would be two scans collected
from the same winding, such as H1-H3, on different test dates.
Data that is collected before and after transformer relocation is expected to overlay well. Any variance in
such comparisons indicates a problem. One exception, caused by the magnetic circuit, occurs at low
frequencies and should be considered during evaluation. Magnetization can cause the lower frequencies of
the trace to be slightly offset in certain cases. If residual magnetism is known to be present, less scrutiny
should be placed on this comparison. Large temperature difference, typical much more than 10C, between
two measurements will slightly influence the response at higher frequencies.
As stated in Clause 5, it should be noted that the LTC and DETC position influences the results. If the test
results are obtained in different tap positions, expect variation.
6.3.5 Similar units
Similar unit results are expected to compare well. Genuinely similar units show very little difference
between matched scans. Genuinely similar units are considered to be identical in manufacturer, design, and
construction. Care must be taken to assess if the similarity of a unit is really genuine. Even if a transformer
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appears identical in all aspects, it is possible that the two units may be constructed with some differences.
This is most prevalent when a utility purchases two identical transformers several months or years apart.
The manufacturer may have made modifications to the design that does not change the functionality of the
transformer, but could lead to variations in the traces.
All tests on similar units should be conducted with the LTC and DETC in the same position. The low
frequency and mid frequency regions governed by the core’s magnetic circuit and main windings should
have the closest similarity. There may be variations in the higher frequencies do to subtle changes in tap
lead placement and routing. The more sister units that can be compared, a better feel for the overall stability
of their traces can be ascertained. As such, it is beneficial to plot several sister units on the same graph for
inspection, such as three single-phase transformer installations.
6.3.6 Phase
Phase comparisons are the most difficult and require the greatest amount of experience to conduct properly.
In addition, some transformer designs do not have completely symmetrical designs. In these cases, there
will always be some phase to phase variations. Because of this, it is paramount that benchmark data be
obtained as early in a transformer’s life as possible. In most cases, different phases will overlay with
reasonable similarity
The center phase, especially in core type transformers, exhibits the most deviation when comparing all
three phases. Often, the two outer phases compare well. Different flux paths seen by each phase contribute
to the observed differences. The effects of the core are expected at the lower frequencies; however, the
core influence can overlap into the higher frequency range.
The actual windings of a three phase transformer can be almost identical, but the connection scheme
between phases can be different. As an example, the phases of a wye winding are all at different distances
from the neutral; LTC connections fall into the same category. Thus, since the windings are not
equilaterally spaced, the varying lead lengths entering and leaving the windings influence the individual
transfer function of each winding. Overall phase symmetry appears to be a function of the overall physical
size and complexity.
When no baseline test exists, and there is no genuine sister unit available to compare against, it is still
possible to determine obvious failure modes by cross phase comparison of the same voltage windings.
6.4 FRA relationship to other transformer diagnostics
The FRA results (depending on the particular test connections) can be used to confirm the results of other
diagnostic tests. These tests include:
 Single Phase Exciting Current

 Turns Ratio
 Short Circuit Impedance (Leakage Reactance)
 DC Winding Resistance
6.4.1 Single-phase exciting current
Single-phase exciting current test results can be compared with the FRA’s low frequency region for the
open circuit test that is applied to the HV winding. The open circuit test is heavily influenced by the core
properties at or around the fundamental power frequency. Even though the core properties are dependent on
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the applied voltage level, the FRA results are expected to produce a pattern similar to the single-phase
exciting currents test. When examining the magnitude plots in the low frequency region, their decibel, or
ohm levels should mimic the pattern exhibited by the same connection excitation current test at the
excitation frequency.
6.4.2 Turns ratio
The inductive inter-winding test most closely resembles the turns-ratio test properties at or around the
fundamental power frequency. The transfer function unit, dB or Ω can be interpreted to match the turns
ratio results. Several frequencies at or around the fundamental power frequency should be averaged to
estimate the turns ratio value.
6.4.3 Short-circuit Impedance (leakage reactance)
The short-circuit test produces a response at lower frequencies that is associated with the leakage channel
of the windings. The phase pattern of these results can be compared to individual 3 phase equivalent
results, assuming they were performed on the same tap positions. Any differences between phases in this
frequency range should be checked with a leakage reactance test.
6.4.4 DC winding resistance
If the short-circuit test produces a horizontal response at frequencies, less than 30 Hz, then the FRA results
can be compared to the DC winding resistance results. Any differences between phases at these low
frequencies should be checked with a DC winding resistance test.
6.5 Failure modes
In general, the FRA test is sensitive to defects that cause geometric change(s) within a transformer. Any
defect of this kind is referred to as failure mode even though such defect does not necessarily lead to a
catastrophic failure of equipment. In fact, the popularity of the FRA test has been driven by the desire to
detect mechanical failures within a transformer. Failure modes are not exclusive to geometric variations
within a transformer and can include variation in the core’s magnetic circuit and contact resistance.
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FRA test variations can be caused by a single type of failure or a combination of two or more. Failure due
to faults creates high over-currents through the transformer. As a result, the transformer experiences strong
and often violent electromagnetic forces. These violent events can often lead to compounded failure modes.
These compounded events can complicate the FRA analysis but often helps to better understand the
condition of the transformer. Below are listed known failure modes and an explanation of each.
 Radial “Hoop Buckling” Deformation of Winding

 Axial Winding Elongation “Telescoping”
 Overall- Bulk & Localized Movement
 Core Defects
 Contact Resistance
 Winding Turn-to-Turn Short Circuit
 Open Circuited Winding
 Winding Looseness due to Transportation
 Residual Magnetization
 Floating Shield
It should be noted that the effects of deformations on the FRA measurements vary with transformer type
and design. The same deformation type may affect different transformers differently. Frequency ranges for
failure modes given in tables below are approximate and might be some overlap between ranges.
6.5.1 Radial winding deformation – “Hoop Buckling”
Radial winding deformation or “Hoop Buckling” is a winding compressive failure that is characterized by a
pronounced change to the windings radial geometry. This type of failure can result from the high current
electromagnetic forces caused by high over-current faults. The winding is subjected to high radial
compressive (inwards) forces and will end up “buckling” along its entire length. The forces are
concentrated on the inner windings. Radial winding deformation occurs in two forms, free and forced.
Radial winding deformation affects the FRA measurements as follows:
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Table 7 —Radial winding deformation
Radial winding deformation

Frequency range
Assuming, no other failure modes exist:
20 Hz – 10 kHz Open Circuit Tests:

This region (core region) is generally unaffected during radial winding deformation.
Short Circuit Tests:
Results in an increase in impedance. The FRA trace for the affected phase generally
exhibits slight attenuation within the inductive roll-off portion.
5 kHz – 100 kHz Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests:
The bulk winding range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys
depending of the severity of the deformation. However, this change is minimal and
difficult to identify. The changes will be greater for the affected winding, but it is
still possible to have the effects transferred to the other winding(s). The response in
the bulk region should be used as secondary evidence to support the analysis.
50 kHz – 1 MHz Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests:
Radial winding deformation is most obvious in this range. It can shift or produce
new resonance peaks and valleys depending on the severity of the deformation. The
changes will be greater for the affected winding, but it is still possible to have the
effects transferred to the other winding(s).
> 1 MHz Open Circuit and Short Circuit Tests:

This range is generally unaffected. However, severe deformation can extend into this
range.
Typical “Radial” winding deformation results are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
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Figure 2 —Radial movement response from LV open-circuit test
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Figure 3 —Radial movement response from HV short-circuit test
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6.5.2 Axial winding elongation – “Telescoping”
Axial winding movement includes two types of winding geometric changes. The winding is stretched or
“telescoped” and then tightens due to a reduction in the windings radius. The geometric variations induced
by this type of failure are complex and can lead to multiple resonances shifting across a broad frequency
range.
Table 8 —Axial winding deformation

Axial winding deformation
Frequency range Assuming, no other failure modes exist:

This region (core region) is generally unaffected during axial winding deformation.
Results in a change in impedance. The FRA trace for the affected winding causes a
difference between phases or previous results in the inductive roll-off portion.
Axial winding deformation is most obvious in this range. The bulk winding range
can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys depending of the severity of
the deformation. The changes will be greater for the affected winding, but it is still
possible to have the effects transferred to the other winding(s).
Axial winding deformation can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys
depending of the severity of the deformation. The changes will be greater for the
affected winding, but it is still possible to have the effects transferred to the other
winding(s).

The response to axial winding deformation is unpredictable.
Typical “Axial” winding elongation results are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
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Figure 4 —Axial movement from tertiary open-circuit tests
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Figure 5 —Axial movement response from HV short-circuit test
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6.5.3 Overall bulk movement
These related failure modes describe the overall movement of windings or sections of windings.
Considering a general movement of the winding, the causes could be due to a variety of reasons.
Generally, this type of failure is used to describe the movement of the coils due to physical shock as a result
of high current forces or transportation. Physical movement of the transformer could be due to shipping or
seismic activity.
Table 9 —Bulk winding deformation

Bulk winding deformation

This region (core region) is generally unaffected during bulk winding movement.
This region is generally unaffected during bulk winding movement. All phases
should be similar.
Bulk winding movement is most obvious in this range. Newly created resonance
peaks or valleys are the key indicator. The bulk winding range can shift or produce
new resonance peaks and valleys depending of the magnitude of the movement. The
changes will be greater for the affected phase.

Generally, this range remains unaffected. However, changes to the CL capacitance
can cause resonance shifts in the upper portion of this range.

Changes to the CL capacitance can cause resonance shifts.
6.5.4 Core defects
Core defects failures cause changes to the core’s magnetic circuit. Core defects can include burnt core
laminations, shorted core laminations, multiple/unintentional core grounds, lost core ground, and joint
dislocations.
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Table 10 —Core defects

Core defects
Frequency range
Assuming, no other failure modes exist:

These types of failures will affect the lower frequency regions generally below 10
kHz. Core defects often change the primary core resonance shape. Less weight
should be placed on shifting, because identifying core defects can sometimes be
masked by the effects of core residual magnetization. If the open circuit core appears
loaded, (i.e., looks like a short circuit response), this could indicate a core defect.
This region is generally unaffected during bulk winding movement. All phases
should be similar.
This range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys.
Generally, this range remains unaffected. However, if the fault is due to a core
ground issue, resonance shifts may appear in the upper portion of this range.

If the fault is due to a core ground issue, resonance shifts may appear in this range.
Typical “Core Defect” results are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.
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Figure 6 —Core defect response from LV open-circuit test
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Figure 7 —Loss of core ground from LV open-circuit test
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6.5.5 Contact resistance
Though not necessarily a classical failure mode, high contact resistance readings can be detected by FRA
testing. Any metal to metal mating surface that connects the bushings to the windings, LTC or DETC can
lead to higher impedances through the test circuit applied. The end result can cause changes in both the low
and highest frequencies. Poor contact resistance can be caused by connections that have worked themselves
loose, corrosion, contact build-up or burning.
Table 11 —Contact resistance

Contact resistance

This region (core region) is generally unaffected by the presence of contact
resistance.
The results will not compare well against previous data or amongst phases. The
affected winding is generally offset.
This range can shift or produce new resonance peaks and valleys. The changes will
be greater for the affected phase.


Typical “Contact Resitance” results are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
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Figure 8 —Contact Resistance response from LV open-circuit test
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Figure 9 —Contact Resistance response from HV short-circuit test
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6.5.6 Winding turn-to-turn short circuit
Turn-to-turn faults are arguably one of the easier failure modes that can be identified by the FRA test.
Turn-to-turn short-circuits can occur between two neighboring turns or between phases. The short can be
either a low impedance solid short or high resistance leakage path.
Table 12 —Winding turn-to-turn short circuit

Winding turn-to-turn short circuit

The short circuit failure mode removes the effect of the core’s reluctance from the
open circuit FRA results. The FRA open circuit trace assumes a similar behavior as
the short circuit test. The affected winding will show the greatest change. This
failure mode will also affect the FRA responses for all other windings, but not as
much.


Typical “Turn-to-Turn Short” results are shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11.
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Figure 10 —Turn-to-Turn short response from HV open-circuit test
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Figure 11 —Turn to turn short response from HV short-circuit test
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6.5.7 Open-circuit winding
An open circuit can be caused by connections that come loose or coils that become burned through due to a
catastrophic thermal failure. The end result is very high impedances being inserted into the measurement
circuit. It is common that the transfer function will drop across a wide spectrum. For complete open
circuits, the results will often be lost in the noise floor of the measurement.
Table 13 —Open circuit winding

Open circuit winding

The primary core resonance shape changes to account for the faulty winding.
The open circuit winding influence is most obvious in this range. Newly created
predominant resonance peaks or valleys are the key indicator. This range can shift or
produce new resonance peaks and valleys. The changes will be greater for the
affected phase.

Typical “Open Circuit” results are shown in Figure 12, Figure 13, and Figure 14.
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Figure 12 —Open-circuit response from HV open-circuit test
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Figure 13 —Open-circuit response from LV open-circuit test
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Figure 14 —Open-circuit response from HV short-circuit test
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6.5.8 Winding looseness due to transportation
Winding looseness can be described as the gradual spreading of the disk-to-disk or turn-to-turn distances
axially along a winding. This is particularly a transportation issue where before and after transportation
transfer functions are compared on windings without oil and with transportation terminals for the winding
leads.
Winding looseness can occur during the transportation of a transformer when the blocking becomes loose
and allows the winding to expand axially. The FRA does not detect loose blocks, but it detects the loose
winding as a result of the loose blocking. FRA tests on windings without oil produce trace activity in higher
frequencies because of reduced winding capacitances.
A typical loose high voltage disk winding result after transportation with a continually increasing
difference for higher frequencies from 2 MHz to 5 MHz is shown in Figure 15. Winding looseness was
verified with a one inch tap distance with a one pound hammer on the key row spacers.
Table 14 —Winding looseness due to transportation

Loose winding

This region is generally unaffected by the presence of winding looseness.
500 kHz – 2 MHz Open Circuit Tests:

This range can produce some detectable increasing differences in the transfer
functions with increasing frequency. The differences will be greater for the most
affected windings.
1 MHz – 5 MHz Open Circuit Tests:
This range produces the largest increasing differences in the transfer functions with
increasing frequency. The differences will be greater for the most affected
windings.
Typical “Transportation Winding Looseness” results are shown in Figure 15:
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Figure 15 —Winding looseness
6.5.9 Residual magnetization

Though not necessarily a failure, residual magnetization within the core must be identified, so as not to be
mis-interpreted as an actual fault. Residual magnetization is the flux density that remains in the core steel.
DC winding resistance testing, switching operations, and geomagnetic phenomena are sources of residual
magnetism. Residual magnetization can be identified by the shifting of the low frequency core resonance
to the right compared to the demagnetized results. Residual magnetization can be removed by
demagnetizing the core, and should be conducted if there is concern about the condition of the core.
6.5.10 Floating shield with local insulation carbonization
An example of an inner floating static shield on the delta connected, 115 kV, layer winding is shown in
Figure 16 with the FRA results in Figure 17. The transformer was removed from service due to a DGA test
of 120 ppm of acetylene. A phase-to-phase FRA comparison was used since there was no benchmark FRA
test for this unit. The copper braid tying the shield strips together was moved to the side in Figure 15 to
show the results of the high impedance connection. A horizontal cut was also made to show the carbon
deposits and punctures through a small portion of the insulating paper layers between the high and low
voltage windings.
The insulation resistance test, TTR test, and 10kV PF tests were in the normal range as removed from
service. The H1H2 winding FRA trace is significantly different from the H2H3 and H3H1 traces as
indicated by different peak and valley frequencies across the 3 MHz frequency range.
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The shield has been separated from the end of the winding by a higher resistance connection and could
heavily damp the normal high series resonance peaks. The semi-conducting carbon bridging some of the
paper insulation layers could also add to the damping effect of the resonance peaks.
Figure 16 —Teardown of floating static shield
Table 15 —Floating shield with local insulation carbonization

Floating Shield
Frequency Range Assuming, no other failure modes exist:
< 100 kHz Open Circuit Tests:

This region can present some detectable response.
100kHz –500 kHz Open Circuit Tests:
This range can present a very detectable response with changes in peaks and valleys.
1 MHz – 3 MHz Open Circuit Tests:
This range produces the largest differences in peaks and valleys of the transfer
functions.
The “Floating Shield with Local Insulation Carbonization” results are shown in Figure 17.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure 17 —Floating shield
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
6.6 Modeling
Practically, there are two methods to obtain the frequency response characteristic of a transformer winding.
The first is to make physical measurements on the physical transformer winding structure.
The second is to model the transformer analytically for example with an RLC network, and mathematically
compute the desired response curves. The advantage of this is that all locations are mathematically
accessible and it is possible to simulate “fault” conditions without physically damaging a transformer.
The challenge is to build a valid and accurate analytic model. As discussed in the FRA theory section, it is
necessary to represent the complete three phase transformer in order to simulate an accurate FRA response.
A complete model of the windings can be constructed using a series of n-stage ladder networks such as
shown in Figure 18 to cover the required frequency range.
Figure 18 —n stage ladder network of a transformer
The inductance matrix would include the core and the leakage inductances, whereas the capacitance matrix
would include the shunt and series capacitances. Conductor loss and dielectric loss are represented as
resistance, which is frequency-dependent. The effect of any three-phase connections is recreated by further
extension of the model. The end result can be a very large model to be solved in the frequency domain,
requiring lengthy computation, but with modern computers, this is no longer a problem. It has been shown,
however, that it is feasible to make certain simplifications to the model and its component matrices without
loss of accuracy in the critical regions of the response curve [B7].
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
It is obviously important to understand the difference between the physical device and the mathematical
model that is used. However, if an existing transformer is modeled that has had sufficient FRA
measurements carried out both during and after its construction; it is possible to validate the model with a
good degree of confidence [B4].
It is now possible to use the validated model to simulate particular physical changes, such as winding
damage or movement, in order to see the changes to the frequency response. Sensitivity studies, effects of
different connections, etc., can now be carried out to aid the use of the FRA diagnosis tool and improve the
ability to make confident interpretation of response curve changes.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Annex A
(informative)
FRA theory
Frequency response analysis (FRA) is a technique that is used to diagnose the condition, or more
importantly the change of mechanical condition, of a transformer by analyzing the transformer winding’s
frequency characteristic. FRA provides internal diagnostic information using non-intrusive procedures.
The technique consists of measuring the FRA magnitude, see Clause 2, Definitions, e.g., admittance (the
current at the response end of the winding divided by the voltage at the other input end of the winding) of
the transformer winding largely comprised of capacitive and inductive elements. The measurement is
performed over a wide range of frequencies and the result is compared with a reference “signature” or
“fingerprint” result of the winding to make a diagnosis.
The measurements are generally made across the two terminals of a winding (across the winding) to derive
the winding end-to-end frequency response in the form of magnitude against frequency as for the
commonly used admittance is given by Equation (A.1).
V2 f
A f 20 log10 , dB (A.1)
V1 f
Where
A is the amplitude calculated at a specific frequency f in dB

V1 is the source voltage applied at one end of winding
V2 is the measured quantity at the other end of the winding
In theory, the second measurement V2 is a replica of the current response at one end of winding to the
injected voltage at the other end of the winding. Therefore, the winding end-to-end response can be
regarded as the “virtual” self-admittance of the winding.
The measured response is usually shown graphically by plotting the logarithmic amplitude ratio of the
output voltage to input voltage in dB (y-axis) against the frequency (x-axis). The frequency scale can be
logarithmic or linear. Both are used, although the logarithmic often shows the complete frequency range
more clearly. The linear scale is useful for looking at discrete frequency bands and to compare small
differences at particular frequencies. Typical responses of the LV windings of a transformer (see [B10])
are shown below using both logarithmic, Figure A.1, and linear scales, Figure A.2.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure A.1—Logarithmic frequency response
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure A.2—Linear frequency response
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
As can be seen, the Frequency Response of a transformer winding (often called the FRA response curve) is
quite complex and consists of decreasing and increasing magnitude (in dB) with respect to frequency. The
various resonances (maxima) and anti-resonances (minima) are determined by the electrical characteristics
of the transformer winding. These characteristics can be represented by the transformer equivalent circuit
and would include the elements of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The inductance and capacitance
values in this equivalent circuit are determined by winding structure & geometry, and insulation structure
& clearance, and the resistance is contributed by conductive loss and dielectric loss.
In order to better understand and interpret possible changes to the FRA response, it is useful to understand
which elements are responsible for the various regions and shapes of the response curve. This can be
realized by examining the individual responses of the various elements and their combinations.
Taking the simplest representation of a single winding as a lumped circuit elements network, and initially
ignoring the inductive and capacitive couplings between windings, the end-to-end frequency response of a
winding is dependent on how the elements in this network behave together at different frequencies.
At low frequencies, a transformer winding behaves as an inductive element, and the end-to-end FRA
response follows a falling magnitude trend across the frequency range with a linearly decreasing slope of
approximately –20 dB per decade. A higher inductance causes the magnitude to decrease. Power
transformers with higher voltage and larger power rating usually have larger negative response magnitudes
at low frequencies. Effectively there are two inductance components affecting the frequency response; one
is the core magnetizing inductance, and the other is the leakage inductance of the winding. Each affects the
response in a different frequency region. The former affects the FRA response in the lower frequency
region up to ~100 Hz while the latter influences the FRA response at higher frequencies.
At high frequencies, a transformer winding behaves as a capacitive element, and the end-to-end FRA
response follows a rising magnitude trend across the frequency range with a linearly increasing slope of
approximately 20 dB per decade. A higher capacitance causes the magnitude to increase. Power
transformers having both higher voltage and larger power rating usually have smaller negative response
magnitudes at high frequencies.
The combination of winding inductance and winding series capacitance results in paralleled inductance and
capacitance. LC in parallel will produce parallel anti-resonance at a certain frequency, blocking the signal
at that particular frequency. This consequently produces a local anti-resonance in the magnitude response
at that particularly frequency.
In the case that the winding series capacitance is relatively small (a single layer winding or a plain disc
winding as an example), the shunt capacitance becomes significant. The combination of winding
inductance and shunt capacitance will result in inductance and capacitance in series and produce series
resonance. The simplest representation of LC in series is a T-connection where the shunt capacitance is
connected in the middle of the two halves of the winding inductance. The end-to-end FRA response of a
T–connected LC network shows a series resonance at a certain frequency, amplifying the signal at that
particular frequency. This consequently produces a resonance at that particularly frequency.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure A.3— Parallel and series resonant point
The effect of resistance on the end-to-end FRA response is to attenuate (smooth) the sharpness of the
resonances and the anti-resonances. Conductor loss and dielectric loss are represented as resistance, which
is frequency-dependent. In the equivalent circuit of a transformer winding, these are either connected in
series with the inductance or connected in parallel with the capacitance.
However, even in a single winding, these basic LC components are produced by mutual coupling between
turns and parts of a winding, effectively resulting in a network of multiple lumped parameters. Figure A.4
and Figure A.5 show firstly, the inclusion of mutual coupling and secondly, the inclusion of losses.
Figure A.4—n-stage lumped network with mutual coupling
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure A.5—n-stage lumped ladder network with losses
Thus, the winding equivalent circuit now comprises multiple distributed parameters, and the frequencies of
the resonances are determined primarily by the winding leakage inductance L, the shunt capacitance Cg,
and the winding series capacitance Cs. There are two extreme cases.
In the one case, when the winding series capacitance is small enough to be neglected (where Cs tends to
zero), there will be resonances with even frequency intervals. On the other hand, when the winding series
capacitance is extremely large (where Cg tends to zero), there will be no resonance at all. With low Cs, the
response begins with a flat magnitude trend and resonances at intervals of frequencies determined by the L,
Cg, and Cs values and then followed by a decreasing inductive trend. An anti-resonance appears at a
frequency determined by L and Cs, which is followed by the increasing capacitive trend. As Cs is
increased, some of the resonances diminish and the anti-resonance appears at a lower frequency. Diagrams
that explain this paragraph better can be found in reference [B12].
The relative proportions of the series capacitance (Cs) and the ground capacitance (Cg) are thus significant
in determining the FRA response for a specific winding structure. They determine not only which winding
type has the higher magnitude, but also the shapes and the position of the resonances and anti-resonances
and whether these appear at lower or higher frequencies.
In a “practical” transformer, there are at least two windings per phase and the interaction between these two
windings needs to be considered. In general, this interaction can be described by inductive and/or
capacitive coupling. There are also interactions between windings of different phases due to their electrical
connections, such as for a delta, or the sharing of the same neutrals. Windings not under test and not
electrically connected to the tested winding, will also have an impact on the frequency response through
mutual inductive and capacitive couplings.
Summary of Effects
Knowledge of the above effects and the response “shapes” for different windings and combinations of
windings is useful in making diagnostic interpretation of changes to the FRA response curves.
Figure A.6 and [B10] shows typical frequency responses for the HV windings of an autotransformer taken
from 10 Hz up to 10 MHz and shown on the logarithmic scale. The frequency range can be divided into 4
regions depending on the dominant influence of the various electrical properties of the transformer with
frequency.
The frequency regions described here are typical but not exact, and they would be slightly varied depending
on transformer design and arrangement.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Figure A.6—Frequency region responses
Region 1 - Core Effect
At low frequency (below 2 kHz), the frequency response begins with the decreasing magnitude of -
20dB/decade. This is due to the magnetizing inductance of the core. This is then followed by a
minimum which occurs due to the series resonance between the magnetizing inductance of the core
and the total capacitance of the transformer. In this example, the B phase is clearly different from the
other two phases due to the different magnetic reluctance path of the middle leg of a three-limb core.
Region 2 - Interaction Between Windings
Between 2 kHz –20 kHz, the frequency response is influenced by the interaction between the
windings as well as by how the windings and neutrals are connected and terminated (open/closed
delta; floating/grounded).
Region 3 - Effect of Winding Structure of the Winding under Test
From 20 kHz up to 1 MHz, the winding structure will heavily influence the frequency response. In
this example, the FRA plot for this frequency range has less resonances and anti-resonance and a
mainly capacitive raising trend, due to the high series capacitance of the HV winding.
Region 4 - Effect of Leads of Taps and Earthing leads
Beyond the frequency of 1MHz, the trend of the frequency response is irregular and complex,
influenced by the tap leads and the measurement earthing leads.
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IEEE Std C57.149-2012
Annex B
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] CIGRE Technical Brochure no. 342, “Mechanical-Condition Assessment of Transformer Windings
using Frequency Response Analysis (FRA),” 2008.
[B2] Dick E. P. and Erven C. C., “Transformer Diagnostic Testing by Frequency Response Analysis,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,” Vol. PAS-97, No.6, Nov.- Dec. 1978, pp 2144-
2153.
[B3] IEEE Std C57.12.80™-2002, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.
[B4] Jayasinghe, J. A. S. B., Wang, Z. D., Darwin, A. W. and Jarman, P. N., “Practical Issues in Making
FRA Measurements on Power Transformers,” 14th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering
(ISH-2005), Beijing, China, paper T07-96, August 25-29, 2005.
[B5] Lapworth, J. A., and Noonan, T. J., “Mechanical Condition Assessment of Power transformers
Using Frequency Response Analysis,” 1995 Conference of Doble clients, Boston, Paper # 62PAIC95, pp.
8-14.1–8-14.32, 8-14A.1, and 8-14B.1–8-14B.2, 1995.
[B6] Lech W. and Tyminski L, “Detecting transformer winding damage—the low voltage impulse
method,” Electric. Review, no. 18, ERA, UK, 1966.
[B7] Li, J., Charalambous, C., and Wang, Z. D., “Interpretation of FRA Results Using Low Frequency
Transformer Modeling,” XV International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, University of
Ljubljana, Elektroinštitut Milan Vidmar, Ljubljana, Slovenia, August 27-31, 2007
[B8] Noonan, T. J., “Power Transformer Condition Assessment and Renewal. Frequency Response
Analysis Update,” Conference of Doble clients, Boston, 1997.
[B9] Ryder, S. A., “Diagnosing Transformer Faults Using Frequency Response Analysis,” IEEE
Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 19, no 2, pp. 16-22, March/April 2003.
[B10] Sofian, D. M., “Transformer FRA Interpretation for Detection of Winding Movement,” PhD thesis,
University of Manchester, July 2007.
[B11] Wang, Z. D., Li, J., and Sofian, D. M., “Interpretation of FRA Responses – Part I: Influence of
Winding Structure,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 703-710, April 2009.
[B12] Wang, M., Vandermaar, J. A., and Srivastava, K. D., “Improved Detection of Power Transformer
Winding Movement by Extending the FRA High Frequency Range,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 1930-1938, July 2005.
[B13] Wang, M., Vandermaar, J. A., and Srivastava, K. D., “Transformer Winding Movement Monitoring
in Service –Key Factors Affecting FRA Measurements,” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 20, no
5, pp. 5-12, September/October 2004.
60

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IEEE Guide for the Application and

Interpretation of Frequency Response

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Guide for the Application and

Approved 5 December 2012

IEEE-SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2013 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-8226-1 STD98137

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Updating of IEEE documents

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Greg Anderson Ramsis S. Girgis Paulette Payne

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Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

3. FRA measurement overview ...................................................................................................................... 4

4. Making an FRA measurement .................................................................................................................... 6

6. Measurement analysis and interpretation ..................................................................................................20

Annex A (informative) FRA theory ..............................................................................................................53

Annex B (informative) Bibliography.............................................................................................................60

Test specimen: The particular winding or winding segment being tested.

3. FRA measurement overview

3.1 Use of FRA

 Factory short-circuit testing

3.2 FRA base line measurement

 To provide a standard of comparison for future diagnostic FRA measurements

3.3 FRA diagnostic application

 Verification that no damage occurred during a short circuit test

3.4 Recommended FRA measurement test parameters

The test equipment should have the following attributes:

 Calibrated to an acceptable standard.

4. Making an FRA measurement

4.1 Test procedures

4.2 Test environment preparation

4.3 Test object preparation

In instances where it is impossible to connect directly to a transformer bushing, it is possible to perform

4.4 Test set

4.5 Test leads

The following three coaxial leads should be used:

Figure 1 —General lead connection diagram

4.6 Measurement types

4.6.1 Open-circuit measurement

4.6.2 Short-circuit measurement

4.6.3 Capacitive inter-winding measurement

4.6.4 Inductive inter-winding measurement

 LTC – Extreme Raise

4.8 Test connections

 Table 1–Two winding transformers

Table 1 —Two winding transformers – 15 tests

Table 2 —Autotransformer w/o tertiary – 12 tests

Test type Test # 3φ 1φ

Table 3 —Autotransformer with tertiary – 33 tests

Table 4 —Autotransformer with buried tertiary – 18 tests

Table 5 —Three winding transformer Part 1 – 36 tests