Technical Handbook

technical.
Handbook
SIMONA Plastics
Plastic is possibly one of the most v ersatile and important
materials of the 20th and 21st century an integral part of life
as we currently know it. Today, plastics are capable of solving
problems in many different fields of application ranging from
industry and technology to automotive engineering, consumer
goods and medical devices.
Contents
1
1 Preface 7 3.14 Polycarbonate (PC) 25
2 Chemical fundamentals of plastics 8 4 Material specifications 27 3

2.1 Thermoplastics 8 4.1 PE 28
2.1.1 Amorphous thermoplastics 4.2 PP 30
without side groups 11 4.3 Rigid PVC 31
2.1.2 Amorphous thermoplastics with side groups 12 4.4 Foamed PVC 32
4
2.1.3 Partially crystalline thermoplastics 12 4.5 PETG, PVDF, ECTFE, PFA 33
2.1.4 Summary of thermoplastics 13
2.2 Thermoset plastics 14 5 Physical properties 34
2.2.1 Unsaturated polyester resins (UP) 14 5.1 Mechanical properties 34
2.2.2 Epoxy resins (EP) 15 5.1.1 Mechanical properties of thermoplastics 38 5
2.2.3 Phenacrylic resins (PHA) or 5.1.2 Tensile test 39
vinyl ester resins (VE) 15 5.1.3 Bending test 41
2.2.4 Phenolic resins (PF) 16 5.1.4 Pressure test 43
2.3 Elastomers 16 5.1.5 Torsion pendulum test 43
5.1.6 Ring shear test and segment shear test 44
3 General description of SIMONA 5.1.7 Pull-off test 45
thermoplastics 17 5.1.8 Testing notched impact strength 46
3.1 Polyethylene (PE) 17 5.1.9 Testing impact strength 46
3.2 Polypropylene homopolymer (PP-H) 18 5.1.10 Surface hardness 48
3.2.1 Isotactic polypropylene 18 5.1.10.1 Ball indentation hardness H as
3.2.2 Syndiotactic polypropylene 18 per DIN EN ISO 2039-1 48
3.2.3 Atactic polypropylene 19 5.1.10.2 Shore D hardness as per DIN EN ISO 868 48
3.3 Polypropylene copolymer (PP-C) 19 5.1.11 Wear properties 48
3.4 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) 20 5.1.11.1 Sand-slurry test 50
3.5 Post-chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) 21 5.2 Thermal properties 51
3.6 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) 21 5.2.1 Thermal conduction 51
3.7 Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE) 22 5.2.1.1 Heat capacity 52
3.8 Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) 22 5.2.1.2 Thermal conductivity 52
3.9 Perfluoroalkoxy copolymer (PFA) 23 5.2.2 Heat transfer 52
3.10 Glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate 5.2.3 Thermal expansion 53
(PETG) 24 5.2.4 Heat distortion temperature test 55
3.11 Polylactic acid (PLA) 24 5.3 Fire rating 55
3.12 Polyamides (PA) 25 5.3.1 Fire test as per DIN 4102 55
3.13 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 25 5.3.2 SBI test as per DIN EN 13823 57
technical.Handbook
5.3.3 Fire test as per FM 4910 58 9 Plastic physics 77
5.3.4 Fire tests as per UL 94 59 9.1 Stress types 77
5.4 Permeation 60 9.2 Reduction of inherent stresses 79
5.5 Water absorption 61 9.3 Heat stresses 80
5.6 Electrical properties 62 9.4 Influence of orientations on the
5.6.1 Electrical conductivity 62 properties of plastics 84
5.6.2 Dielectric properties 62 9.5 Shrinkage 84
5.6.3 Dielectric strength Ed in accordance with 9.6 Contraction 84
DIN 53481 / VDE 0303-1 63 9.7 Influences on component strength 85
5.6.4 Electric tracking resistance in accordance 9.7.1 Notch effect 85
with DIN 53480 / VDE 0303-1 64 9.7.2 Welding thermoplastics 86
5.6.5 Static 64 9.7.2.1 Weldability of material types 86
9.7.2.2 Welding methods 87
6 Chemical properties 65 9.7.2.3 Structural strength 87
9.7.2.4 Position of weld seams 88
7 Other properties 67 9.8 Stresses 89 6
7.1 Physiological safety 67 9.9 Stress cracking 92
7.1.1 Contact with food according to 9.9.1 Inherent stresses 93
European Directives 67 9.10 Calculation of permissible cold-bending radii 94
7.1.2 Contact with drinking water 68 9.11 Ageing 95
7.2 Radiation resistance 69 9.11.1 Ageing processes due to light 95
7
9.11.1.1 Photolysis 95
8 Long-term properties 70 9.11.1.2 Photo-oxidation 96
8.1 Test methods 70 9.11.2 Other ageing processes 96
8.1.1 Tensile creep test 70 9.11.3 Ageing tests 96 8
8.1.2 Internal pressure creep rupture strength test 70
8.1.3 Full notch creep test (FNCT) 71 10 Legal note and advice 99
8.1.4 Creep curves 71
8.1.5 Isochronous stress-strain diagrams 74 11 List of illustrations, tables
9
8.2 Structural analyses 75 and literature 100
8.3 Materials in tank construction requiring
mandatory test certificates 76
10
11
technical.Handbook
1 Preface
1
Plastic a word with highly emotive and contradictory As a manufacturer of thermoplastic products such as
connotations: On the one hand, it is seen as one of the semi-finished parts, pipes and fittings as well as finished
negative aspects of modern civilisation, particularly parts and components for various assemblies, SIMONA
against the backdrop of public debate concerning the AG is equally committed to identifying new products and
environment (marine littering being a case in point). fields of application.
On the other hand, however, plastic is possibly one of SIMONA AG was established by the Simon brothers as
the most versatile and important materials of the 20th a leather producer in as early as 1857. Our history as a
and 21st century an integral part of life as we currently company reflects the direction taken by industrial society
know it. Today, plastics are capable of solving problems as a whole. Against the backdrop of changing economic
in many different fields of application ranging from indus- conditions and technical innovation, our companys
try and technology to automotive engineering, consumer product range was transformed almost completely. Over
goods and medical devices. The origins of plastic, a the decades, SIMONA saw the transition from leather to
substance that is synthetic as opposed to being produ- premium-quality semi-finished plastics i.e. from a nat-
ced naturally, stretch far back to the beginning of the ural product to a product based on synthetic polymers
19th century. Whether natural rubber or derivatives manufactured at an industrial level.
produced from cellulose (celluloid), the 19th century The success of this paradigm shift within the company
heralded the dawn of early bioplastics (now becoming is a testament to our pioneering efforts in the field of
increasingly prominent thanks to intense marketing in semi-finished plastics and our commitment to devel-
response to current concerns over the environment and oping and evolving specific areas of application in close
debate centred around sustainability). This was followed collaboration with our customers. We have excelled not
by other mass-market plastics that are still in use today only as a result of our significant expertise surrounding
manufactured with the help of petrochemicals. the materials and processes used but also due to our
PVC, for example, was developed in a laboratory in the indepth knowledge of the individual fields of application
mid-1920s and first saw the light of day (at an industrial and the interactions of various materials within these
level) in around 1930. The first PVC pipes date back to specific areas.
this period. The mid-1940s saw the birth of polyethylene This book brings together our expertise in the field of
and polypropylene. The first industrial goods made of materials and applications. It has been compiled with
these plastics were launched in the 1950s. In industrial our customers in mind, i.e. for those people who, like
terms, this decade also marked the beginning for fluorin- SIMONA, have a keen interest in plastic as one of the
ated plastics such as Teflon (PTFE). most versatile materials imaginable for people who
The plastics boom reached its peak after the Second share our passion and are inspired by the many areas of
World War, contributing significantly to the buoyant era application that plastics can unlock. It is to be seen as
of post-war industrialisation. In actual fact, however, the a reference book, training manual and source for new
development of specialist plastics is far from over. Like- ideas. With this in mind, we hope you enjoy reading this
wise, there are many fields of application that have yet to book and look forward to any comments you might have.
be unlocked. New groups of material are being enginee-
red and prepared for mass production in particular within SIMONA AG
the area of specialty or functionalised components. Technical Service Centre/Applications Engineering
technical.Handbook 7
2 Chemical fundamentals of plastics
In nature there are numerous biopolymers but the 2.1 Thermoplastics

plastics commonly used nowadays are polymers that are
Thermoplastics consist of long polymers that are linked
synthetically manufactured from oil, natural gas and coal
with one another by so-called van der Waals bonds.
or by conversion of natural products (e.g. sugar, etc.).
These purely physical bonds are based on the interaction
They are defined as organic compounds that are made
of electric dipoles, just as opposite magnetic poles
up of macromolecules with a molecular mass of > 104 u
attract each other and like poles repel each other. The
(1 u = 1/12 of the mass of 12C). Macromolecules are
strength, or to be more precise, the energy of the bond
made up of individual units, monomers. Macromolecules
depends on the polarity of the macromolecules in this
are also described as oligomers and polymers; they have
case. Generally speaking, these interactions are termed
different molar masses and chain lengths:
dispersion forces, which are divided up into London
forces, Debye forces and Keesom forces and the bond
Oligomers = 1.000 10.000
energy of which increases in that order. Bond energy W is
Polymers = > 10.000
inversely proportional to the sixth power of the distance r
of the molecules in relation to one another:
The above definition is so general that even many natural
materials would be classified as plastics. They include
W ~ r-6.
wood, leather, cotton, wool, hemp, silk, etc., some of
which have been used as materials since time immemor-
The van der Waals forces are a special class of Keesom
ial. It is also necessary to distinguish between biological
forces. The hydrogen bridge bond in turn is categorised
polymers and synthetic polymers. Most polymers are
as a van der Waals force. In terms of quality, bond energy
based on polysaccharides, i.e. sugars containing many
can be characterised by melting point, tensile strength
carbohydrate units, whereas synthetic plastics are largely
or modulus of elasticity; the latter, however, has to be
based on the ability of the carbon atom to form homo-
within the elastic energy range. Since the bond is purely
polar bonds (atomic bonds). This type of bond can have
physical, the individual macromolecules can, provided
a high degree of stability, as demonstrated in a diamond,
the supply of heat is sufficient, shear off one another
for example, in which only carbon atoms are arranged
without the bond being destroyed. The thermoplastic
in a lattice. Plastics generally consist of carbon and
softens and melts at relatively high temperatures. This
hydrogen; it is also possible to replace these elements
purely physical process is reversible so this property
with others such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens or even
makes it possible to weld thermoplastics to one another.
carbon.
In a welded seam the mechanical and chemical properties
achieved are virtually identical to those of the substrate.
As already mentioned above, systematic classification
However, the welding process is subject to slight degrad-
of plastics is based on the monomers of which they are
ation mechanisms, although judging from many years
composed. In addition, it is also possible to divide the
of experience they do not have any negative impact on
various plastics into the following groups, depending on
stability.
their temperature-dependent mechanical properties:
thermoplastics, elastomers and thermoset plastics.
8 technical.Handbook
2
Thermoplastics are divided up into amorphous ones and

partially crystalline ones. Amorphous thermoplastics
have a microstructure in which the molecular chains are
distributed in a virtually random (amorphous) manner
(Figure 1).
Figure 2: Structural model of a partially crystalline thermoplastic
In industry, a very wide variety of thermoplastics are

used, depending on the application. The following table
(Table 1) is designed to provide an overview of the most
important thermoplastics and their monomers.
Figure 1: Structural model of an amorphous thermoplastic
Partially crystalline thermoplastics, on the other hand,

have regions in which the molecular chains are parallel
(crystalline regions) (Figure 2). These regions, in turn,
separate amorphous areas. Thermoplastics usually
crystallise to such an extent that the crystallites are
arranged in superstructures called spherulites. Such
crystallites have a higher density and order than amor-
phous regions. As crystallinity increases, transparency
decreases. The plastic becomes translucent (opaque,
translucid).
Plastic Monomer Monomer formula
Polyethylene (PE) Ethylene
CH3 Cl F F F R O F
H2C CH2 H2C R = CnF
F F F F F F
Polypropylene (PP) Propylene

Cl F F F R O F
Cl
CH 3
ClCH
Cl 3 F F F F R O F
HHH
22C
2CC CH2
HH2CC R = CnF2
H2C CH2 2 H 2C R = CnF2n+1
Cl F F F F OF F
F F F F F F F
H3C
O
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) Vinylidene chloride F
O
CH3 OHCl
Cl
F
Cl
F R O F CH3
H2C Cl F R = CnF2n+1
H2C CH2 H C Cl H C F O
H2C H22C OF FH22C F F H2C F F O
Cl F O
OCl FOH H3C
HO H3C CH2 O
OH CH3 Cl O F F F R OO F
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Vinylidene fluoride O
O H C CH3
Cl OH F H2C CH2 Cl H2FC 2 CH3
OH Cl CH3 F F R O
F FFCH3
F F F
O
F
H2C H C H C R = CnFO2n+1 CH3
H22C CH2 H22C O O O
Cl O F F F F F F F
CH3 O Cl F F F OHR HO
3C F
O H HOO OH HO O R = C F CH2
H2C CH2 H2C N CH2 n 2n+1 O
OH F H3NF Cl F
F F O
ClF O
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Vinyl chloride
OH OH H C CH3 F H 2C CH3
Cl 2 H2C NH3 H C H 2C CH 3 O
Cl F O 2 CH3O O
H C H C Cl O F CH O
O 2 H2C HOO H3COH
2 3
Cl
CH3
O O F OCl
OH O H C CH C
Cl HOCl 3
OF CH2 3
H O O O
HOH
2C HH 2C O H2NC O CH3
N OH O
Glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETG) Terephthalic acid and ethylene
Cl glycol OH H3N O H 2C CHCH
H3N F NH3 OH
O
3 3 O OH
NH
O H 3 3C CH
O3
R OO CH33 O
CH O
R
O O+ R' O OH HO + O OH
O HO R OH
O HOH O HO H CH H
OH O
OHO OH OCH CH3 CH32 Cl Cl OC
H O OH O CH3 Cl
O
2 O
N OH Epoxid O H 2C
O H3N O H C CH
Polystyrene (PS) Styrene NH3
2
O
3
O OH OH OH
CH
CHOH OH
HO O CH2
3
O OCH3 O 3
R HO R O OH
OH R O + + R R' R +
R' H H O R + Cl ClH H
H C CH
H O H O O N OHCH23 O
H 3H
O O
N OH
H3N H3N n
Epoxid CH3 NH3
Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene Ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene Epoxid NH 3 CH3
OH Cl CH F FOHR O F
O Cl H C FCH33 OF
CH Cl 3 F F
O F F OR O F
(ECTFE) CH H2C CH2 2 HO F R O FOH HO R = CnF2n+1 OH
H O
R R O H2C3 CH H2C O+ F F F F R =FC FF R = CnF
N + H R' H2C CH2 H2C R 2 O3 F Cln 2n+1ClCH3
H N
O
F F H H FCH F F F F
O 3 OH O F F F F
NH 3 O
CH3 n
Epoxid O Cl O OH
HO Cl OH OH F OH
Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene Ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene O (TFE) H2C H 2C H2C O O
R O RCl R ClF CH CH R Cl Cl FCl F OF R O F
Cl+CHH 3 R'
Cl F FCl 3R O + F
HF R H
3 F +
(ETFE) ClC CH + RHFHR'
H C H3C H H R = CnF
H2C CH2 O H
H2CO2C H 22 C 2
OHC H 2
2C
H2COH F R = C n F2n+1 O
H2C O H F F F O F F
F F
Cl 2 F F F FF O O n
EpoxidCl EpoxidOH OH F OH CH3
O H3C H C
O3
R O O
R R'
O
+
Perfluoroalkoxy polymers (PFA) + H of TFE and
Copolymer consisting R Cl O F O
CH3 F FHO H R H OOH F O CH CH3
O Cl
OH Cl OH F F OHF Cl R O F Cl F 2 CH
perfluoroalkoxy
H2C CH2 vinyl CHCl
Hether
23C OHF R = CnF2n+1 3 O
HH22CC Cl F F FR OHF2C F F n O CH3
H2C CH CH
Epoxid
2 3 H2C F H2C O FH2C F R=F CH nF2C
2n+1 O H2C
OO
H2C CH2 H2C Cl O FF FF FF F Cl R = FCFnF2n+1 F O F
CH3 Cl OF F R O OH H3C 3
CH
H2C CH2 H2C O F F F F
OH F HO RH=3CCnF2n+1 O
HO CH O CH2 O
F F F FH O F F 2 O
Polyamide 6 (PA6 Perlon) or -Caprolactam or hexa-methylenediamine
Cl OH (HMD) OH N O O
H 2CCH3 CH3
OH Cl F OH H3N CH 3 H 2C CH 3 O
polyamide 6.6 (PA6.6 Nylon) and adipic acid ClH(as
2C hexamethylene
ClH2C diamine
F H 2C
NH 3
CH3 O O
OO O
Cl H2C HCl
Cl adipate)2C F H2C O O HO CH3 OH CH 3
O F OHOC
H2C HCl
2C Cl C
H2Cl F O O CH3 Cl Cl
O F OH O or 3 OH
ClH C F H O H C HO O O CH
2 H2C HH2CO HO 3
CH2O 2 O
N H3COHN O O O OH
Polylactide (PLA) Cl LacticOHacid OH
OH anhydride F
H3N
O HO3N CH3
HNH CH3
O H2C CH3
OH RH3C CH R 2C 3 O
O + NH O O CH3
OR'3 3 R +
CH H O CH3 H H O
OH O O O3 OH O CH3 HO OH O OH
CH 3
O O HO
O
OH OH O Epoxid O CH n
O 3 Cl C
OO HO
OH H CHO O O CH ClCH3 Cl
HOO O 2 O 3
O OH OHH
O N ON
CH2 O OH C
HO CH CH
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, also known as O
OH Methacrylic methyl esters
OH H3(MMA)
N 2 O H3N H C 2
CH3NH O3
3
OH OH
OH HO CH2 NH3 H C
2 OH O OH
CH
acrylic glass or Plexiglas) CH3O CH3O O CH3 O 3 O
HOO
2 R
OH RO R+ R' O CH3 + OH
R HO H2CO CH3 +R OH
O + H R' H R
CH O CH OH O H H Cl H
CH3
H Cl C
H O OO 3 Cl
O OH 3
H O N O Epoxid
CH
O 3 n
Polycarbonate (PC, also known as Makrolon) H O N Bisphenol H3N Epoxid
N H3NA and phosgene NH3 OH OH
H OH3N NH3 O OH CH3 O OH O
O
N NH3 O R R HO CH3 R OHO +
H3NR O R' CH3 + H R' R
OO + H NHHO O HOR O+3OH
CH H H Cl Cl H H
O
3
O O CHOH 3 CH3
OHCl Cl
O O
O OH O
HO CHEpoxid ClOH Cl
OO 3 n
O Epoxid OH OH
O O CH Cl Cl
Table 1: Selection of thermoplastics and the (possible) associated monomers OH
3 O OH
R O R O + OH
+ H R' R OH R O
R R' + H H
+ O R R OH OH OH
R H + H H
+ H R' O R OH H H
O n
R Epoxid R n
10 O + H R' OH R + technical.Handbook
Epoxid H H n
Epoxid O OH
n
Epoxid
2
Alkenes with the molecular formula CnH2n are also refer- Polyethylene exists, for example, as PE-LD (Low Density),
red to as olefins and the macromolecules formed from PE-HD (High Density) and PE-UHMW (Ultra High Molecu-
them are termed polyolefins. In Table 1 only polyethylene lar Weight).
and polypropylene are classified as polyolefins. PE-LD is manufactured in a high-pressure process at
The monomers listed in Table 1 react with one another 1,000 3,000 bar and at temperatures of 150 300C.
by breaking up the double bond so that the carbon In this case, highly branched chains are formed.
atoms which were previously linked to one another by a PE-HD is manufactured in a mediumpressure process by
double bond each form a free valence (bond) to which means of solvent polymerisation in xylene at 150 180C
more monomers can attach. This process is also referred and at a pressure of about 35 bar, forming largely linear
to as polymerisation and the resulting macromolecules chains.
are termed polymers.
PE-UHMW is manufactured in a low-pressure process
On account of this reaction mechanism it is understan- using Ziegler catalysts at 20 150C and 2 50 bar,
dable that the monomers usually form unbranched creating virtually unbranched linear chains.
macromolecules, which in a union can be arranged in a
regular or random manner owing to the different physical
interactions. If the chain is regular, i.e. if the molecules 2.1.1 Amorphous thermoplastics without side groups
are arranged in parallel, this is referred to as crystallinity.
Amorphous thermoplastics consist of random molecular
In many instances it is not the case throughout the entire
chains as the spatial structure. This microstructure has a
workpiece so the material is referred to as partially crys-
crucial impact on the properties of the material. Among
talline. The amount of crystallinity is heavily influenced
other aspects, the material is transparent and when it is
by the incorporation of side chains or side molecules.
subjected to thermal processing there is less shrinkage
In such cases the result is often a partially crystalline
and contraction than with a partially crystalline mater-
thermoplastic. In addition, crystallisation can be comple-
ial, owing to the absence of (secondary) crystallisation.
tely prevented by incorporating foreign monomers into
An amorphous thermoplastic (Figure 1) is used below
the chain (copolymerisation). One example of this is the
the glass transition temperature TG. Here the material
copolymer EPDM made up of ethylene and propylene,
behaves in a linearly elastic manner. If the temperature
which solidifies amorphously (in a non-crystalline
continues to drop, the thermoplastic reacts and becomes
manner) by incorporating 30% propylene.
sensitive to impact. Above TG the amorphous thermo-
plastic begins to flow substantially and loses its service
In industrial engineering the above thermoplastics are
properties.
also modified by the manufacturing process and combin-
ation with foreign monomers and plasticizers.
linear elastic viscoelastic plastic 2.1.2 Amorphous thermoplastics with side groups
E
s This group of materials, as opposed to the previous one,
is in the vitreous state even at very low temperatures.
Melt
Service Owing to the molecular structure or the addition of

temperature appropriate additives, there are two successive ranges
above the glass transition temperature in which these
R
materials can be exposed to different applications.
TG FT ZT 1. Secondary relaxation range:

Figure 3: Mechanical properties of amorphous thermoplastics The side groups become mobile and the materials
thus become tougher. This is the actual service tem-
E = Modulus of elasticity perature range. Mechanical properties only change
TG = Glass transition temperature slightly.
s = Yield stress
R = Elongation at break 2. Primary relaxation range:
FT = Flow temperature range Amorphous areas soften and the material changes to
ZT = Decomposition temperature range the thermoplastic state.
For PVC-U the service temperature is between 0C and Typical materials in the SIMONA range of semi-finished
60C. Processing, such as forming for example, usually products are the more impact-resistant materials:
takes place above TG. In the temperature range above
the flow temperature range the thermoplastic starts to J SIMONA PVC-MZ-COLOR
melt. This temperature range is used for welding. J SIMONA PVC-GLAS-SX
Typical amorphous thermoplastics in the

SIMONA range of semi-finished products: 2.1.3 Partially crystalline thermoplastics
In terms of structure, partially crystalline materials have

J SIMONA PVC-CAW
partially parallel molecular chains (crystalline areas) and
J SIMOPOR-LIGHT/-ULTRALIGHT
ones with a three-dimensional felt structure (amorphous
J SIMONA COPLAST-AS/-AS-X
areas) (Figure 2). These completely opposite structures
J SIMONA PVC-GLAS
lead to different types of behaviour at changing tempera-
J SIMOLUX
tures, so with this material as well the terms primary and
secondary relaxation range are justified. As opposed to
amorphous thermoplastics with side groups or copoly-
mers (polymerisation of different monomers to achieve
2
certain properties), the service temperature is between In the primary relaxation range, the crystalline melting
the primary and secondary relaxation ranges. At very low range, the crystalline components also soften. As tem-
temperatures (in the vitreous state) partially crystalline perature rises, the material changes to the molten state
thermoplastics are brittle and hence sensitive to impact. and becomes plastic.
In the secondary relaxation range, on the other hand, Typical materials in the SIMONA range of semi-finished
the amorphous components soften so the material products:
becomes resilient in the service temperature range. The
advantages of this material result from its toughness due J SIMONA PE-HD
to softened amorphous components and the existing J SIMONA PE 100
rigidity and hardness on account of frozen crystalline J SIMONA PP-H AlphaPlus / SIMONA PP-H natural
components. J SIMONA PVDF

J SIMONA ECTFE
brittle tough thermoplast. plast.
2.1.4 Summary of thermoplastics

E
s As is evident from the previous chapters, the molecular

arrangement has a considerable influence on the funda-
R mental properties of the particular group of materials.
Here is a comparison of the main characteristic features:
Amorphous thermoplastics have

TG FT ZT
Figure 4: Mechanical properties of partially crystalline thermo- J higher strength

plastics J higher rigidity
J higher surface hardness
E = Modulus of elasticity J higher surface quality
TG = Glass transition temperature J less thermal expansion
s = Yield stress J less distortion tendency
R = Elongation at break
FT = Flow temperature range Partially crystalline materials, on the other hand, have
ZT = Decomposition temperature range
J higher expansibility
J higher impact strength
It should be noted that the properties and behaviour of Thermoset plastics are classified, inter alia, as unsatur-
plastics, including thermoplastics, are heavily influenced ated polyester resins, epoxy resins, phenacrylic resins,
by the additives used. In this respect the abovementioned phenolic resins, furan resins and melamine resins.
properties should be regarded as neutral because their
assessment depends on the particular application and
product. The following chapters aim to provide further 2.2.1 Unsaturated polyester resins (UP)
information on this.
Unsaturated polyester resins are usually formed by melt
condensation from unsaturated bifunctional or polyfunc-
tional carboxylic acids or their anhydrides, saturated
2.2 Thermoset plastics
dicarboxylic acids and dialcohols. The double bonds of
Thermoset plastics are made from low-molecular-weight unsaturated carboxylic acids remain in the condensed
reaction resins that irreversibly react with one another resins as reactive sites for subsequent cross-linking. The
chemically to create a three-dimensional network when saturated acid compounds regulate chain length, reactiv-
chemical compounds (hardeners) are added or heat, ity as well as the physical and chemical properties of the
pressure or light energy is applied (Figure 5). thermoset plastic. The name polyester refers to the ester
groups in the macromolecules.
Various acids and dialcohols are of special technological

interest. The selection of individual components depends
to a large extent on the required mechanical and chem-
ical properties of the hardened polyester. For the various
components, please refer to the literature [2].
Figure 5: Structural model of a thermoset plastic The names of the various polyesters often include the
name of the glycol and/or that of the carboxylic acid.
This reaction is also termed cross-linking reaction. The There are ophthalic acid polyesters, bisphenol A polyes-
starting materials used are normally linear, low-molecular- ters or also terephthalic acid polyesters, to give just a
weight reaction resins that contain additional reactive few examples.
groups or double bonds and can thus continue to react
(cross-link). Polyesters are usually either viscous or solid, so for
further processing they are dissolved in solvents (e.g.
Owing to the chemical bonds in the cross-linked thermo- styrene) that also contain a double bond. Linear poly-
set plastics, they cannot melt, as opposed to thermo- ester chains are then cross-linked with one another via
plastic materials, nor can they be welded to one another. monomers, which also serve as solvents for those resins.
Therefore, they are used in a very wide range of indus- When selecting monomers, care must be taken to ensu-
trial sectors. re that the polyester is readily soluble in it and the rate
2
of self-polymerisation of the reactive solvent (reactive The hardening of an epoxy resin is a polyaddition
diluent) is lower than that of copolymerisation with the reaction. Here, polymerisation of the epoxide groups
UP resin. The solvent that is most important from a tech- is of minor importance. Hardeners used are carboxylic
nological aspect is styrene. acid anhydrides and polyamines. Hardeners are usually
However, other reactive diluents can be used such as incorporated into the finished product so the dosage of
methyl methacrylate, diallyl phthalate or triallyl cyanurate, hardener is in an equimolar ratio regarding the reactive
although these do then bring about different properties groups of resin and hardener [2].
CH3 Cl F F F R O F
in the polyester mixture and the
H2C CH2 H2C hardened polyester. R = CnF2n+1
F
Polymerisation of unsaturated polyesters is triggered by F F F F F
Since epoxy resins are often highly viscous, reactive dilu-
radicals that are supplied by organic peroxides. Peroxides ents, which themselves possess epoxide groups and can
decompose in heat or they are catalysed by accelerators, thus participate in the cross-linking reaction, are added
Cl
even at room temperature, Cl
to form radicals that open F to improve processing. Consequently, the properties of
H2C H 2C H2Cand the
the existing double bonds of the reactive diluent an epoxy resin areOsubstantially influenced by the harde-
Cl F
polyester. In industry the hardener often used is methyl ner and reactive
H3C diluent used.
O
ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP).
O
OH CH3
The energy released in the reaction, which takes the O
2.2.3 Phenacrylic resins (PHA) or vinyl ester resins
O
form of heat, promotes the formation of radicals. The re- (VE)
O OH
HO
sulting temperature can be above 200C and in extreme CH2
OHit can even destroy the polyester if the reaction Vinyl ester resins are formedOfrom an epoxy resin and
cases CH3 they are termed
H2C acid. Nowadays
an unsaturated organic O
heat is not dissipated quickly enough.
phenacrylic resins. CH3
H O In contrast to UP resins, the reactive double bonds are

2.2.2N Epoxy resins (EP)
H3N only located at the ends of the molecule. Consequently,
NH3
CHcomplete
3
Epoxy resins are made up of epoxides withOfunctional a rapid and O takes place with
reaction usually
HO OH
groups and compounds O which, owing to the catalytic the copolymers during the hardening process. Therefore,
O CH3 Cl Cl
release of hydrogen (actively) to the epoxide group, bind chemical attack by hydrolysis, or by opening of remaining
O
to the epoxide in an addition reaction (Figure 6). C=C double bonds due to oxidation or halogenation, is
OH OH
O
of minor importance. For this reason, cured vinyl ester
R R
+ R' R + are more resistant to chemical attack than unsat-
resins
H H H
O OH urated polyester resins or epoxy resins.
n
Epoxid
Epoxide
Another advantage is attributable to the secondary hy-

Figure 6: Addition reaction of an epoxide
droxyl groups in the vinyl ester resin, which can interact
with siliceous fillers and glass, thus providing greater
mechanical strength in bonds with glass fibres.
Vinyl ester resins with a higher heat deflection tempera- The aldehyde used by industry is formaldehyde or para-
ture are manufactured from epoxidated novolacs, acrylic formaldehyde. Depending on the type of phenolic resin,
Cl F and/or
acid F
F methacrylic O [2]. F
Racid hardening is performed in heat ( 140C) or by adding
R = CnF2n+1 an acid or alkaline catalyst (cold setting).
F F F F F F
As with unsaturated polyester resins, the monomer
normally used for cross-linking is styrene, in which phen-
acrylic resin is dissolved. However, it is also possible 2.3 Elastomers
F to use other monomers with a double bond, as with UP
H 2C As opposed to thermoset plastics, elastomers are only
O resins is performed by heat,
resins. Hardening of the VE
F weakly cross-linked. They cannot be melted but can be
H3C which leads to the formation of
peroxides or radiation, O stretched and elastically deformed at low temperatures.
O way to that of UP resins. The
free radicals, in a similar
CH Elastomers, like natural rubber, silicone rubber and
peroxide often used is methyl ethyl3ketone peroxide
O synthetic elastomers such as polyisobutylene, are used
(MEKP) and the accelerators are cobalt octoate and
to make tyres and gaskets, for example.
amines such as dimethylaniline.
CH2 O
CH3 The description below only covers thermoplastics.
H2C
O
2.2.4 Phenolic resins (PF) CH3
Phenolic resins, also known as phenolic plastics, are
defined as synthetic resins that are formed by the con-
densation of phenols, phenol derivatives and aldehydes.
NH3
CHimportant
Apart from phenol, phenolic starting
O
3 O products
HOortho-, meta- and paracresolOH
are (methyl phenol), xylenols,
O CH3 Cl Cl
alkyl phenols, aryl phenols and resorcinol.
OH OH
O
R +
H H
n
Figure 7: Synthesis scheme of a methylene phenol group as a

structural element of a conventional phenolic resin consisting
of phenol and formaldehyde
3 General description of SIMONA thermoplastics
3.1 Polyethylene (PE) These branches reflect the degree of crystallinity, i.e.
the lower the number, the higher the crystallinity. At the
Of all the plastics, polyethylene has the simplest molecu-
same time, however, rising crystallinity means higher 3
lar structure due to its succession of CH2 segments.
density and a higher crystalline melting range.
Crystallinity Density Melting range

% g/cm3 C
PE-LD 40 50 0.92 0.94 130 145
PE-HD 60 80 0.95 0.97 130 145
Table 2: Specifications of PE
To assess the behaviour of different types of polyethyl-

ene, we use the chain length of a molecule with the re-
Figure 8: Various schematic representations of polyethylene sulting mean molecular weight M (sum of atomic weights
of all the atoms contained in a molecule).
Depending on the production process, polyethylene can
be manufactured with high or low density. The difference It should be pointed out that there are various methods
between the two is the number of branches (Figure 9 of determining molecular weight (e.g. light scattering, os-
and Figure 10). mosis, viscosity, mathematically according to Margolies).
However, the various methods can result in different
molar masses for the same material.
M possible M technically
common
Figure 9: High-density PE
PE-LD 5,000 50,000 20,000 50,000
PE-HD 6,000 4,000,000 ca. 100,000
PE-HMW 500,000 1,000,000 500,000
PE-UHMW > 1,000,000 Approx. 4,500,000

10,500,000
Table 3: Molecular weight in g/mol
M < 10,000 = wax-like

Figure 10: Low-density PE
Explanation of abbreviations:
LD = Low Density
HD = High Density
HMW = High Molecular Weight
UHMW = Ultra High Molecular Weight
A rising molecular weight causes the melt to have a 3.2 Polypropylene homopolymer (PP-H)
higher level of viscosity. Figure 11 shows a diagram of
As opposed to the symmetrical molecular structure of
property changes in relation to molecular weight.
PE, the monomeric unit of polypropylene contains a CH3
group (methylene side group). In the course of polyme-
Electrical properties risation the latter can have various spatial arrangements.
Chemical resistance
Impact
strength
Figure 12: Diagram of PP
Stress resistance
Specific weight
3.2.1 Isotactic polypropylene
Ageing
Abrasion All the CH3 groups are located on the same side of the
Hardness
Rigidity carbon chain and point outwards in a helical arrange-
Modulus of elasticity
ment.
Welding
Extrusion
Figure 13: Diagram of isotactic PP

Thermoforming
3.2.2 Syndiotactic polypropylene

IM 175.000 200.000 500.000 1.000.000
IM=Injection PE-HD PE 100 PE 500 PE 1000
The CH3 groups occur in a regular sequence, alternating
moulding
on different sides of the carbon chain.
Figure 11: Diagram of the properties of PE-HD in relation to
length of molecular chain
Figure 14: Diagram of syndiotactic PP
3.2.3 Atactic polypropylene SIMONA offers an -nucleated PP as standard in the
form of SIMONA PP-H AlphaPlus.
The CH3 groups do not follow any rule regarding their
3
position in relation to the main chain.
SIMONA semi-plastic products made of PP are of-

ten used in chemical apparatus construction, mainly

indoors, at temperatures between 0C and 100C.
Especially in the upper temperature range a higher level
of rigidity is desirable, which can be provided by using a
Figure 15: Diagram of atactic PP homopolymer.
For technical applications, isotactic PP must be regarded

as the main type because as isotacticity rises, so too do 3.3 Polypropylene copolymer (PP-C)
the level of crystallinity, melting point, tensile strength,
For some applications it is necessary to select a plastic
rigidity and hardness. That is why SIMONA PP-H natural
that provides a high service temperature compared to
and PP-H AlphaPlus semi-finished products are made
polyethylene but which is less rigid than a polypropylene
of isotactic PP.
homopolymer. In such cases, polypropylene copolymer
types are used. In this context we distinguish between
Compared to polyethylene, the properties of polypropyl-
PP block copolymers (PP-B), which are made up of two or
ene vary, despite the molecular structure being similar:
more large blocks of PP and PE, and PP random copoly-
mers (PP-R), which consist of propylene and ethylene
J lower density (0.91 g/cm3)
monomers in a random sequence.
J higher glass transition temperature
J higher melting point and hence higher dimensional
PP-B and PP-R are tougher, especially at low tempera-
stability under heat
tures below 5C. However, they have a lower level of
J PP homopolymers at low temperatures are brittle
rigidity than PP-H, particularly at temperatures above
whilst copolymers with ethylene are impact-resistant
60C.
The properties of polypropylene can be influenced by

SIMONA PP-C semi-finished products are block polymer
controlled crystallisation. PP homo-polymers chiefly
PP types (PP-B). In addition, our product range comprises
crystallise in the form of alpha () spherulites (spherical
sheets, welding rods, fittings and valves made of SIMO-
crystals). The addition of nucleation agents enables a
NA PP-R. Under certain circumstances (e.g. compliance
controlled, more uniform -crystal structure or the forma-
with the melt flow index range or filler proportion) PP-H
tion of beta () spherulites whilst -nucleated PP exhibits
can be combined or welded with PP-B or PP-R.
very good rigidity (high modulus of elasticity) even at
high temperatures. By contrast, -nucleated PP is more
Furthermore, there are other options for a copolymer as
flexible and has a raised level of impact resistance.
regards its constituent elements, e.g. alternating copoly-
mers or grafted copolymers. Apart from PP-C, acrylonit- 2. Suspension polymer (S-PVC)
rile butadiene styrene (ABS), styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) If the monomer is dispersed in a non-miscible medium
and butyl rubber are copolymers that are widely used in (often water) and a monomer-soluble initiator is added,
technical applications. the process is referred to as suspension polymerisation.
Polymerisation takes place in the dispersed monomer
droplets. The end product is transparent, universal in
3.4 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) terms of application and possesses good electrical
insulation properties.
PVC-U is a homopolymer with scarcely branched macro-
molecular chains having a molar mass M of between
3. Emulsion polymer (E-PVC)
40,000 and 150,000.
As opposed to suspension polymerisation, in emulsion
polymerisation a water-soluble initiator and emulsi-
fiers are added. For this reason, clouding can occur on
account of the emulsifier content required for polymer-
Figure 16: Diagram of PVC-U
isation. During storage, moisture can be absorbed,
having a negative influence on electrical insulation
The lateral chlorine atoms are spaced at random
properties.
(atactic) along the molecular chains. The large chlor-
ine atoms prevent a parallel arrangement of the main
Like polyolefins, PVC is manufactured as a homopolymer
chains. Crystallisation is therefore impossible. This
and copolymer. The copolymer components commonly
explains the amorphous molecular structure.
used are vinyl acetate and acrylonitrile. Copolymers are
tougher, more flexible and more impact resistant than
Depending on the manufacturing process of the PVC, we
homopolymers.
can distinguish between three types of polymerisation:
Since pure PVC does not have a balanced property

1. Mass polymer (M-PVC)
profile and tends towards thermal decomposition when
In substance polymerisation or mass polymerisation
subjected to further processing by extrusion, calendering
the vinyl chloride is provided with an initiator and poly-
or injection moulding, it has to be prepared by adding
merised without any solvent. Owing to the low content
processing aids and modifiers. Such additives include
of polymerisation aids, a very high degree of purity is
UV stabilisers, thermostabilisers, plasticizers, lubricants,
achieved. For this reason such a PVC-U can be used to
pigments, fillers, impact resistance modifiers and possibly
manufacture end products with a particularly high-
antistatic agents as well.
quality appearance.
SIMONA only processes rigid PVC (PVC-U = PVC unplas- has become established in many areas of the chemical
ticized). Plasticized PVC (PVC-P = PVC plasticized) is a industry and for use in the field of hot water piping.
material (a mixture of PVC with other polymers) that 3
contains more than 20% plasticizer. Plasticized PVC has
elastomer-like behaviour at ambient temperature so it 3.6 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
is tough and very flexible. The most important fields of
PVDF belongs to the group of partially fluorinated ther-
application are cable sheathings and films.
moplastics.
Relevant standards and guidelines refer not only to

PVC-U but also to other plasticizer-free PVC types such as
PVC-HI.
PVC-HI (High Impact) grades are types that have raised

impact resistance to high impact resistance. They are
made by letting down PVC-U soft elastic substances
Figure 17: Diagram of PVDF
(impact resistance modifiers) based on PAE, PE-C, EVAC,
VAC, etc. Consequently, they are two-phase materials
Like PVC, partially crystalline PVDF can be manufac-
consisting of a PVC homopolymer and an impact resis-
tured either by emulsion polymerisation or by suspension
tance modifier. The type and quantity of impact resis-
polymerisation. Scientific literature describes emulsion
tance modifier used depends on the properties to be
polymerisation as an important polymerisation process
achieved. Up to 12% modifier is normally used. SIMONA
which in organic chemistry is also regarded as one of the
offers an impact resistance-modified PVC in various
most significant large-scale industrial processes.
colours: SIMONA PVC-MZ-COLOR.
On account of their high chemical resistance and ther-

On account of very high proportions of modifier, you
mal stability, fluoroplastics are used in plant construction
usually have to accept some limitations with regard to
and for pressure pipelines, especially in the chemical in-
chemical resistance and thermal resistance.
dustry. Their properties depend on the particular fluorine
content. The higher the fluorine component, the higher
the continuous service temperature, flame resistance
3.5 Post-chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
and chemical resistance.
PVC-U can be post-chlorinated using special processes,
thus creating a PVC with a chlorine proportion higher SIMONA PVDF has a fluorine content of about 57%,
than 60%. It can be more difficult to process than PVC-U which ensures a high level of chemical resistance up to
but it has higher thermal stability above 60C and is temperatures of 120C. However, the chemical resist-
particularly resistant to chlorine attack. Technically it ance is very much dependent on the particular medium
being conveyed. PVDF only exhibits weaknesses in the
alkaline range, when pH is above 10.
3.7 Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE) The chemical resistance of ECTFE is usually between
that of PVDF and PTFE. However, unlike PVDF, ECTFE has
Like the PVDF mentioned, ECTFE belongs to the partially
good chemical resistance in the alkaline range above a
fluorinated thermoplastics. This material is a copolymer
pH value of 10.
consisting of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene. The
comonomer ratio is approximately 1:1.
Furthermore, ECTFE is characterised by a low permeation
coefficient, which is particularly beneficial in composite
construction. Just like PVDF, ECTFE is transparent for the
UV-A and UV-B ranges of the spectrum. Thus, no chem-
ical degradation due to light occurs in that frequency
range.
However, the processing of ECTFE is slightly more critical

than that of PVDF because the welding temperature has
a narrower window. This also applies to thermoforming
Figure 18: Diagram of ECTFE because from about 165C upwards ECTFE has reduced
elongation at break.
On account of its chemical and physical properties, this
partially crystalline thermoplastic is chiefly used in the
chemical industry, where a high level of corrosion resist- 3.8 Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)
ance is required. Applications of this material are mainly
ETFE is a derivative of the plastics PTFE or ECTFE; it is
found in the lining of steel tanks and in composite design
manufactured by copolymerisation from the monomers
in conjunction with GRP (glass-fibre reinforced plastic).
ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene. In terms of properties it
Since fluorinated plastics, like polyolefins, cannot be
is similar to ECTFE; it surpasses the latter in some areas
glued, or only under certain circumstances, on account
on account of its high fluorine content.
of their surface energy, so-called backed materials are
available. These are provided with a textile fabric on the
back, which enables the glue to become mechanically
attached to the plastic sheet. Such textile fabrics are
usually made of polyester, polypropylene, aramid or glass
fibre.
PETG
It is worth noting that various PFA types are available

which may differ in terms of their specific capabilities,
e.g. maximum service temperature. Differentiation all 3
depends on the length of the side chain (variable n; cf.
Figure 20). Chain lengths of n = 1 or n = 3 are common.
If n = 1, the proper term is MFA, but if n = 3, it is PFA.
Chemically, both are PFA modifications. SIMONA offers
both MFA and PFA: SIMONA PFA-M and SIMONA PFA.
Figure 19: Diagram of ETFE
Table 4 lists mechanical properties compared to those of
other materials. The high rigidity of PVDF means it is an
3.9 Perfluoroalkoxy copolymer (PFA) ideal structural material for high technical demands. In
addition, this material has high notched impact strength,
The most well-known fully fluorinated thermoplastic is
which even down to temperatures of 30C turns out to
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), which in many technical
be relatively high, so service properties remain intact at
fields is used up to approximately 260C on account of
low temperatures.
its chemical resistance and high service temperature
limit. The drawback with this material is that it cannot be
Unit PE-HD PVC- PVDF PFA
welded under normal conditions. For this reason a PTFE CAW
derivative was developed which combines high chemical Density g/cm3 0.95 1.44 1.78 2.17
resistance and service temperature with good weldability. Fluorine content % 0 0 57 76

Yield stress MPa 23 58 56 14
Tensile strain at % 9 4 10 50
yield stress
Notched impact kJ/m2 16 4 12 15
strength
Service tempe- C 80 60 140 250
rature upper
limit
Table 4: Properties of various thermoplastics

Figure 20: Diagram of PFA
PFA has precisely these properties and can even be used

up to 260C. It is also resistant to virtually all chemically
aggressive media. The only disadvantage is its high price,
as a result of which the material is only used when no
alternative is available. Another benefit of this material
is its high purity, so in borderline cases with high-purity
requirements, e.g. in semiconductor technology, PFA is
used as one of the few alternatives.
3.10 Glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate 3.11 Polylactic acid (PLA)
(PETG)
Polylactides also rank among the polyesters and as
PETG is a copolymer of a thermoplastic polyester. Since biocompatible plastics they are often also manufactured
crystallisation is prevented, the material is transparent. from natural resources. Owing to an asymmetric carbon
atom in the polymer backbone, PLA is an optically active
polymer; it can occur either in the D-form or the L-form
(optical activity of the molecule).
Figure 21: Diagram of PETG
The G stands for a glycol modification that gives the Figure 22: Diagram of PLA
material a high level of impact strength.
Polylactides are chiefly manufactured by ionic polymer-
PETG has the following properties: isation of lactide, a cyclic diester of lactic acid. The me-
chanical properties of pure PLA are very similar to those
J Transparent with light transmission of up to 93% of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
J Service temperature range from 40C to +65C
J Physiologically safe On account of its molecular structure PLA can be bio-
J Suitable for outdoor use to a limited extent logically split. Therefore, under certain conditions it is
J B1 low flammability (DIN 4102) biodegradable. Such conditions are normally only found
J Halogen-free in industrial composting plants. Also, biodegradability
J High toughness with good rigidity depends to a large extent on chemical composition.
J Excellent forming properties and thermoformability
J Easy to glue PLA is one of the most commonly used materials for
so-called Additive Manufacturing (AM), which is better
SIMONA AG markets this material under the name of known as 3D printing.
SIMOLUX.
SIMONA AG markets this material under the names of
SIMOGREEN PLA and SIMOGREEN PLA-HT (high tem-
perature). The material is available in sheets and as a
filament for 3D printing.
3.12 Polyamides (PA) Many polyamides are characterised by high strength,
rigidity and toughness, possess good chemical resist-
Polyamides, also known by the name of nylon, are based
ance, high wear resistance, good slip properties and 3
on amide groups that can form so-called hydrogen
processing capability, but they are sensitive to hydrolysis,
bridges with one another, which are of major importance
especially at high temperatures.
for properties such as strength. The numerical combi-
nation after the polyamides indicates the size or chain
length of the basic units, i.e. of the diamine and the
3.13 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
dicarboxylic acid, but if there is only one number it indi-
cates that of the lactam (cyclic amide). From a technical PMMA is usually atactic and amorphous. It is transparent
perspective, the key representatives of this class of par- and transmits light even more efficiently than mineral
tially crystalline thermoplastic polymers are, for example, glass. PMMA can be dyed and is weather-resistant.
PA 6.6 and PA 6.10 or PA 6 and PA 12. Aromatic polyami-
des are also termed polyaramides.
a)
Figure 24: Diagram of PMMA
In the trade, PMMA is usually marketed under the name

of acrylic glass.
The main fields of application are window panes, head-
lamp covers, complete dentures and partial dentures
b) in dentistry, or optical components such as spectacle
lenses or watch glasses.
3.14 Polycarbonate (PC)
In formal terms, polycarbonates are polyesters of carbo-

nic acid. They are usually amorphous so they are also
transparent. However, they can be dyed and are charac-
terised by high strength, impact strength and hardness.
Figure 23: Polyamides cross-linked by means of hydrogen
bridges; Polycarbonates are used, inter alia, as materials for data
a) Polyamide 4.6; storage devices such as CDs, DVDs or Bluray discs or as
b) Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA)
glazing for visors and greenhouses.
Figure 25: Diagram of PC made of phosgene and bisphenol A
In the SIMONA product range, polycarbonates are to be

found in the product SIMONA PC-Blend. However, this
product is no longer transparent because of its polymer
mixture.
4 Material specifications
All SIMONA products are characterised by a high level ures obtained from many years of testing. It is not always
of quality. The consistency of this high standard of our possible to apply those specifications to different wall
products is ensured by subjecting them to continuous thicknesses or semi-finished products that have been 3
internal and external monitoring. manufactured by different production processes.
The specifications listed on the Technical Data Sheets
J Monitoring of creep tests on pipes by the South are designed to enable the user to identify the material
German Plastics Centre (SKZ), Wrzburg, and TV with the most suitable property profile for a certain appli-
4
Sd, Munich. cation. However, only some of those figures can be used
J Monitoring of tests for media effects on thermoplas- for sizing components. When structurally sizing pipes
tic materials by the Institute for Plastics of TV Sd, and tanks it is necessary to consider not only the data
Munich. listed there but also the long-term specifications. The
J Monitoring of extruded and pressed moulding mater- latter can be found in the relevant industrial standards,
ials made of thermoplastics for tank construction in DVS 2205 and in DVS 2210.
requiring mandatory test certificates, conducted by
the Institute for Plastics of TV Sd, Munich. The figures are approximate, relate to the particular
material and may vary depending on the fabrication
These measures are of special importance for tank process and how test specimens are made. They are
construction requiring mandatory test certificates and usually averages of measurements on extruded sheets 4
approval. In addition, the European Pressure Equipment mm thick. In the case of sheets solely manufactured by
Directive, 97/23/EC, has been in force since 1 June the pressing method they are usually measurements on
2002. For approval of pressure equipment, approval test sheets with a thickness of 20 mm. There may be discrep-
certificates to Article 3.1 must be presented for semi- ancies if sheets are not available in those thicknesses.
finished products, depending on the hazard class. The In the case of backed sheets the specifications relate to
specifications of semi-finished products must be verified unbacked basic sheets. The figures cannot necessarily
in the batch and certified accordingly. be applied to other product types (e.g. pipes, solid rods)
made of the same material or to products that have
Within the scope of in-process inspections by in-plant been subjected to further processing. It is the processing
quality assurance conforming to DIN EN ISO 9001, all company or user who is responsible for testing whether
the important mechanical, thermal and optical proper- materials are suitable for a specific application. The spe-
ties are checked and documented. cifications are merely a planning aid. In particular, they
Documentation of the measured data is used for stat- are not guaranteed properties. You can obtain further
istical analysis and self-monitoring. The specifications information from our Technical Service Centre at
declared on the Technical Data Sheets are average fig- [email protected].
4.1 PE
Material specifications
SIMONA SIMONA SIMONA SIMONA

PE 100 black PE 100 natural PE-HD black PE-HD natural
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95
1183
DIN EN ISO
Yield stress MPa 23 23 23 23
527
DIN EN ISO
Elongation at yield % 9 9 9 9
527
Tensile modulus of DIN EN ISO

MPa 1 100 1 100 1 100 1 100
elasticity 527
DIN EN ISO
Impact strength kJ/m2 no break no break no break no break
179
Notched impact DIN EN ISO

kJ/m2 25 21 16 16
strength 179
Ball indentation DIN EN ISO

MPa 40 40 43 43
hardness 2039-1
Shore hardness D DIN EN ISO

64 64 65 65
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
of linear thermal K1 1.8 x 104 1.8 x 104 1.8 x 104 1.8 x 104
11359-2
expansion
Thermal conduc-
W/m K DIN 52612 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38
tivity
Fire behaviour DIN 4102 B2 B2 B2 B2
DIN IEC
Dielectric strength kV/mm 47 47
60243-1
Specific surface DIN IEC

Ohm 1014 1014 1014 1014
resistance 60093
Temperature range C 50 to +80 50 to +80 50 to +80 50 to +80
Chemical resistance excellent in contact with many acids, alkalis and solvents
Physiologically safe BfR
EU
Food conformity
FDA
Self-assessment without test certificate
SIMONA SIMONA SIMONA

PE-EL PE 500 PE 1000
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 0.99 0.95 0.93
1183
DIN EN ISO
Yield stress MPa
527
26 28 19 4
DIN EN ISO
Elongation at yield % 7 8 11
527

MPa 1 300 1 100 700
elasticity 527
DIN EN ISO
Impact strength kJ/m2 no break no break no break
179
DIN EN ISO
6
Notched impact 179
kJ/m 2
strength DIN EN ISO
18 180
11542-2

MPa 50 30
hardness 2039-1

67 65 60
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
of linear thermal K1 1.8 x 104 1.8 x 104 1.8 x 104
11359-2
expansion
DIN EN ISO
Vicat B C 80 82
306
Fire behaviour DIN 4102 B2 B2 B2
DIN IEC
60243-1

Ohm 106 1014 1014
resistance 60093
Temperature range C 20 to +80 100 to +80 260 to +80
EU
Food conformity
FDA
4.2 PP
SIMONA
PP-H
PP-H natural PP-C PP-EL-S PPs
AlphaPlus
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 0.91 0.90 0.91 1.17 0.95
1183
DIN EN ISO
Yield stress MPa 33 32 26 25 32
527
DIN EN ISO
Elongation at yield % 8 8 7 7 8
527

MPa 1 700 1 400 1 200 1 400 1 600
elasticity 527
DIN EN ISO
Impact strength kJ/m2 no break no break no break no break no break
179

kJ/m2 9 7 45 5 6
strength 179

MPa 50 66 70
hardness 2039-1

72 70 67 70 72
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
of linear thermal K1 1.6 x 104 1.6 x 104 1.6 x 104 1.6 x 104 1.6 x 104
11359-2
expansion
Thermal
W/m K DIN 52612 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
conductivity
DIN 4102 B2 B2 B2 B2 B1: 2 20 mm

Fire behaviour
UL 94 V0: 4 mm
DIN IEC
60243-1

Ohm 1014 1014 1014 106 1014
resistance 60093
Temperature range C 0 to +100 0 to +100 20 to +80 0 to +80 0 to +100
EU
Food conformity
FDA
Test certificate available
4.3 Rigid PVC
SIMONA
CPVC CORZAN
PVC-CAW PVC-MZ-COLOR PVC-GLAS PVC-KYRNIT
Industrial Grade
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 1.44 1.42 1.37 1.52 1.39
1183
DIN EN ISO
4
527
DIN EN ISO
527

MPa 3 300 3 100 3 300 2 500 3 100
elasticity 527
DIN EN ISO
Impact strength kJ/m2 no break no break
179

kJ/m2 4 8 3 8 4
strength 179

82 82 84 80 81
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
11359-2
expansion
DIN EN ISO
Vicat B C 74 74 66 112 75
306
DIN 4102 B1: 1 4 mm B1: 1 4 mm B1: 1 4 mm B1 B1
UL 94 V0: 1 mm V0: 1 mm
Fire behaviour
NF P
M1: 1 3 mm M1: 1 3 mm
92-501
BS 476 Class 1: 3 mm Class 1: 3 mm
DIN IEC
Dielectric strength kV/mm 39 34 30
60243-1

Ohm 1013 1014 1014 1015 1013
resistance 60093
Chemical resistance excellent in contact with many acids and alkalis
4.4 Foamed PVC
SIMOPOR-LIGHT SIMOPOR- SIMOPOR- SIMONA

SIMOPOR-LIGHT
BRILLIANT ULTRALIGHT COLOR COPLAST-AS
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.58 0.67
1183
DIN EN ISO
527
DIN EN ISO
527

MPa 900 850 600 1 000 1 100
elasticity 527
Flexural modulus of DIN EN ISO

MPa 1 100 1 000 930 1 400 1 400
elasticity 178
DIN EN ISO
Impact strength kJ/m2 12 12 12 12 19
179

35 32 30 35 70
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
11359-2
expansion
B2
DIN 4102 B1: 1 19 mm B2 B2
B1: 10 mm
NF P
Fire behaviour M1: 3 10 mm M1: 2 10 mm M1: 10 mm
92-501
DIN EN Euroclass C-s3-d0:

13501-1 2 10 mm

Ohm > 1015 > 1015 > 1015 > 1015 1012
resistance 60093
Chemical resistance excellent in contact with many acids, detergents and alcohols
on request
Test certificate as of end 2016
4.5 PETG, PVDF, ECTFE, PFA
SIMOLUX SIMONA SIMONA SIMONA

(PETG) PVDF ECTFE PFA
DIN EN ISO
Density g/cm3 1.27 1.78 1.68 2.15
1183
DIN EN ISO
Yield stress MPa
527
52 55 31 15 4
DIN EN ISO
Elongation at yield % 4.5 8 4
527

MPa 1 900 1 950 1 650 450
elasticity 527

kJ/m2 10 12 100 no break
strength 179

MPa 97 120 56
hardness 2039-1

78 78 67 55
(15 s) 868
Mean coefficient
ISO
of linear thermal K1 1.3 x 104 1.0 x 104 1.4 x 104
11359-2
expansion
Fire behaviour DIN 4102 B1: 1 8 mm B1 B1 B1
DIN IEC
Dielectric strength kV/mm 16 25 23 33
60243-1

Ohm 1014 1014 1014 1015
resistance 60093
Temperature range C 40 to +65 30 to +140 40 to +150 190 to +260
extremely good,
excellent to almost all extremely good, also in
Chemical resistance on request chemically attacked by
chemicals the alkaline range
few substances only
EU
Food conformity
FDA
5 Physical properties
5.1 Mechanical properties Using a unidirectional tensile test, it is possible to de-

termine the modulus of elasticity from the slope of the
In mechanics a general distinction is drawn between
curve by plotting measured stress against strain. The
elastic and plastic deformation of materials. If there is a
strain generated within Hookes straight line is reversible
linear relationship between the stress acting on a body
and as the external load decreases it returns to its origin-
and the resulting strain, that material obeys Hookes law
al state. A similar relationship exists for shearing forces
and it behaves in a linear elastic manner ( represents
between shear stress and the angle change caused by
multiplication symbol):
it ; G is referred to as shear modulus:
=E.
=G
If you consider elastic isotropic materials, the shear

modulus and modulus of elasticity do not exist indepen-
dently of one another but are interlinked by the following
relationship:
G= E
2(1+)
is the absolute ratio of transverse strain to axial strain,

Figure 26: Stress-strain diagram which is also referred to as Poissons ratio. Poissons
ratio is the amount of the quotient of transverse con-
In this case, stands for the stress acting on the work- traction D/D0 (D0 = specimen diameter, D = change in
piece (force per unit area), stands for the strain diameter) and strain L/L0 and it is normally less than
(increase in length in relation to initial length L/L0) 0.5. This means that when the material is subjected to a
and E stands for the modulus of elasticity, which is also load there will be a more or less substantial increase in
referred to as rigidity. In the range of low strains (0.2% volume.
proof stress), metal and ceramic materials behave in a
linear elastic manner.
deformation is a function of previous history. For calcula-
tion of the linear viscoelastic state it is assumed that the
plastic is composed of springs and dampers connected
in series and in parallel.
Figure 27: Principle of the shear test
In the range of low strains, solid plastics, on the other

hand, can display elastic and viscoelastic properties. The
elasticity of plastics is also subdivided into energy elas- 5
ticity and entropy elasticity. Energy elasticity is caused Figure 28: Mechanical models of the viscoelastic body
by restoring forces relating to the atoms moved out of
the state of equilibrium as a result of the external load. Stress relaxation is obtained by elongating the material
Entropy elasticity is brought about by a change in entropy to a constant value and observing the flattening-off of
in the system, which is due to a change in the state of stress (t) (Figure 29). It is a function of the time-inde-
order. Ideal rubber elasticity, for example, is a pure form pendent and time-dependent moduli E0 and Et:
of entropy elasticity. In real plastics there is usually a
mixture of the two forms of elasticity; the energy-elastic (t) = 0 E0 + 0 Et exp(-t/rel )
component is often dominant.
Relaxation time rel is the time after which the reaction
Viscoelasticity is the time-dependent elasticity of a ma- has flattened out to an e-th (e 2.7183) of the initial
terial. This means that when a plastic is subjected to a value. According to the Maxwell model (Figure 28), it
spontaneous mechanical load it has a delayed reaction. is possible to imagine that during sudden stretching a
Consequently, the mechanical parameters of a viscoelas- stress is built up by spring forces and then relaxed by the
tic material no longer constitute constants but become stretching of the damping link.
time-dependent. The cause of this behaviour can be
explained by the restoring processes in and between
the chain molecules. They take place on a diffusion-con-
trolled basis so they are time-dependent. The flattening-
out of the reaction of a viscoelastic body is asymptotic,
so in reality it is never completed and at any moment the
elements (0/E0) first relax and after that the damping
element returns to its position of rest. If the strain rate is
constant ( = const.), the slope of the stress-strain curve
is dependent on time such that with a decreasing strain
rate the curve takes a more downward turn because the
relaxation processes have more time available to reduce
the stresses:
(t) = E0 + Et 0 [1-exp(-rel t)]
If the above relationship is differentiated, it is evident

that the slope d/d only depends on the time t and not
on the strain rate when one takes into account the fact
that each slope is determined at the same point in time:
d E + E exp( -t )
Figure 29: Stress relaxation d = 0 t rel
During creep the body is exposed, within a defined period

of time t1, to a stress 0 and recovery (retardation) (t) is
observed (Figure 30):
(t) =0 + t exp(-t/ret)
Whereby ret is the time up to which the reaction to the

stress has flattened out to an e-th of the initial value and
t is the strain dependent on retardation processes.
According to the Voigt-Kelvin model, in the case of creep

it is possible to imagine that after impression of a con-
stant stress the spring elements expand according to
their spring constants. Then the damping link is elongated
Figure 30: Creep and creep recovery
and total strain increases. After relaxation, the spring
In reality, the behaviour of plastics is much more The lag is 0 for ideal elastic bodies and for ideal
complex. Therefore, to describe viscoelastic behaviour, viscous fluids it is 90. The complex formula results in a
so-called retardation and relaxation spectra have to be modulus of elasticity that is also represented at a com-
obtained. The reason for this is that the restoring processes plex numerical level:
are triggered by complex interactions due to different
d E = E+ iE
bonding characteristics within the plastic. Since the d =
relaxation times of plastics are attributable to molecular
movements, they depend on temperature and, like most E is the energy stored elastically during every vibration,
thermally activated processes, they obey the Arrhenius so it is termed storage modulus:
equation:
2 2rel
E= E0 + Et
1 - 2 2rel
W 5
= B exp( k T )
E can be converted to energy, which equals the energy
In the above equation B is a material-specific constant, dissipated irreversibly and is therefore defined as loss
W is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant modulus:
and T is the absolute temperature. Consequently, it is
2 2rel
E= Et
possible to create identical mechanical conditions by 1 - 2 2rel
selecting the temperature or time, or in other words, it
is possible to perform acceleration by means of process The quotient of E and E equals the tangent and re-
control at a raised temperature. sults in the loss factor d:
From the above description it is evident that in a short- d = tan

term test, i.e. when testing time is much shorter than re-
action time, or in a low-temperature test when molecular The consequence of this vibrating characteristic of
movements are frozen, no viscoelasticity occurs. In such linear viscoelastic materials is the fact that although the
a case the behaviour of the material is linear elastic. behaviour of such a material is mechanically reversible
it is thermodynamically irreversible and thus consumes
Similar to tensile stress and flexural stress, the reaction energy. Plastics therefore have a high damping poten-
of a viscoelastic body also reacts in a delayed manner tial, which can be exploited in engineering in the form of
when subjected to a dynamic load. For this reason a lag noise control.
occurs between the impressed stress and the strain. In
complex notation the equations for sinusoidal stress (t)
and strain (t) are as follows:
(t) = 0 exp(it) and

(t) =0 exp(it + )
5.1.1 Mechanical properties of thermoplastics
Thermoplastics consist of relatively long, scarcely

branched polymer chains that are not chemically linked
to one another. The individual chain molecules are
physically connected to one another by so-called van
der Waals forces, so their bonds are reversible. For this
reason, they also flow at relatively high temperatures and
can be welded to one another.
Thermoplastics can be in an amorphous form or a

partially crystalline form. Crystallinity occurs to a varying Figure 31: Change in specific volume with temperature
extent in areas where the chain molecules are parallel
to one another. Amorphous and partially crystalline Partially crystalline thermoplastics are less dependent
thermoplastics are evident from their different elastic on temperature between TG and crystalline melting
properties, depending on temperature. temperature TS. Only above TS do the mechanical figures
drop significantly and the material begins to soften or
At temperatures above the glass transition temperature melt.
TG amorphous thermoplastics are not very strong and
have a low modulus of elasticity, which decreases rapidly Partially crystalline thermoplastics usually have a high
with temperature. In the glass transition range, amor- level of elongation at break, which can be anything up to
phous thermoplastics tend to soften. 800% (e.g. PE). Their modulus of elasticity is relatively
low and can be less than 200 MPa even at room tempe-
Glass transition temperature is defined as the temperature. In addition, thermoplastics tend to creep, which
rature at which vacancy volume freezes. This vacancy can be problematical especially at high temperatures.
volume enables a certain amount of free mobility of Furthermore, owing to their chemical/physical bonding
molecules and molecular chains. For this reason vacancy characteristics, thermoplastics have a high level of
volume is often referred to as free volume. damping so the materials are good mechanical damping
elements.
The total volume of a plastic consists of vacancy volume
VL, vibration volume VS and the volume of the molecule
VM. When the glass transition has been reached, the only
volume that changes is vibration volume VS (Figure 31).
Thermoplastics Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity Elongation at break Notched impact strength
MPa MPa % kJ/m2
PVC-U 50 65 3,000 20 50 25
CPVC 75 3,500 10 15 2
PE-HD 20 30 700 1,200 400 800 6 15
PP-H 25 40 1,000 1,300 70 500 39
PVDF 50 60 2,400 20 80 22
ECTFE 32 40 1,700 200 300 -
FEP 20 30 350 500 250 350 -
PFA 15 30 600 700 100 250 -
Table 5: Mechanical properties of some thermoplastics
5
5.1.2 Tensile test ( = 0.25% - 0.05%) and the difference in strains ( =
0.25 - 0.05 = 0.2) of the tangent modulus or secant
In the unidirectional tensile test conforming to DIN
modulus:
EN ISO 527 a test specimen with dimensions defined
according to the method of manufacture is stretched to 0.25 - 0.05
E=
0.2
break at an optionally selectable velocity.
When conducting the test, it is important to ensure that

The maximum stress reached before the occurrence of
specimens are prepared carefully because if they are
flow is referred to as yield stress y. The associated strain
clamped at an angle or if specimens are crooked, shear
is called yield strain y. The tensile stress at which break
forces can act; this would usually alter the test result and
occurs is fracture resistance b and the corresponding
supply lower values. Notches and dents in the surfaces
strain is elongation at break b. The tensile stress at
of specimens can also have an adverse effect on the test
which the first stress peak occurs is referred to as tensile
result. To reduce the influence of clamping, the tensile
strength m. Consequently, tensile strength m can be
specimen can be made with thickened pieces at the
either fracture resistance b (amorphous thermoplastics
ends which absorb the compressive forces exerted by
in some cases) or yield stress y (e.g. partially crystalline
the clamping device. The same can be achieved by using
thermoplastics).
shoulder rods.
The short-term modulus of elasticity is determined from

Partially crystalline materials such as PE, PP and PVDF
the slope of the stress-strain curve. The stresses are de-
usually have a substantial yield point and high elongation
termined at strains of 0.05% and 0.25% and calculated
at break (Figure 32), whilst amorphous thermoplastics
from the quotient of the difference in stresses
such as PVC exhibit higher yield stress but lower tensile
strength at break and elongation at break (Figure 33).
Figure 32: Diagram of the stress-strain curve of a partially crystalline thermoplastic
Figure 33: Stress-strain curve with tensile strength S, tensile strength at break B and the associated strains for amorphous thermo-
plastics
Figure 34 shows the shortterm modulus of elasticity of PVC at room temperature and the steep drop in modulus
various SIMONA thermoplastics in relation to tempera- of elasticity above 60C.
ture. This elementary chart indicates the high rigidity of
Ek in N/mm2
PVC-CAW
PVC-MZ
PVDF
PP-H
PE- 5
HD
Temperature (C)
Figure 34: Short-term modulus of elasticity of SIMONA thermoplastics in relation to temperature
F lv
5.1.3 Bending test 3-point bending: M=
4
The 3- and 4-point bending test conforming to DIN EN
ISO 178 and DIN EN ISO 14125 is the one most often F lA
4-point bending: M=
used in engineering because the shape of test speci- 2
mens is simple and the test is easy to perform. However,
Whereby 2 lA is the difference between the lower and
assessment and analysis of the stress-strain curve are
upper effective span. The section modulus is the product
slightly more complicated.
of test specimen width B and test specimen height H:
Bending stress b is the quotient of bending moment M B H2

W=
and bending resistance W: 6
M This provides the bending stress b:

b =
W
3 F lV
3-point bending: b =
M is the product of force F and effective span lv: 2 B H2
3 F lA 4fH
4-point bending: b = 4-point bending: =
B H2 I2B
The modulus of elasticity is calculated as follows: As in a tensile test, it is important to ensure careful test
specimen preparation for a bending test because here
b - b
E= too surface cracks have a considerable influence on the
2 1
2 - 1
test result.
Whereby surface layer expansion is calculated by divi-
ding deflection f by lB = upper effective span:
6fH
3-point bending: =
I2V
Figure 35: Diagram of a 3-point and 4-point bending test
5.1.4 Pressure test
The pressure test conforming to DIN EN ISO 604 is

normally applied if the material used in practice is chiefly
subject to a pressure load. The test specimens used are
rectangular prisms, cylinders or tubes. To prevent the
pressure surfaces from flaking off brittle plastics, they
are inserted in so-called caps which support the material
laterally. To be able to assess relatively thin workpieces
such as sheets, shoulder rods are also used.
Testing takes place at a constant force rate or strain

Figure 36: Torsion pendulum test 5
rate, which depends on the length of the test specimen.
The calculation of compressive strength, modulus of
The test specimens can have a circular or square cross-
elasticity and compressive strain is conducted in a simi-
section. They are clamped into the device at both ends;
lar way to that of the tensile test.
one end is connected to the flywheel.
For test specimen preparation it is important to make

At the beginning of measurement the flywheel is deflec-
sure the end surfaces are plane-parallel in order to avoid
ted by a certain angle , which is kept small in order to
shear loads in conjunction with compressive strain. Brit-
prevent the test specimen from being overloaded. Now
tle materials in particular react very sensitively to such
the system is allowed to swing freely and the oscillation
loads, so the test result would be distorted.
amplitude A is recorded as a function of time t. The
decrease in amplitude over time due to inner friction
(damped vibration) produces the logarithmic decrement
5.1.5 Torsion pendulum test
by calculating the quotient of the amplitudes of two
With the aid of the torsion pendulum procedure con- successive vibrations An and An+1:
forming to DIN EN ISO 6721 the elastic, viscoelastic,
An
energy-elastic and entropy-elastic properties of a material =
An+1
can be determined over a large temperature range.
The torsion pendulum test opens up many different
x options for characterising a material in greater detail and
A1
defining its limits. In test engineering it has become es-
A2
A3 A4 tablished practice to measure the dynamic properties in
t relation to temperature and excitation frequency. Those
measurements are used to generate characteristic maps
that describe the material more precisely.
One of the simpler variants is definition of the glass tran-

Figure 37: Damped vibration
sition temperature TG of plastics. For this purpose moduli
G and G are determined. Their point of intersection
The logarithmic decrement is closely linked to damp-
over the abscissa is referred to as glass transition.
ing d:
( )
d=
2 5.1.6 Ring shear test and segment shear test
1+
4 2
To measure the interlaminar adhesion or the adhesion of
The moment of inertia I, test specimen length L, test a liner to the reinforcement layer of a pipe, the ring shear
specimen width b, test specimen thickness a and natural test or the segment shear test is used in compliance with
frequency f0, which is taken from the change in time on DIN 53769-1.
the vibration curve, are used to calculate shear modulus
G: The ring shear test (Figure 38) uses a piece of pipe 30
( )
mm long, one end of which is machined from the outside
G = 4 I f 1 +
2
0
2
( 2
4 2 )
3L
b a3 (1 - 0.63
a
b
)
over a length of 5 mm up to the middle of the pipe wall
or, in the case of a liner GRP pipe, up to the liner. The
other end is machined in the same way but from the in-
1
with I = m r2 side. Ring shear strength R is calculated by dividing the
2
measured failure force F by the adhesion area 2rh:
Whereby m is the mass and r the radius of the flywheel.
F
R = 2 r h
Since loss factor d equals the tangent of the phase angle
, if G is known, storage modulus G and loss modulus G
can be calculated:
G = G cos
G = G sin
5
Figure 38: Ring shear test Figure 39: Segment shear test
In the segment shear test (Figure 39) only a segment of 5.1.7 Pull-off test
the pipe is tested. The segment is made by notching a
The pull-off test conforming to DIN 53766-1 makes it
piece of pipe 20 mm in length along the cylinder axis,
possible, inter alia, to assess the adhesive strength
thus creating segments with a width b.
between the lining material and the supporting lamin-
ate. A test specimen with a diameter of 30 mm is glued
With the aid of a die whose width is the same as the
or welded onto the appropriate pulling dies so that the
width of the segment the segment of the piece of pipe
cylinder axis of the test specimen is perpendicular to
is subjected to pressure. The segment is positioned on
the laminate plane (Figure 40). This arrangement is
the supporting surface in such a way that it can freely
then subjected to tensile testing up to break. Adhesive
shear off downwards. Segment shear strength s is then
strength h is calculated by dividing measured maximum
calculated as follows:
force Fmax by area A0:
F
s = Fmax
bh h =
A0
Figure 40: Test arrangement for measuring adhesive tensile Figure 41: Charpy impact bending test
strength (test specimen shape A)
5.1.8 Testing notched impact strength What is measured is the impact absorbed by the test
specimen. A distinction is drawn between the specifica-
Plastics are generally much more sensitive to impact
tions for impact strength and those for notched impact
and notching than other conventional materials such as
strength.
steel. The term sensitivity to impact characterises the
various types of material behaviour during exposure to
static loads (at rest) and impact loads. It refers to a force
5.1.9 Testing impact strength
that acts on a body at high speed for a short time. The
behaviour in the case of impact loads can be investi- Impact strength is determined with the aid of an un-
gated by various test methods. notched test specimen. Some SIMONA materials do
not break during this test (room temperature: 23C). It
In Europe, the impact bending test conforming to DIN EN is therefore impossible to state a figure for the work of
ISO 179 is used with the Charpy notch shape. fracture. That is why in the material specifications tables
in Section 4 you will find the note No break. In such
With the aid of a pendulum impact tester as per DIN 51222 cases the notched impact strength described above is
the test specimen is subjected to a 3-point bending load chiefly used for differentiation. The impact strength test,
caused by impact (Figure 41). however, becomes especially meaningful when external
influences such as ultraviolet light or chemicals cause
embrittlement.
The dependency of impact strength and notched impact and notched impact strength values it is possible to
strength on temperature is of particular interest. At very make a statement about the lower service temperatures
low temperatures brittle fractures occur, whilst at higher of the relevant material. This is particularly illustrated by
temperatures the fractures are ductile. Consequently, the diagram in Figure 42.
based on temperature-dependent impact strength values
PE-
5
HD PVDF PP-H
Notched impact strength
PVC-U
Temperature in C
Figure 42: Notched impact strength as a function of temperature
High notched impact strength values = high toughness

Low notched impact strength values = high brittleness
5.1.10 Surface hardness of test specimen can be used: type A for soft materials
and type D for harder ones.
Static methods are normally used to investigate the
surface hardness of a material. In a hardness test the re-
SIMONA materials are mainly tested according to the
sistance of a material surface to penetration by a harder
Shore D method. The duration of testing is 15 sec.
body (steel ball, steel cone or diamond cone) is measu-
red or the material displacement by the penetrated body
is determined. The hardness of a material is a measure
5.1.11 Wear properties
of its rigidity. In this context, hardness is determined
outside the elastic material behaviour, so it cannot be The definition of wear is the erosion of material from a
correlated with the modulus of elasticity. surface by mechanical loads. The description of material
erosion from a surface is highly complex: on the one
hand it involves impulse transmission of particles hitting
5.1.10.1 Ball indentation hardness H as per the surface and on the other it is associated with the
DIN EN ISO 2039-1 adhesion properties of the surface. A distinction is there-
fore made between friction wear, jet erosion, sliding wear
A ball (d = 5 mm) presses on the material surface with a
and cavitation wear. Wear also depends on whether the
defined force for a period of 30 seconds. Ball indentation
wear particles are dry or in a liquid when they act.
hardness is calculated by dividing test force F in N by
surface area A in mm2 of the indentation in the material
The test methods for determining the wear resistance of
surface:
a material are just as numerous as the types of wear
F themselves. It should be pointed out that wear depends
H=
A not only on the material but also on the test conditions.
Consequently, any assessment of wear always has to
take account of the tribological system, which comprises
5.1.10.2 Shore D hardness as per DIN EN ISO 868 the material, the abrasive substance and the test para-
meters. Conventional test methods include the friction
The Shore test procedure is a fast and efficient way to
wheel test, the pin-on-disc test, the jet wear test and the
determine the hardness of plastics and hard rubber. A
sand-slurry test, to name just a few.
pointed test specimen with a defined tip and force is
pressed into the test material for a certain time.
In the friction wheel test a flat, round plate rotates un-
der two freely rotatable rollers covered with emery cloth.
The measuring instrument converts the resistance of the
In DIN 53754 the contact force of the rollers is defined
test specimen to penetration into the appropriate hard-
as being 5.4 N and the rotational speed of the plate is
ness values. Various test times can be applied for a test
55 min-1. The amount of wear is determined from the
criterion. Depending on the material, two different types
reduction in mass or volume of the plate per unit of time.
The pin-on-disc test was developed in order to measure The adhesive friction coefficient fad is a function of
sliding wear and consists of a rotating friction plate, onto shear strength s, contact pressure p, modulus of elasti-
which the specimen in the form of a pin is pressed at a city E and surface quality :
[ ( )]
defined force. Again, the reduction in mass or volume is
s p
used as a measure of wear. fad = 1 exp
p E
The determination of jet wear is conducted by blasting The deformative friction coefficient fdef is dependent on
a specimen plate with particles of a defined size at a de- the mechanical properties of the abrasive , contact
fined velocity. The advantage of this method is its scope pressure p, the modulus of elasticity and the loss factor
for variation. For example, a liquid can be added to the tan of the test specimen:
abrasive in order to incorporate the effect of different
p 5
lubricants. In addition, wear can be measured in relation fdef = tan
E
to the angle of incidence. However, the dependence of
wear on test duration is a drawback because as erosion This makes it clear that the wear of a material depends
increases a hole appears, the geometric properties of on 1/E2 by first approximation:
which have nothing in common with the flat plate.
The sand-slurry test consists of an abrasion test vessel

v ~ ( s p p tan
E2
+
E2 )
1
s s
containing a mixture of sand and water in a defined Wear resistance is thus raised by a factor of 4 if the
ratio, in which the test specimens rotate at a specified modulus of elasticity drops by half. Yield point s and
speed. Since the vessel is double-walled, the dependence yield strain s, on the other hand, only have a linear
of wear on temperature can also be determined. By effect on wear. The consequence of this is that since the
selecting the wearing medium it is therefore possible to elongation at break of thermoplastics (e.g. PE) is 200
conduct highly practice-oriented tests on components times higher the latter have less wear than thermoset
through which substances flow, e.g. pipes. plastics and some grades of steel.
According to relevant literature, wear v is dependent on

the mechanical and adhesive properties of a material. In
terms of quality it depends on friction coefficient f, the
modulus of elasticity, yield point s and yield strain s:
f 1
v ~
E s s
Friction coefficient f consists of an adhesive part fad and

a deformative part fdef by addition.
5.1.11.1 Sand-slurry test
When it comes to simulating wear in pipelines with

water-solid mixtures subject to turbulent flow conditions
the sand-slurry test is considered relatively suitable. It
does not place high demands on the experimental setup
but nevertheless provides sufficiently accurate differenti-
ation between various thermoplastics.
The experimental arrangement for this test (Figure 43)

comprises parallel rows of adjacent wear containers
made of chrome nickel steel, which are filled with a slurry
consisting of two parts by weight of water and three
parts by weight of silica sand, with grain sizes between
0.5 mm and 1.5 mm. In the container, cuboid-shaped
test specimens rotate at a constant speed for 24 hours.
Process temperature can be freely selected between Figure 43: Basic setup of the sand-slurry test
20C and 80C. For low measuring temperatures, e.g.
20C, the heat generated by rotation of the test speci-
mens in the wear pots is dissipated by cooling. In add-
ition, the apparatus is provided with thermal insulation in
order to ensure a constant temperature of up to 80C.
Wear resistance is heavily dependent, inter alia, on the

molecular weight of the polymer material. As molecular
weight rises, the wear resistance of the material in-
creases. Of all SIMONA semifinished products SIMONA
PE 1000 has the highest level of wear resistance.
The test apparatus of the sand-slurry test makes it pos-

sible to investigate the influence of temperature on wear
behaviour. In this context it was found that as tempera-
ture rises the wear resistance increases considerably
(Figure 44) because although thermoplastics become
softer as temperature rises (declining modulus of elas-
ticity) the elongation at break and the damping show a
disproportionate increase.
5
Figure 44: Relative wear of thermoplastics as a function of temperature
5.2 Thermal properties Heat, which constitutes a form of energy, is transported

at the speed of sound, which is specific to the mater-
5.2.1 Thermal conduction
ial and is dependent on the modulus of elasticity and
Thermal conduction refers to a process in which heat density.
within a material is transported from location A to loca-
tion B. Owing to the low density, the low speed of sound and
the low thermal capacity compared to that of metals
The heat is always conducted from high-temperature (thermal capacity increases as electrical conductivity
zones to low-temperature zones. If heat exchange be- rises), pure plastics are generally bad heat conductors
tween the zones can proceed without any disturbances, and consequently good thermal insulators.
it takes place until the deficit has been compensated
and the body has a uniform temperature.
Material Thermal conductivity l 5.2.1.2 Thermal conductivity
[W/(m K)]
Thermal conductivity , which is also referred to as the
Plastics Polyethylene, PE 0.50
heat transfer coefficient, is a temperature-dependent
Polyamide, PA 0.30
Polyurethaen, PU 0.25
specification that numerically indicates the ability of a
Polypropylene, PP 0.23 material to transport heat internally. It is stated in W/

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC 0.17 (mK). Thermal conductivity can be improved with the aid
Metals Silver 429 of fillers, provided they have a higher level of thermal
Copper, pure 400 conductivity. Carbon dust, graphite, metal fibres or metal
Aluminium, pure 236 powder are often used for this purpose.
Brass 120
Iron 80 If the fillers have anisotropic thermal properties and the

Table 6: Thermal conductivity of some materials ability to orient themselves in the material, the filled
plastic also acquires anisotropic thermal properties.
This can, for example, be observed in plastics that are
5.2.1.1 Heat capacity filled with graphite. Graphite is thermally anisotropic and
owing to the platelet shape and manufacturing condi-
Heat capacity c is stated in J/K and it indicates by how
tions it often orients itself in the direction of flow within
many degrees C or K the temperature of a body rises
the material.
when it receives a certain amount of heat.
Specific heat capacity C describes the ability of a body

5.2.2 Heat transfer
to store heat. It indicates how much heat a material
absorbs or emits during a change in temperature. The To calculate the transmission of heat through a wall, it is
unit of measure is J/(kgK). Specific heat capacity is a necessary to know not only the thermal conduction but
material-specific property but it is dependent on vari- also the heat transfer coefficient inside and outside the
ous parameters, e.g. temperature. For this reason, the wall as well as the thermal transmittance.
specific heat capacity of a material is often stated for a Heat flow j is calculated as follows:
certain temperature.
j = U A T
where U = thermal transmittance

A = area of the wall
T = temperature difference
Thermal transmittance U (also referred to as the k-value) expands. Although the coefficient of linear expansion is
is calculated as follows: a substance-specific material constant, it is temperature-
dependent (Figure 45) and increases as temperature
1
U= rises so the volume of the body undergoes a dispropor-
1/i + s/ + 1/ a
tionate change as temperature rises. The coefficient of
where s = wall thickness linear expansion is often averaged over the application
= thermal conductivity temperature range and stated as the mean thermal
i,a = heat transfer coefficient inside, coefficient of linear expansion.
outside
Since the thermal coefficient of linear expansion de-
Heat transfer coefficient determines the transmission pends on the bonding characteristics within a material,
of heat to a wall and depends entirely on the type and it can be linked to the elastic properties and the melting 5
velocity of the medium being conveyed. It is completely point.
independent of the material of the wall. The higher the
thermal transmittance, the poorer the thermal insula- The length L of a rod increases in proportion to tempera-
tion property of the material. Vice versa, the lower the ture T according to the following relationship:
thermal transmittance, the better the thermal insulation
property, and the higher the heat transfer resistance. L = L0(1 + T)
Thermal transmittance has the unit of measure
W/(mK). Here, L0 refers to the length of the rod at T = 0 K. If the
plastic is mixed with fillers or fibres, the simple mixing
rule generally produces the coefficient of expansion c of
5.2.3 Thermal expansion the filled plastic:
When materials are exposed to a change in tempera-

c = k (1 k) + f + f
ture, they alter their dimensions such as length, width
and height, and consequently their volume. Since in the
Here, k and f are the coefficients of expansion of the
event of a temperature change the mass of the body
plastic and the filler whilst k and f are the volume frac-
remains the same but the volume alters, there is also
tions of the plastic and the filler.
bound to be a change in the density of the material.
When a material is warmed it expands and when it
Typical mean thermal coefficients of expansion can be
cools down it contracts.
seen from the following table:
The cause of the dimensional change is explained by

the oscillation of the atoms in the material and a point
of equilibrium around them. As temperature rises the
oscillation increases in amplitude and the material
Material [10-6/K]
Glass 4
Steel 12
Copper 18
Aluminium 24
Polypropylene 160
Polyethylene 180
PVDF 120
ECTFE 80
PVC 80
GRP 20 30
CFRP 0 20
Table 7: Mean thermal coefficient of expansion for some

materials
PE-HD
PVDF
PP-H
PVC-U
Figure 45: Thermal coefficient of linear expansion as a function of temperature for some thermoplastics
5.2.4 Heat distortion temperature test 5.3 Fire rating
As opposed to thermoset plastics, the properties of According to DIN 4102, a distinction is drawn between
thermoplastics are very heavily dependent on tempera- non-combustible building materials (Class A) and
ture. At high temperatures thermoplastics change to the combustible building materials (Class B). Plastics are
plastic state. That is why it is extremely important for a classified in the latter group without exception.
design engineer or processor of thermoplastics to obtain
an approximate figure for the temperature limit of the di- Class B is subdivided into:
mensional stability of a material. However, the tempera-
tures determined in those tests must not be regarded as J B1 low flammability
maximum service temperatures because, for example, J B2 normal flammability
mechanical properties are not taken into consideration. J B3 high flammability
5
For a heat distortion temperature test on plastics two To comply with fire protection codes, for public buildings,
methods are chiefly used: trade fairs, etc., Germany specifies materials that meet
the low flammability requirements (B1) of DIN 4102.
1. Vicat (DIN EN ISO 306)
2. Heat distortion temperature (HDT) (ISO 75)
5.3.1 Fire test as per DIN 4102
We can determine the heat distortion temperature of our
For building materials with the exception of wall linings
thermoplastics by both methods.
and floor coverings, which are dealt with separately in
DIN 4102, the B1 test basically illustrates fire for an
The Vicat temperature is the temperature at which the
object in the corner of a room. For this purpose the heat
Vicat needle (tip with a cross-sectional area of approx.
emission to the room and the spread of fire must be
1 mm) has penetrated the material by 1 mm under a
restricted. A B1 test takes place in a fire shaft. The latter
certain load and at a defined heating rate.
has a square cross section and a total height of approx.
2,500 mm. To each side of the square fire shaft a test
When determining the heat distortion temperature (HDT)
specimen is attached vertically at a certain height in
a test specimen is placed upright on two supports in an
such a way that the distance between the test specimen
oil bath. At the centre between those two supports the
and the square burner, which is located below the test
test specimen is subjected to a load with a defined force.
specimens, is 25 mm 1 mm. Flame impingement takes
The oil bath is heated up at a certain heating rate. The
place for a period of 10 minutes. An analysis of the test
temperature at which the test specimen has a deflection
assesses, inter alia, the remaining residual length of the
of 1 mm is read and stated as HDT.
test specimens, any dripping behaviour and the mean
flue gas temperature. In this context certain limits must
not be exceeded.
A B1 test for building materials is regarded as passed means that only for an oxygen demand of 20.8% (level
if that fire shaft test has been passed and the require- of oxygen in the atmosphere) ignition is brought about
ments for B2 (constitutes the load, e.g. due to a match with the aid of an ignition source and continued burning
flame) have been fulfilled. is possible when that ignition source has been removed.
The ability to pass the fire shaft test decreases as sheet Table 8 lists the oxygen indices and fire rating classifica-
thickness increases, assuming identical material. tions that were determined by various test methods:
Another assessment criterion is the oxygen index (LOI J DIN 4102 in a fire shaft installation
= Limiting Oxygen Index, DIN EN ISO 4589). This figure J DIN 53438 with edge (K) and area (F)
states the minimum oxygen concentration in an oxygen- flame impingement

nitrogen mixture where burning is being maintained. This J UL 94 (US test standard)
Material Fire rating Oxygen index Rating Rating

to DIN 4102 to ASTM 2863 to UL 94 to DIN 53438
Class* Class* Class
PE-HD B2 18
PE-EL B2 18
PP-H B2 18
PP-B B2 18
PPs B1 28 F1 K1
PVC B1 40 V0
PVDF B1 60 V0
ECTFE B1 52
*
For details on the availability of test certificates, see Section 4.
Table 8: Assessment of fire behaviour
5.3.2 SBI test as per DIN EN 13823
The SBI test (Single Burning Item) is a new test that has
been introduced to the European area and it will replace
the national fire tests after a transitional period that
still has to be decided on. At the time when this Tech-
nical Handbook was written there was no requirement 1.0
regarding SBI for construction products on the Building 0.5

Rules List issued by DIBt (German Institute of Building
Technology). 1.5
DIN EN 13823 describes the fire rating tests for con-

5
struction products whilst DIN EN 13501-1 deals with the
classification of construction products and types with re-
gard to their fire behaviour. The latter is applied to three
categories of construction products, which are dealt with
separately:
Figure 46: Diagram of the SBI test

1. construction products with the exception of floor
coverings and pipe insulations,
During the test, calorimetric measurements and data
2. floor coverings and
from the flue gas are recorded and the records are used
3. pipe insulations.
to make the classifications listed in DIN EN 13501-1.
The test basically assesses what contribution a certain

DIN EN 13501-1 lists a total of seven fire classes for
construction product makes to a developing fire. In this
grading the various construction products. Classes A1
context it is assumed that the fire is triggered by a burn-
and A2 solely apply to non-combustible materials. For
ing object standing in a corner, as illustrated in Figure 46.
combustible construction materials classes B, C, D, E
and F were created.
The test consists of two walls 0.5 m x 1.5 m and 1.0 m
x 1.5 m, which are at right angles to one another and
positioned in metal frames.
Important parameters for products that are classified in If in the small flame test the paper is ignited by burning
the SBI test: particles dripping off, that product must automatically
be classified as d2. However, the product has then also
J fire growth rate (FIGRA) failed the small flame test and is automatically placed
J total heat release (THR) in class F. A major change of the SBI test in relation to
J lateral flame spread (LFS) national test methods was to be the introduction of a
J smoke growth rate (SMOGRA) test for products and their ultimate applications. Most
J total smoke production (TSP) of the otherwise usual tests focused on the classifica-
J development of burning droplets/particles tion of materials. It should also be borne in mind that
dripping off products that have so far been successful on the market
without any apparent safety defects and were classified
For classes B to D all of these criteria are defined in as usable may continue to be used in those applications.
greater detail. For class E, which has to be regarded as Irrespective of any reservations, after the introduction of
the SBI test entry level, only the small flame test conforming the SBI test it will be necessary to retest and reapprove
to EN ISO 11925-2 has to be passed (comparable with all products that have so far been used as construction
DIN 4102 B2). If a product fails to meet class E, it is not products with special fire properties.
possible to conduct any further SBI test. In class F no
criteria have to be met. The construction product is also
placed in class F if class E is not achieved. 5.3.3 Fire test as per FM 4910
The semiconductors industry, in particular, has estab-

Smoke growth rate SMOGRA is divided into three grades:
lished exacting standards in respect of fire protection,
simply because production outages can cause significant
J s1 = SMOGRA 30 m2 s-2, TSP 50 m2
costs. Factory Mutual Global is a US-based industrial
J s2 = SMOGRA 180 m2 s-2, TSP 200 m2
insurer that investigates whether plastics with a low fire
J s3 = meets neither s1 nor s2
load can be used as structural materials in the semicon-
ductors industry.
The occurrence of burning droplets dripping off is also
characterised in three grades:
The fire load is determined in a so-called small scale test.
It consists of a special oven (glass tube) in which the test
J d0 = no burning droplets within 600 s
specimens are burned. The resulting gases are analysed
J d1 = no burning droplets for more than 10 s
during the fire and are used to assess the plastic. The
within 600 s
criteria are as follows:
J d2 = neither d0 nor d1
J propagation index (Fire Propagating Index), FPI 6 for class V0 or V1, no matter what the other measure-
J smoke production (Smoke Damage Index), SDI 0.4 ments are. As opposed to the DIN 4102 B1 fire test, the
J corrosive action (Corrosion Damage Index), CDI 1.1 ability of the material to reach UL 94 V0 rises as the wall
thickness of the material increases. For this reason the
Many manufacturers of semifinished parts are obliged to test is regarded as having been passed for all thick-
produce evidence of the suitability of their semi-finished nesses of the same material that are above the tested
product in accordance with FM 4910 so that the mate- material thickness. If, for example, a test specimen of 1
rial can be used in cleanrooms in the semiconductors mm thickness qualifies for class V0 according to the UL
industry. 94 V test, the test certificate shows 1 mm for material
thickness.
SIMONA AG is in possession of certification for PVDF
pipes, fittings, sheets and welding rods as well as for If the plastic reaches at least classification UL 94 V2, 5
CPVC sheets made of an FM 4910-certified raw material. further tests, and also classifications, can be conducted,
such as:
5.3.4 Fire tests as per UL 94 J 5VB: 5 times flame impingement for 5 seconds each
on a test specimen clamped vertically; no dripping is
Within the US market the tests that apply are those
permissible
conforming to the UL 94 standard. UL stands for the test
J 5VA: as for 5VB, with an additional test on the test
laboratory Underwriters Laboratories. Accordingly, the
specimen clamped horizontally; neither dripping nor
fire properties of plastics are examined and assessed
the formation of fire holes with a diameter of > 1 mm
under various conditions.
is permissible
In test UL 94 HB (HB= Horizontal Burning) the burning

Since the test setup for classification according to DIN
rate is determined over a certain distance depending on
4102 differs from that of UL 94, a general statement
the sheet thickness of a plastic test specimen clamped
such as if the material passes B1, it will also pass UL
horizontally. In test UL 94 V (V= Vertical) the test speci-
94 V0, or vice versa, is neither possible nor permissible.
men, which is clamped vertically over a cotton swab, is
The same also applies to fire tests in other countries if
subjected to flame impingement for 2 x 10 seconds.
they have their own test specifications.
What is measured is the afterburning time following
flame impingement, the total afterburning times (10 test
specimens), the afterburning and afterglowing, possible
dripping and the quantity of burned material. Depending
on the result, the plastic is placed in class V0 (highest
requirement), V1 or V2 (lowest requirement). If, during
the test, burning material drips and if the cotton wool
underneath is ignited, that material no longer qualifies
5.4 Permeation The quantity that a material can absorb depends on the
chemical structure of the material. However, plastics in
Owing to their low density, plastics are relatively per-
particular tend to absorb especially solvents to a large
meable to gases and liquids compared with metals and
extent, as a result of which they swell.
minerals. Material transport through a membrane is re-
ferred to as permeation. In this context, a membrane is
Diffusion is described with the aid of the 1st and 2nd
a layer that offers significant resistance to the transport
Ficks law. The 1st Ficks law states that mass current
of a gas or liquid. Permeation is made up of adsorption,
density j = dm/dt, i.e. the mass of the particles, m, that
absorption, diffusion and desorption. Adsorption is the
diffuses through a constant area A per time unit rises
attachment of a substance to the surface of a membrane.
when the concentration gradient dc/dx increases:
If gases or liquids do not solely move to the surface of
a membrane but also dissolve in the membrane, this dc
j=DA
is referred to as absorption. Diffusion describes the dx
transport of a substance through the membrane to the
The constant D is referred to as the diffusion constant.
opposite boundary surface. Desorption is the reverse of
adsorption and means the emission of a substance from
The 2nd Ficks law states that the temporal change in
the membrane surface to the environment.
concentration dc/dt is proportional to the local change in
mass current density dj/dx:
Adsorption can be described for small concentrations
and monomolecular layers based on the Henry isotherm, dc dj
=D
in which the quantity adsorbed at the surface, c, is pro- dt dx
portional to partial pressure p of the adsorbent:
If concentration difference c prevails between the two
sides of a membrane with a thickness dx = s and an area
c=Sp
A, a mass current diffuses through the membrane:
where S = sorption constant m c

=DA
t s
For higher concentrations the Langmuir isotherm is
If one now substitutes c by pressure difference p =
used.
p2 - p1 between the membrane and introduces per-
Sp meation constant P = D S, the result is:
c=
1+Sp
m p
=PA s
t
P is then calculated as follows: If there are multiple foils behind one another, the
resulting permeation coefficient P can be calculated as
m s
P=DS= follows:
A t p
1 1 n Si
Diffusion, sorption and consequently also permeation =
Pges Sges

i=1 Pi
are a function of temperature and obey the Arrhenius
relationship:
n = number of layers
D = D0 exp ( )
- ED
RT
Sges
Si
=
=
total thickness of the membrane
thickness of the i-th individual layer
Pi = permeation of the i-th layer
S = S0 exp ( )
- ES
RT
5
5.5 Water absorption

P = P0 exp ( )
- EP
RT The materials PE, PP, PVDF and ECTFE are water-
repellent. Swelling, and hence a change in dimensional
R in the above formulas is the general gas constant.
stability, does not take place. During 24-hour immersion
Constants D0, S0 and P0 are material constants; they
in water in accordance with DIN 53495 only a slight
are usually independent of temperature T, activation
amount of water absorption is detected (< 0.1% by
energies Ei (i = D, S, P) and the concentration c of the
mass).
absorbent in the membrane. The characteristic feature
of the above calculation of permeation equilibrium is the
In the case of PVC the water absorption during immer-
fact that absorption is neglected because the analysis
sion in water is slightly higher. There is no change in
assumes a stationary equilibrium.
dimensions. The mechanical values only change slightly.
This is of no consequence for most applications.
In elastomers, however, diffusion is dependent on con-
centration c, so the above equations no longer apply in
However, care must be taken when welding or thermo-
this simple form for lengthy periods.
forming if the material to be processed has absorbed
moisture. The moisture absorption hazard rises with
Experimental determination of permeation constant P
the length of storage and with the carbon content of
can be conducted by measuring the mass that perme-
the material (e.g. PE-EL). When heating materials that
ates through the membrane as a function of time t.
have absorbed moisture, blistering can occur during
processing (welding or thermoforming). If this occurs, the
problem can be remedied by drying the welding rod or
the semifinished product.
5.6 Electrical properties 5.6.2 Dielectric properties
5.6.1 Electrical conductivity If one considers a plate capacitor (Figure 47) that con-
sists of two metal plates set up parallel to one another,
Plastics are not only good thermal insulators but also
it can be charged by applying a voltage. The charge Q
good electrical ones. The specific resistance, which
stored in the capacitor is proportional to the applied
can be calculated according to Ohms law R = U/I (R =
voltage U:
electrical resistance, U = voltage, I = current), is 1010 to
1020 cm for plastics. It is interesting to note that owing
Q=CU
to polarisation processes the resistance of a plastic
continuously changes towards lower levels in the course
Constant C is referred to as capacitance and it is propor-
of time. For this reason the value of surface resistance in
tional to plate area A and inversely proportional to plate
accordance with DIN IEC 60093, para. 10.2, is read one
distance d:
minute after applying the DC voltage.
A
C = 0
In some special applications, however, at least a low d
electrical conductivity is desirable. It is often a case of
Constant 0 is referred to as the dielectric constant of
discharging static in explosion-proof rooms. Here too,
the vacuum. It is 8.9 10-12 A s V-1 m-1.
as in the case of thermal conductivity, it is possible to
improvise by adding electrically conductive fillers. How-
If there is a material between the plates, a dielectric,
ever, the quantity added must be large enough to create
the capacitance of the capacitor changes according to
contact between the individual filler particles so that
the dielectric properties of the material:
current can flow through them. Also, care must be taken
to ensure that the fillers have external contact. If that A
C = 0 r
external or internal contact is not guaranteed, electrical d
conductivity is only achieved at relatively high voltages
Constant r is referred to as relative permittivity and it
at which the dielectric strength of the plastic layers
is the quotient of the capacitance with dielectric CDielectric
between the environment and the filler or between the
and the capacitance in the vacuum CVacuum:
fillers is exceeded. Suitable fillers include all electrically
conductive materials such as graphites, carbons and CDielectric
r =
metals. However, conductive pigments are also available CVacuum
within the market to an increasing extent. They are made
of minerals that are coated with metallic or semiconduc-
tive materials. However, they are often only suitable for
thin layers such as coatings.
With a dielectric the capacitance of a capacitor usually r = r+ ir
increases, i.e. for a large number of materials r is
greater than 1. Dielectric constant r refers to the reversible fraction and
r refers to the irreversible fraction of damping. On the
If the power source is disconnected from the capacitor, current-voltage characteristic of a lossless capacitor the
the total charge remains constant owing to the conserva- voltage leads the current by 90. With dielectric loss the
tion of energy and the voltage that has to be measured voltage only leads the current at an angle of = 90 - .
across the capacitor plates decreases when there is a The value tan is called the loss factor and it obeys the
dielectric between the plates. following relationship:
r
tan =
r
5
Since the dielectric loss factors of many unfilled plastics
are below 10-3, they are ideal for electrical insulation in
the high-frequency range.
Figure 47: Capacitor arrangement with polarisation charges;

a) without dielectric; b) with dielectric
5.6.3 Dielectric strength Ed in accordance with
DIN 53481 / VDE 0303-1
The reason for this phenomenon can be explained by the
atomic structure of many substances. Owing to chemical On account of frequent applications in the electrical
bonds, many substances have permanent or induced engineering sector it is particularly important to make
electric dipole moments. These dipole moments, which a statement about the ability of a material to ensure
are also referred to as polarisation charges, can be electrical insulation up to a specific AC voltage before the
oriented in an electric field, like one that prevails inside material is damaged beyond repair.
a capacitor. In such a case this is called the polarisability
of the dielectric. The dipoles now orient themselves as The dielectric strength is the ratio of breakdown voltage
a result of the electrical influence such that at the cap- Ud (voltage that damages the test material beyond repair)
acitor plates there are opposite charges and the electric to test specimen thickness. Consequently, breakdown
field inside the capacitor is reduced by a factor of 1/r. voltage and dielectric strength are specific material prop-
erties. They are also dependent on test specimen thick-
Relative permittivity is important whenever a material ness, ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and
has to be used in a high-frequency field. On account of the rate of voltage increase. The relationship between
alternating fields the dipole moments in the electric field plate thickness and dielectric strength is non-linear.
are moved (polarity reversal) and the dielectric becomes
warm. As with mechanical damping, relative permittivity
is therefore represented in a complex way:
5.6.4 Electric tracking resistance in accordance with
DIN 53480 / VDE 0303-1
When deploying unmodified thermoplastics for electrical

engineering applications (e.g. in electrical control cabinet
manufacture) soiling cannot be ruled out in those cases
in which there is constant usage. This can lead to the
development of creepage on the surface of the insula-
tion material. Visible signs of such currents are so-called
tracks, which can occur as a result of thermal decom-
position of the moulding involved (charring or wave-like
electrical erosion). Tracking resistance is the resistance
of the particular material to tracking.
5.6.5 Static
Within many fields of application SIMONA thermoplas-

tics are exposed to loads in the form of more or less
substantial friction. This can cause static. On account
of the relatively high surface resistance the charges
flow along the surface very slowly and can trigger spark
discharges (explosion hazard). At the same time, static
attracts dust, which can make the surface unattractive
for certain applications. The solution is to increase the
conductivity of the material, either by adding antistatic
agents (internal treatment) or by surface modification.
Antistatic SIMONA thermoplastics only undergo internal
treatment, which ensures a longterm effect. However,
with these antistatic products it should be noted that the
above mentioned properties are dependent on atmos-
pheric humidity.
6 Chemical properties
In the chemical industry, plastics are normally used As opposed to PVDF, however, ECTFE exhibits good
for their chemical resistance to chemically aggressive resistance to alkaline media. Normally the chemical
media. This means that under the influence of certain resistance increases in proportion to the fluorine fraction
media the plastics must not change to such an extent of the plastic molecule.
that their performance is impaired.
When selecting a plastic for a certain application it is
Generally speaking, the intensity of chemical attack necessary to know not only the medium being conveyed
increases in proportion to a rise in temperature, rise in but also other parameters, e.g.:
concentration and rise in the length of time of exposure.
J Single chemical or a mixture
Plastics are classified as organic materials so they have J Concentration of the medium
relatively low bonding forces that can have a negative J Application temperature (fluctuations) 5
influence on certain chemicals. Apart from the chemical J Mechanical load, e.g. pressure, dynamic stress
media being conveyed, changes in the plastics can also J Length of exposure (continuous / brief)
be caused by ultraviolet light, heat, oxygen or even a J Indoor or outdoor use
combination of these influencing factors. The result will J Use in a potentially explosive atmosphere
6
be premature ageing, and hence a shorter service life. J Contact with food
J Certain fire rating required
Owing to the different atomic composition of the various J Other approvals required
plastic molecules, their levels of chemical resistance J Abrasion
also vary. For example, polyolefins (plastics that only con- J Diffusion
sist of carbon and hydrogen, e.g. PE and PP, see Section

3.1 and 3.2) react with oxidising media such as chromic If a medium damages the plastic, the evidence of dam-
acid, causing material embrittlement or even the occur- age can vary, e.g.:
rence of stress cracks. PE is excellent for alkalis, e.g.
sodium hydroxide, at room temperature. PVC-U (plasti- J Increase in mass (usually swelling)
ciser-free PVC) is highly suitable in contact with oxidising J Decrease in mass, or even disintegration
media such as hydrogen peroxide or 96% sulphuric acid. J Discoloration (in the case of fluoroplastics this does
For many solvents, e.g. acetone, PVC-U is normally unsuit- not have to involve any damage)
able, or only suitable under certain conditions. J Embrittlement / formation of stress cracks
PVDF is highly suitable for contact with heavily oxidising J Cross-linking
media, e.g. chromic acid or chlorine. PVDF is not very

suitable in the alkaline range, e.g. for sodium hydroxide. If no empirical data is available on the behaviour of the
In the presence of alkalis PVDF can react within a short plastic in relation to the medium being conveyed, only an
space of time and cause stress cracks. The chemical estimate can be made at short notice. For a more accur-
resistance of ECTFE is usually above that of PVDF. ate statement it is necessary to conduct an immersion
test, either in the laboratory or in the field.
There are various industrial standards for the purpose To take into consideration the influence of the medium
of assessing the chemical resistance of thermoplastics, on the design of a thermoplastic tank, a factor called
e.g.: chemical resistance fCR has been introduced.
In tank design the chemical reduction factor A2I (reduc-
J ISO 4433 tion in stability and deformation) or A2B (reduction in
J DIN 16888 stress) is taken into account. The A2 factor represents
J DIN EN ISO 175 the reciprocal value of the factor of chemical resistance
fCR : A2 = 1/fCR.
In accordance with these standards the test specimens
are immersed without any exposure to stresses or This factor indicates the effect of a chemical on the ther-
strains. A statement on a possible effect that triggers moplastic in relation to water. The factor is always 1. If
stress cracks is therefore either impossible or only pos- the factor is 1, this means that the chemical acts on the
sible to a limited extent. thermoplastic like water. It is determined in accordance
with DIN 16889.
SIMONA semi-finished products can be tested and

assessed in the companys own laboratory in accordance The published list of chemical resistance of SIMONA
with ISO 4433. As regards the assessment of chemical materials normally only shows single chemicals. In
resistance, the change in mass and mechanical proper- practice, mixtures of various chemicals that are not
ties (modulus of elasticity, yield stress, elongation at shown on that list are used in the majority of cases. In
yield and elongation at break) can be used. The chemical such cases, please contact our Technical Service Centre
resistances are listed in our SIMCHEM database (www. for a material recommendation.
simchem.de).
To be able to assess a possible stress crack-triggering

property of a medium being tested, test specimens
subjected to voltage are also immersed in the particular
medium as part of our exposure tests. A statement about
the determination of resistance to environmental stress
cracking (ESC) is provided by DIN EN ISO 22088.
In a material immersion test the standards we have just

mentioned about the determination of chemical resist-
ance and the determination of environmental stress
cracking cannot provide a numerical measurement in
order to take into account the influence of the medium
on the thermoplastic in mathematical tank design.
7 Other properties
7.1 Physiological safety The general rule is: the more of a substance passes into
food, the larger the volume of data that has to be pre-
7.1.1 Contact with food according to European
sented for an evaluation, and food approval becomes all
Directives
the more difficult.
In Europe there are strict legal regulations for materials
that are intended to come into contact with food. For The most important aspects of EU Regulation 10/2011
all materials used in food contact (not only plastics) a are:
so-called Framework Regulation has to be complied with.
At present, the applicable provisions are set out in EC J A positive list of starting materials (monomers) and a
Regulation No. 1935/2004 passed by the European Par- substance list of correctives (additives) that may be
liament and the Council of the EU on 27 October 2004. used to manufacture plastics
J Migration procedure based on limits and purity spe-
With regard to all materials that come into contact with cifications
food it is a basic requirement that no substances should J Manufacture according to EU 2023/2006 (GMP =
pass from them to the food. If this happens neverthe- Good Manufacturing Practice)
less, Article 3 of EU Regulation 1935/2004 specifies the J Batch tracking and the resulting declaration of con-
6
quantity of migrating constituents as follows: formity confirming the above-mentioned requirements
J There must be no risk to human health The materials manufactured by SIMONA according to
J There must be no unacceptable change in the the above criteria, tested by independent institutes for
composition of the food migration and listed below are fundamentally suitable for
7
J There must be no detrimental effect on the taste or contact with food:
smell properties of the food
J PE-HD (natural, black)
EU Regulation 10/2011 (previously 2002/72/EC) in- J PE 100 (natural, black)
cludes a so-called positive list indicating all the approved J PE 500 (natural, black, green, dark blue, light blue,
materials/additives. This new EU Regulation 10/2011 red, yellow, reddish brown, grey)
has been in force since 1 May 2011; it is an integral part J PE 1000 (natural, black, green, dark blue)
of EU Regulation 1935/2004. J PP-H natural, PP-H AlphaPlus

J PP white 9002
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is the J PVDF
institution for evaluating applications for the inclusion J PVC-LZ
of new substances in the positive list of EU Regulation J SIMOPOR-LZ
10/2011. In particular, there is a health assessment of

substances that pass from materials to food.
Tests conducted on SIMONA ECTFE at the Fresenius German Environment Agency (UBA) issues guidelines in
Institute in Taunusstein demonstrated that ECTFE meets the form of various recommendations.
the recommendations issued by the Plastics Commission
of BgVV (Federal Institute for Consumer Health Protec- The guidelines issued by the German Environment Agen-
tion). However, no application has yet been filed for BgVV cy concerning hygienic assessment of organic materials
or FDA approval. in contact with drinking water were published initially
as drinking-water contact recommendations (KTW)
On the other hand, electrically conductive materials in 1977. In the meantime the drinking-water contact
and materials that are adjusted for low flammability by recommendations have been superseded by various new
means of halogen-containing flame retardants are not guidelines issued by the UBA. The tests can be subdivi-
approved for contact with food. ded into a test conforming to KTW recommendation /
KTW test guideline and a test conforming to DVGW (Ger-
Further information regarding food approvals can be man Gas and Water Association) Worksheet W 270.
found on the website of BfR (Federal Institute for Risk
Assessment) at www.bfr.bund.de and on the website The KTW test is a test conducted on the end product.
of EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) at www.efsa. The standardised procedure, subdivided into three inter-
europa.eu/de. vals, is performed on the product itself after practice-
oriented pretreatment (includ-ing pre-soaking and
rinsing). The total time required for the test procedure is
7.1.2 Contact with drinking water 10 days. Essentially, the following parameters are tested:
The European Drinking Water Directive constitutes the

J external quality (incl. clarity, colour, odour, taste),
highest international standard. The Drinking Water
J emission of organically bound carbons (TOC) and
Directive of the European Union (EU Directive 98/83/EC)
J chlorine depletion.
specifies that drinking water for human use must be free
of pathogens and germs and be flawless with regard to
The test conforming to DVGW Worksheet W 270 is purely
taste, smell and appearance (pure and clear).
a material test. The item to be tested is immersed in a
basin subject to a continuous flow of test water over the
The quality of drinking water in Germany is regulated
entire duration of testing. The total time required for the
by the Drinking Water Regulation TrinkwV 2001 (with
test is 6 months. After 3 and 6 months the test speci-
amendments from 2012). It contains all the require-
men is removed and examined for its microbiological
ments for short- or long-term installations. It constitutes
longterm behaviour (incl. formation of growth).
the implementation of EC Directive 98/83 (CELEX No.
398L0083) in national law.
We have performed a KTW test and a DVGW-W270 test
for the following SIMONA materials:
For the hygienic assessment of organic materials in con-
tact with drinking water the
J PE 100 Since the radiation dose lethal to human beings is
J PP-H AlphaPlus approx. 0.0006 Mrad, all known plastics can naturally
J PP-C light grey be used wherever people can also be located without
J PVC-DS-TW endangering themselves.
J SIMOLUX
Further information can be found on the website of the

German Environment Agency at www.umweltbundesamt.
de, in particular the guideline at www.umweltbundesamt.
de/sites/default/files/medien/374/dokumente/ktw_leit-
linie_070316.pdf and on the website of DVGW (German
Gas and Water Association) at www.dvgw.de/465.html.
7.2 Radiation resistance
The effect of high-energy radiation on plastics does not

depend on the type of radiation but solely on the amount
of radiation dose (exception: in the case of very heavy
particles such as particles, protons, etc.). On account
of irradiation in the ambient atmosphere the creep rup- 7
ture strengths are much shorter than with the exclusion
of atmospheric oxygen. The dose levels crucial for creep
rupture strength can be seen by referring to Table 9.
Material Maximum per- Long-term expo-

missible dose sure dose
Mrad * Mrad *
PE-HD 10 1
PP 3 0.1
PVC 60 6
PVDF 40 20
E - CTFE 200 50
* 104 J/kg = 1 Mrad

Table 9: Radiation resistance
8 Long-term properties
8.1 Test methods A tensile creep test is also used to measure creep mod-
ulus. As time increases, the slope of the stress-strain
If you compare the mechanical properties of different
curve changes towards lower values. The creep moduli
thermoplastics, the comparisons relate to short-term
of different thermoplastics can be seen by referring to
properties (e.g. toughness, strength). However, thermo-
guideline DVS 2205-1.
plastics tend to creep when subjected to a mechanical
load. Their mechanical properties are therefore time-
dependent.
For this reason, when a component is being designed

the creep properties are taken into account by inserting
specifications obtained from creep tests. The parameters
involved are the so-called creep modulus and creep
strength. Safety factors also take into account the long-
term welding factor.
Various methods of measurement are available for the

purpose of measuring long-term properties.
8.1.1 Tensile creep test
In a tensile creep test a test specimen with defined

Figure 48: Creep modulus of PE 100 for 25 years
dimensions is subjected to continuous strain. It is import-
ant to ensure that the conditions such as temperature,
force and medium are kept constant.
8.1.2 Internal pressure creep rupture strength test
The time to failure under a defined load is recorded as a To characterise pipes, the internal pressure creep
parameter. Different loads then lead to a group of curves rupture strength test is used. For this purpose, pipes or
that characterise the material with regard to its load. If parts of pipelines are filled with water at internal pres-
you compare welded and unwelded test specimens, the sure. By varying the pressure and temperature, you obtain
quotient is the long-term welding factor. To minimise test- a group of curves, from which the pressure-specific load-
ing times, stress crack-promoting media are also used bearing capacity of a material can be determined (see
instead of water. Notch-sensitive materials such as PE DVS 2205-1). This test also provides the names for PE
63 and PE 80 react very sensitively to such media. types. PE 100, for example, means that after exposure
to water at 20C for 50 years the minimum material
strength can be expected to be 10 MPa.
If you compare welded pipelines with unwelded ones 8.1.4 Creep curves
of the same type, it is possible to check the long-term
Creep curves are fracture curves, the position of which
strength of the connection system and determine the
is largely dependent not only on the material but also on
long-term welding factor.
mechanical load and temperature.
Creep tests are generally conducted using five test speci-

8.1.3 Full notch creep test (FNCT)
mens, which are exposed to constant load and tempe-
The failure of test specimens or components is always rature. The time to failure of the test specimen (break)
due to more or less severe defects or inhomogeneities in is recorded as the creep rupture strength; the mean is
the material. In the case of very homogeneous materi- calculated from all the creep rupture strengths determined
als, such as thermoplastics, these defects are minimal. and plotted on a (double-logarithmic) creep diagram.
Therefore, the testing times are usually longer. A creep This procedure is conducted for different loads, always at
test at temperatures up to 40C usually takes up to the same temperature. Later, with a cumulative frequency
10,000 hours. This roughly corresponds to an operating of 97.5% these averaged creep rupture strengths
time of more than a year in 24h duty. generate the minimum creep rupture strengths and then,
by means of linear regression, the minimum creep curve.
Investigations have shown that characterisation of the
material can also be performed by means of fracture Many creep curves are shown as broken lines for creep
mechanics. A notched test specimen is used, which then rupture strengths of >104 h because for those times
fails under strain much more quickly than an unnotched no test results are available. By contrast, there is over
test specimen. The FNCT uses a rectangular test speci- 25 years of experience in creep rupture strength in the
men with a sharp perimeter notch, which is subjected case of PE-HD, PP-H, PVC-U and PVDF. Creep curves for
to strain in a surfactant solution. To further reduce the pipes made of the said standard materials are printed
testing time, with PE materials the test takes place at in DVS 2205-1. The broken line used to be generated by
8
80C under a load of 4 MPa. The minimum require- extrapolation/interpolation (for certain temperatures)
ment (according to DVS 2205-1, BB1) for creep rupture according to the Arrhenius law. The procedure assumes
strength is, for example, 100 hours for PE 80, 300 hours that by means of experiments at high temperatures it
for PE 100 and as much as 8,760 hours for PE 100 RC. is possible to deduce behaviour at low temperatures.
For most materials nowadays there are only continuous
You will find further information about the FNCT test in lines.
DVS 2203-4 Supplement 2.
Material ageing, which has an effect due to embritt-
In future, more test variants are to be included in DVS, lement, restricts the possibility of extrapolating creep
depending on the thickness of the test specimen. They curves. One criterion to be applied for ageing is, for
include, for example, the 2-notch creep test (2NCT) (DVS example, the decrease in tensile strain at break by a
2203-4 Supplement 4). certain percentage. Since no material-specific limits have
been defined yet, there is no age limit line on the creep However, the stress values determined do not take into
diagrams. A PE 100 creep curve can be seen below. account the actual loads in practice, brought about by
more or less aggressive media and welding processes.
How are creep curves used? These have to be determined separately (see also DVS
With the aid of a creep curve (see Figure 49) it is always 2205-1, DIBt media list). Those service conditions are
possible to determine the amount of load for a specified reflected by an imaginary curve (see Figure 50). In the
service life t1 and service temperature T of a component example shown the stress value is A = 3 N/mm.
(fracture curve for water: K = 5 N/mm).
Years
Figure 49: PE 100 creep curve
It is also possible to use a creep diagram to determine
the actual service life t2 of a component. Here in the
example the maximum service load is perm = 1.5 N/mm.
log
Fracture curve for water Imaginary curve taking into
account welding and chemical
resistance
K(t,) = 5 N/mm2
A = 3 N/mm2
Ageing curve
zul. = 1.5 N/mm2
8
log t
t1 t2
Figure 50: Using a creep curve
8.1.5 Isochronous stress-strain diagrams What does this mean for practical situations?
Since thermoplastics in long-term use not only reduce
Isochronous stress-strain diagrams are some of the most
stresses but also tend towards more or less substantial
informative diagrams. They can be used to determine
creep, isochronous stress-strain diagrams can be used
time-dependent stress and deformation changes (on the
to forecast, inter alia, behaviours at the beginning of use
lines of the same useful life = isochronous) for retarda-
of a material.
tion and relaxation cases. The creep modulus is also
easy to calculate as a function of time and stress. For
components that are exposed to a constant load, the
intersection with isochronous lines (time, dependence on
temperature; see example of PE 100 curves) and stress
indicates the time-dependent strain values. However,
only the permissible strain values should be taken into
consideration.
In a relaxation case, i.e. where deformation is constant,

the stresses in the material decrease on a time-depen-
dent basis.
Figure 52: Relaxation and retardation sections on

an isochronous stress-strain diagram
On the vertical straight line of relaxation it is possible to

read off how long it will take to reduce a certain amount
of stress that was introduced to the material by external
loads. Point A on the diagram shows at 10n hours a cer-
tain stress value in the material which has been consid-
erably reduced at point B after 10n+6 hours.
Figure 51: Isochronous stress-strain diagram of PE 100 for On the other hand, it is possible to use the horizontal
23C straight line of retardation at a constant external load
being applied in order to determine by what amount a
thermoplastic expands (creeps) for various usage times. 2. Deformation (e.g. elongation):
At point C the material at 10n hours has less strain than The characteristic value is the so-called creep
at point D for longer usage times (10 n+6
hours). modulus Ec. This is the quotient of stress and total
strain. The creep modulus is time- and temperature-
dependent and can be determined by means of so-
8.2 Structural analyses called creep curve diagrams (see supplements to DVS
2205-1).
Our technical service departments (the Technical Service
Centre and the Applications Technology Department
3. Rigidity
of the Pipes and Fittings Division) will be pleased to
In the case of components with very large surfaces
conduct, on request, structural analyses for tanks in
the rigidity of the plastics used is the crucial factor for
accordance with the guidelines issued by the German
determining the wall thicknesses required. If deflec-
Welding Society and Related Processes (DVS) 2205-1,
tion of a tank wall is too large with the wall thicknes-
2 and 5 as well as appropriate structural proofs for pipes
ses calculated according to 1. or 2., a large part of the
in accordance with the guidelines issued by the German
external load must be absorbed by membrane forces,
Wastewater Association ATV A 127, ATV M 127 and DVS
i.e. tensile forces. In such cases it is necessary to in-
2210. These structural analyses for thermoplastic com-
crease the wall thickness. This leads to an increase in
ponents are recognised by independent testing bodies
sheet rigidity and minimisation of stresses occurring.
as verifiable.
Also when designing pipes a stability proof is conducted

When designing components and tanks made of thermo-
in order to determine the safety margin between the
plastics, their time- and temperature-dependent property
critical load and the load actually existing. This is done
profile plays a key role. Calculations are always based on
taking into account the influences of total vertical load
long-term data. Generally speaking, three criteria have to
(soil load and live load), external water pressure (ground-
be taken into account, depending on the type of load:
water) and superposition of total vertical load and exter- 8
nal water pressure.
1. Maximum permissible stress:
Calculation is performed with reference to the creep
To make it easier for our Applications Technology
strength K (t,T) of the material being used (see sup-
Department to render this special service, we are
plements to DVS 2205-1). The latter indicate the long-
pleased to make questionnaires available to you about
term strength of thermoplastics as a function of time
the structural design of tanks, shafts and pipelines, for
t and temperature T under the action of water as a
downloading from our website (www.simona.de/down-
medium. The creep values found are used to determine
load). Our staff look forward to answering your questions
the maximum permissible stress of a component in
in advance about potential applications of the various
relation to the chemical influences of the media.
SIMONA plastics.
8.3 Materials in tank construction requiring
mandatory test certificates
According to Sections 62 and 63 (since 2010) of the

German Water Management Act (WHG), installations
and installation sections for storing, filling or transfer-
ring soil- and water-endangering liquids are subject to
certain manufacturing and monitoring rules. These are
laid down, among other things, in the Construction and
Testing Policies (BPG) issued by Deutsches Institut fr
Bautechnik (DIBt Centre for Competence for Construc-
tion) in Berlin. According to BPG, especially installations
and tanks made of thermoplastics may only be made
from semi-finished products whose raw materials have
been approved by DIBt.
In compliance with the Construction and Testing Pol-

icies, SIMONA semi-finished products are subject to
strict criteria of material selection and processing. Only
continuously monitored base materials enter the pro-
cessing sequence, which is also subject to continuous
monitoring. Monitoring is based on DIN EN lSO 9001. In
addition, SIMONA products are subject to external moni-
toring by the South German Plastics Centre (SKZ) in
Wrzburg, the Technical Inspection Association TV Sd
and the German Plastic Pipes Association KRV (called
GKR Bonn up to 2003). This ensures that the products
manufactured by SIMONA AG are of the accustomed high
quality.
9 Plastic physics
9.1 Stress types
All semi-finished plastic products and all components

manufactured from them have a high inherent stress
potential that is not due to the action of external forces.
It concerns internal stresses that are brought about by
the manufacturing process.
Figure 53: Stress orientations
Plastic melt plasticised in the extruder is extruded into

In injection moulding inherent after-pressure stresses
the roll gap of the calender stack through a gap in the
also occur which can arise due to excessive pressure on
flat-sheet die. When the melt has already cooled down
the moulding during the cooling process. This can often
slightly, it is cooled below melt temperature so that the
be avoided by providing appropriate vents. If excessive
shape provided by the mould remains intact. Cooling the
inherent stresses occur in an injection-moulded part, it
extrudate from outside generates a temperature gradient
becomes apparent either from excessive shrinkage or
between the outer layer and the interior of the semi-
from a change in shape during exposure to heat.
finished product. The inner layer of the semi-finished
product is now also cooled down slowly and the heat is
When partially crystalline thermoplastics cool down (cool-
emitted to the outside. Owing to the outer lining, which
ing from the melt to the thermoplastic range) the mater-
has already solidified, the volume is kept constant. How-
ial crystallises out. This results in volume contraction.
ever, the inner layer attempts to shrink on account of the
If cooling is not uniform, a later crystallisation process
high thermal strain, which is hindered by the rigid outer
takes place with strain on the assembly parts (inherent
layer. As a result of this process internal stresses remain
crystallisation stresses).
in the semi-finished product (cooling stresses), which
can be observed during processing. A sheet with high
Inherent embedding stresses that are relatively high are
inherent stresses bends, for example, when it is heated.
only found in the microscopic (very small) range of the 8
In the case of thick-walled pipes it is also possible to
material or in the sub-microscopic range, i.e. in the range
detect the amount of inherent stresses from the fact
of atoms and molecules.
that the pipe ends have a smaller radius than the middle
of the pipe. Another reason for internal stresses is the
J Inherent stresses in the microscopic range = stresses
stretching of the molecules during extrusion (orientation
in the vicinity of filler particles or colour pigments
9
stresses). However, compared to cooling stresses this
J Inherent stresses in the sub-microscopic range =
fraction is normally low.
stresses at the boundaries of the crystalline zones
with spherulite formation (this type of inherent stresses
Generally speaking, inherent compressive stresses
is important for the material polypropylene, for
mainly occur wherever the cooling rate is relatively high.
example)
Inherent tensile stresses mainly occur wherever the
cooling rate is relatively low.
Of all the types listed so far, special importance must Figure 54 shows a diagram of the specific volume in rela-
be attached to inherent cooling stresses. The amount of tion to temperature for amorphous and partially crystalli-
inherent stress potential arising in forming or reforming ne thermoplastics.
increases
J if the cooling rate rises;

J if the difference in specific volume (or density) that
occurs during the process rises.
Figure 54: Dependence of specific volume on temperature; left: amorphous thermoplastics; right: partially crystalline thermoplastics
9.2 Reduction of inherent stresses 20 min/mm. That is followed by cooling, which should
be performed very carefully and slowly. A cooling rate of
Partially crystalline thermoplastics in particular have
5 K/(minwall thickness in mm) is to be recommended.
widely varying specific volumes between melting point
However, when cooling, it is not always necessary to cool
and room temperature. To minimise the resulting level
down to room temperature. The semi-finished product
of inherent stresses, forming temperature should be just
can usually be removed from the oven at a temperature
above the crystalline melting range. In many cases the
of 40C.
forming and reforming processes do not allow systematic
influencing of the parameters that generate inherent
Generally speaking: the higher the temperature, the
stresses. One remedy in this context is the option of
lower the rate of cooling should be.
subsequent heat treatment by annealing. To achieve max-
imum success with this process a number of influencing
Annealing plastic parts is generally only useful if a
variables should be taken into account because the heat
change in shape due to thermal expansion can take
treatment temperature has to be selected according to
place without any hindrance. If this is not the case (e.g.
the material.
plastic sheet firmly clamped in a metal frame), heat
stresses are bound to develop there. The time for the
J Amorphous material: Annealing close to glass transi-
annealing process must therefore be selected carefully
tion temperature
within a production sequence.
J Partially crystalline material: Annealing approx. 10 to
20 K below the crystalline melting temperature
Solid rods made of thermoplastic polymers are usually
prone to a high inherent stress potential. During machin-
In the case of materials with a high orientation state the
ing it is advisable to only produce blanks first because
heat treatment temperature used must be lower. At high
deformations induced by inherent stresses occur and
temperatures, restoring forces may occur, which can
continue to change after the annealing process.
lead to slight deformations. The duration of annealing is
determined by the thickness of the body being annealed
If the blank is in a virtually stress-free state, production
and the position of the stress profile in the wall cross-
takes place according to final dimensions by means of
section.
properly executed operations (in order to avoid further
deformations). The low-stress state of the component
Heat treatment should be split up into a warming phase, 9
allows relatively narrow production tolerances.
a holding phase and a cooling phase. Warming can take
place relatively quickly if compressive stresses exist at
When annealing pipes it must be possible to supply and
the surface. In this case a heating rate of 20 K/(minwall
dissipate the heat internally and externally. Since pipes
thickness in mm) is sufficient. Holding time depends on
made of PP homopolymer in particular are prone to a
the thickness of the semi-finished product and the pres-
high potential of inherent stresses, all SIMONA PP pipes
sure of the ambient air. At normal atmospheric pressure
are annealed with low stress in an inline process. On
the time of the maximum temperature should be about
account of this heat treatment the load capacity can be and coefficient of expansion cannot be regarded as a
increased considerably. constant. In addition, the above estimation does not take
relaxation processes into account. If the temperature rise
In thermoforming as well, cooling stresses can be frozen, takes place slowly though, any heat stresses occurring
which then influence processing contraction and post- can be partially reduced by relaxation.
contraction. In this context, high tool temperatures and
low cooling rates are an advantage. This effect of stress relaxation in particular can always
change the stress balance of a component if there are
multiple alternating temperature cycles. Since stress re-
9.3 Heat stresses laxation takes place very quickly beyond glass transition
temperature (amorphous thermoplastics) or the crystal-
If thermal expansion (dilatation) of a body is hindered by
line melting range (partially crystalline thermoplastics),
external constraints, heat stresses develop.
the above equation only applies below that temperature
limit.
The amount of heat stresses in a particular case can
easily be estimated with the following equation:
To illustrate, the heat stress characteristic is plotted as
a function of time for a test specimen clamped in the
W = E T
tensile testing machine for multiple alternating tempe-
rature cycles (Figure 55). For simplification purposes the
W = heat stress
temperature changes should take place in surges (not
E = modulus of elasticity
technically feasible in general).
= mean coefficient of thermal expansion
T = temperature difference
The equation shows that stress and temperature dif-

ference are proportional to one another. However, practice
has shown that, for example, the compressive heat
stresses arising when a body is heated up are lower than
the ones roughly calculated beforehand. Here the devi-
ations between actual and calculated heat stress tend
to increase as temperature rises. The reason for this is
the dependence of the modulus of elasticity and the co-
efficient of linear expansion on temperature. Whilst the
modulus of elasticity declines as temperature rises, the
coefficient of linear expansion increases. However, since
these opposite tendencies do not generally compen-
sate each other, the product of the modulus of elasticity
Figure 55: Stress characteristic for alternating temperatures
If the test specimen firmly clamped into the tensile at time t4 a stress level is reached which is below the
testing machine is exposed to a temperature, a compres- starting level.
sive stress W develops with a certain delay (plastic is a
poor heat conductor). At time t1 the entire cross-section The test specimen now has inherent tensile stresses after
9
of the test piece is at temperature level T1. If the change the first alternating temperature cycle. In time interval
in temperature is consistent, relaxation processes occur t4 to t5 the temperature continues to be kept constant.
at t2, i.e. the stress decreases degressively in the course Stress relaxation also takes place in the cold range,
of time. At time t3 the original temperature level T0 is although it is much lower. The relaxation rate must be
restored. The stress change between times t2 and t3 regarded as being dependent on temperature. This ex-
is virtually identical to the one during the heating oper- plains the higher tensile stress potential after the second
ation. Owing to the relaxation process in the warm phase alternating temperature cycle.
In terms of tendency it is already evident that after In practice, knowledge of such processes can make a
further alternating temperature cycles there is a continu- substantial contribution to identifying the root cause of
ous shift in heat stress from the compressive stress any incidents where damage has occurred.
range to the tensile stress range. The maximum tensile
stress that can be achieved in doing so is also W. Here is a typical example of an incident where excessive
heat stresses led to failure of the material:
After an infinite number of cycles the heat stress will now
always be somewhere between the zero stress level and J a damaged component shows gaping cracks
W. This means that when the maximum temperature is J the component was exposed to one or more alternat-
reached in the service cycle there will never be any ten- ing temperature cycles
sile stresses, i.e. the zero stress level will prevail. J the component was hindered in executing thermal
expansion at right angles to crack propagation
In the case of alternating temperature cycles whose
maximum temperature T1 is below the glass transition Owing to the resulting heat stresses, any attempt to elim-
temperature of a material, it will be necessary to apply a inate inherent stresses that prevail between two fixed
large number of cycles or one cycle with a sustained high points of a part by annealing is futile because, on the
temperature in order to completely shift the stress curve contrary, the damaging tensile stresses induced by heat
into the tensile stress range. The situation is different stresses increase further (this can also apply to compos-
when heating a material above the glass transition tempe- ite components).
rature. Here the compressive stresses are reduced so
quickly above this zero level that a balanced stress level Orientations
is reached after only a short time. If a cooling process Inherent stresses arise due to energy-elastic deformation,
now takes place, the tensile stress that develops will be i.e. interatomic distances and valence angle change due
very high. The higher it is, the higher the temperature to the introduction of thermal energy, for example. In the
that developed during the warm phase (W = f(T)). The process there is a change in inner energy, and conse-
process just described is illustrated in Figure 55, in time quently in volume as well. As opposed to this, the volume
interval t9 to t12. remains constant during orientation. This orientation of
molecules is caused either by:
Heat stresses in practice
If, for example, in the case of internal tank lining or J thrust forces, like those that occur when melts flow
a composite tank (GRP-thermoplastic) gaping cracks in channels (extrusion), between plastic walls that
become visible in the lining as result of damage, this have already solidified (injection moulding) or be-
is clearly an indicator of failure due to excessive heat tween rolls (calendering)
stresses. J expansion forces, like those that occur, for example,
in a tensile test, in blown film extrusion, in the inlet
zone of extrusion dies or at cross-section constrictions
If such plastic melts oriented by thrust or expansion tially crystalline thermoplastics) entropy-elastic restoring
forces cool down beyond the crystalline melt range or forces begin to act. The macro-molecules endeavour to
the glass transition temperature, those orientations are assume the state of maximum entropy and hence ran-
frozen and molecular deformation remains intact below domness/coil shape. The stretched, oriented macro-
the glass transition temperature. Only above that glass molecules contract again. Canoeing stops and the sheet
transition temperature do the molecules restore their becomes tense. Only if the temperature continues to rise
statistically random coil shape, unless forces ensure do the viscous properties of the melt take effect and
maintenance of deformation. If an oriented test speci- supporting air is required to keep the sheet almost flat.
men is clamped into a force measuring device (e.g. a
tensile testing machine) and heated above the glass In thermoforming proper that now follows the material is
transition temperature, (tensile) forces occur which are stretched again to a more or less substantial extent. The
higher the more the rod is oriented. For this reason the thermoformed part has a larger surface and generally a
term often used is frozen stresses in connection with smaller wall thickness than the original sheet. Orienta-
orientation. tion takes place again.
In this area, there is often confusion with the term When actual forming has been completed, the thermo-
inherent stresses (see Section 9.1 Stress types), which formed part is cooled down as quickly as possible for
arise when melts cool down. Orientations and inherent economic reasons. Now the orientations introduced
stresses are, however, fundamentally different in terms during stretching freeze on account of expansion forces.
of origin and effects. Consequently, the thermoformed part may possibly have
a higher degree of orientation than the original sheet.
This difference can be illustrated by taking a thick-walled Owing to the rapid cooling, which generally takes place
thermoformed part as an example. Thick-walled sheets unilaterally for process engineering reasons (mould cool-
have an approximately parabolic inherent cooling stress ing is rare in thermoforming), inherent cooling stresses
characteristic with compressive stresses on the outsides are introduced to the thermoformed part in addition. In
and tensile stresses at the centre. On request, SIMONA the mould, inherent tensile stresses occur during the
produces sheets that are specially suitable for thermo- cooling process because here the cooling rate is lower
forming. Such sheets have a high orientation level. The than on the opposite side facing the cooler. This will
reason for this is as follows: exhibit inherent compressive stresses later. Stress distri-
9
bution in the thermoformed part is consequently linear,
In thermoforming the cold sheet is firmly clamped into a as opposed to the parabolic inherent stress profile of the
metal frame. The thermal expansion caused by heat- original sheet.
ing is hindered in an axial direction, due to the fixed
clamping. For this reason the sheet begins to canoe. On As in the thermoforming process, both the inherent
exceeding the glass transition temperature (amorphous stress state and the orientation state can change in any
thermoplastics) or the crystalline melt temperature (par- other forming process (e.g. fold welding, hot bending
etc.).
9.4 Influence of orientations on the properties of Since entropy elasticity only commences at temperatures
plastics above the glass transition temperature or crystalline melt
temperature, it is not possible to eliminate orientations
Orientations in extruded semi-finished plastics usually
by conventional annealing. The entropy-elastic restoring
have a preferred direction. For example, the degree of
forces only take effect beyond those temperature limits.
orientation in extruded sheets is higher in the direction
of extrusion than at right angles to it. Pressed sheets,
on the other hand, only have very small orientations
9.5 Shrinkage
because no melt flowing processes occur during the
pressing operation. The behaviour of pressed sheets Another common name for shrinkage is the memory
is therefore virtually isotropic, i.e. they have the same effect, which is particularly evident in the extrusion
properties in all directions. Oriented semi-finished plas- process. In extrusion the extrudate increases its circum-
tics, on the other hand, are anisotropic, so the physical ference and becomes slightly shorter.
properties are dependent on direction.
The molecules originally coiled and looped in the melt at
The mechanical properties are generally higher in the rest are oriented and stretched in the extruder due to a
direction of orientation than at right angles to it. With shear load. After leaving the extrusion die they attempt
regard to thermal expansion the same case occurs. to cancel this forced orientation, i.e. they want to resume
their original form (memory effect).
Strength B: B > B,isotropic > B
Impact strength (in relation to the direction of Owing to rapid cooling of the plastic melt, the molecules
sampling) an: an > an,isotropic > an are hindered from resuming their coiled state and a
Heat stress : > isotropic > larger fraction of the orientation remains intact, i.e. it is
frozen.
Where = parallel to the direction of orientation (direc-
tion of extrusion) and = at right angles to the direction On heating up to or beyond the glass transition tempe-
of orientation (at right angles to the direction of extru- rature the above memory effect is resumed.
sion).
The increase in mechanical strength in the direction 9.6 Contraction

of orientation can be explained by the fact that with
As with any material the volume of the plastics becomes
external loads it is mainly the primary valence bonds that
larger as temperature rises, especially on transition to
have to absorb the external forces whilst if the load is
the molten state. Vice versa, the volume diminishes
applied at right angles they are absorbed by the intermo-
on cooling down. Since this phenomenon occurs in all
lecular bonds or secondary valence bonds.
processing sequences, volume contraction, especially in
the manufacture of plastic fittings, must be taken into
account if a high level of dimensional accuracy is to be Inhomogeneities in the material, fillers, scratches in the
achieved. surface, notches and edges have quite a substantial in-
fluence on stress distribution. At the edges of such inner
When taking the contraction dimensions into consid- and outer notches a stress peak develops on account of
eration, a distinction is drawn between processing the geometric inhomogeneity (Figure 57).
contraction and post-contraction. Processing contrac-
tion is the difference between the dimension of a cold This stress increase is always higher than the mathemat-
thermoforming tool and that of the cooled thermoformed ical (effective or nominal) stress if stress distribution is
part after 16 hours of exposure to standard atmospheric assumed to be linear. The stress peak is influenced by
conditions of processing (as per DIN 16742). In prac- the size of the notch, the radius of curvature at the root
tice, however, measurement usually takes place after of the notch and the type of load.
24 hours. After that, post-contraction begins, which can
last for hours or even days. This process is the difference
between the dimension of the cold pressed part and the
dimension of the same pressed part that is subjected to
exposure to heat.
9.7 Influences on component strength
9.7.1 Notch effect
When calculating component stresses, the assumption

is usually a uniform (tensile) or linear (bending) stress
characteristic over the entire cross-section (Figure 56).
However, in a component subject to a real load such

uniform distributions do not exist.
sn = f (F, b, d) Figure 57: Stress distribution in notched test specimens

F = tensile force
b = unnotched component width
d = component thickness
Figure 56: Theoretical analysis of uniform stress distribution
As is evident from Figure 57, the notch effect can be 9.7.2.1 Weldability of material types
kept small by ensuring that transitions are as continuous
Only plastics of the same kind, e.g. PP and PP, and within
as possible. The deeper and sharper the notch made,
these types only ones with the same or a similar (adja-
the higher the stress peak at the root of the notch.
cent) molecular weight and the same density, can be
welded to one another; colour does not have to be taken
Consequently, the strength of a material is not solely
into account. This means that certain materials can only
responsible for the behaviour of the component under
ever be welded to one another with adequate reliability if
service load so too are structural shape and surface
they are in the same melt index group or in two adjacent
quality. Since the external shape and internal homo-
melt index groups.
geneity of the material exert a considerable influence
on component strength, another term used is structural
The melt index groups of the materials can be seen by
strength.
referring to the names of moulding compounds (PE as
per DIN EN ISO 17855-1, PP as per DIN EN ISO 19069-
The stresses developing according to elasticity-theory
1, PVC-U as per DIN EN ISO 1163-1, fluoropolymers as
calculations are dependent on notch depth and notch
per DIN EN ISO 12086-2). Rigid polyethylene and plas-
radius.
ticised polyethylene cannot be welded to one another.
One exception to this rule is, for example, the option of
Significant experience in plastics is required when it
making an adequate join by welding PVC-U to acrylic
comes to assessing the latter and taking it into consider-
glass (PMMA).
ation in mathematical sizing of components. The theory
of elasticity as well as fracture mechanics, which deals
In the case of PE-HD a distinction is drawn between PE
with the geometric inhomogeneity of materials, were
63, PE 80 and PE 100, which can always be welded
developed for purely elastic materials. As a result, these
to one another. With PP a distinction is made between
considerations can only be applied to thermoplastics to a
PP-H, PP-B and PP-R, which can also be welded to one
limited extent.
another. For the material PVDF there is no industrial
standard or type classification. However, within the mar-
ket, there are two polymerisation processes with which
9.7.2 Welding thermoplastics
the raw material PVDF can be manufactured. Although
The term welding means the permanent joining of some of the properties vary in detail, this does not apply
thermoplastics by applying heat and pressure, with or to welding.
without the use of a welding filler. All welding processes
take place when the materials in the boundary areas PE-HD
of the surfaces being joined are in a ductile state. That Materials with a melt flow rate MFR (190/5) of 0.2 - 1.7
is where the filamentary molecules of the parts being g/10 min. are suitable for welding. This means that
joined and pressed against one another link up and en- when the materials are warmed the melt viscosity is very
twine themselves to form a homogeneous material bond. similar. This statement is contained in DVS 2207-1 and
has also been confirmed by DVGW (German Gas and J Hot-gas welding with torch separate from filler rod
Water Association) in an announcement. J Hot-gas extrusion welding

J Heated-tool butt welding
PP-H, PP-B, PP-R J Heated-tool socket welding
Within mass flow rates MFR (230/2,16) 0.2 - 0.6 g/10 J Electrofusion welding
min. and MFR (190/5) 0.4 - 1.0 g/10 min. weldability is J Friction welding
confirmed. You can read this statement in DVS 2207-11.

For further details reference is made at this point to DVS
PVDF 2207, which contains an exact description of the various
As already mentioned, there are two different polymer- welding methods and also deals with the various types of
isation processes within the market: emulsion PDF and weld seam.
suspension PVDF. DVS Guideline 2207-15 deals with
both heated-tool butt welding and heated-tool socket A short introduction to the topic is also provided by our
welding for extruded pipes, fittings and sheets. This work.info Welding, which you can download from our
guideline describes the suitability of PVDF for welding, website at www.simona.de/download.
irrespective of the manufacturing process. If density is
between 1.7 and 1.8 g/cm3 and the melt index MFR
(230/5) is between 1.0 and 25 g/10 min., it can be 9.7.2.3 Structural strength
assumed that suitability for welding is unlimited.
The basis of good weld seam quality is observance of
raw-material-related influences, the manufacturing and
ECTFE
processing conditions of the semi-finished products and
Since ECTFE is a relatively new material and conse-
optimal joining zone configuration.
quently the long-term specifications have not yet been
completely proven, the DVS Guidelines do not yet contain
Inner and outer notches and unfavourable wall thickness
full details. The long-term specifications for hot-gas string
transitions result in a structural strength that in some
bead welding are listed in DVS 2207-3, Supplement 3.
cases can be well below actual material strength. Weld-
ed joints always constitute an inhomogeneity. Since in
most cases weld seams are not machined, there are also
9.7.2.2 Welding methods
irregularities at the surface which can have a negative 9
The various welding methods for joining thermoplastic influence on structural strength.
components mainly differ with regard to how heat is
introduced to the welding zone. Figure 58 shows four different corner connections with
On an industrial scale the following welding methods different configurations. If the corner connections are
have become established: subjected to a bending load, it is evident that right-angled
corner connections are generally much less favourable
J Hot-gas string bead welding than rounded corners with joins outside the fillet. Fillets
always allow favourable stress distribution and result Figure 60 shows connections that are being exposed
in structural strength that is up to 10 times higher than to a tensile load. Tensile stresses and shear stresses
that of conventional right-angled corner connections. develop in the seam zone. A machined V-seam provides
high structural strength because there is no geometric
inhomogeneity whatsoever. In the case of simple butt
strap joints (bottom line in Figure 60) there are not only
thrust forces and tensile forces but also bending mo-
ments in the weld seam. Structural strength is very low.
By contrast, a double butt strap joint (top line in Figure
60) permits a uniform distribution of forces. This type of
connection has a high level of structural strength. The
same applies to cross connections. Maximum weld seam
strength is achieved with a double butt strap joint at the
Figure 58: Weld seam strength as a function of weld seam top.
position in corner connections
If a seam is welded on one side only, T-shaped connec-

tions have much less favourable behaviour than if a weld
is provided on both sides (Figure 59).
Here, too, it is important that there are no notches on

the tensile side of the part being subjected to the load.
Fillet welds provide a certain amount of curvature. They
reduce any excessive stresses so high structural strength
Figure 60: Connecting sheets in one plane
is the result.
9.7.2.4 Position of weld seams
In the following structural descriptions the findings de-

rived from the previous explanations have been incorpor-
ated in practical examples. More detailed information
can be found in the welding design principles of DVS
2205-3.
In the case of load-bearing seams or fillet welds the weld

Figure 59: Weld seam strength as a function of weld seam
position in T-shaped connections seams must be sized in such a way that the required
cross-sections are adequate to transmit forces. Butt
joints are preferable. V-seams must be backed at the
root. Transitions in the force characteristic are desirable
in butt joints with different wall thicknesses (Figure 61).
Crossings not permissible 1,2 = Sequence of

welds
Incorrect Correct
Figure 61: Influence of weld seam when there is a change in

cross-section
Connection of reinforcements
Weld seams should be taken out of the corner. Fillets Figure 63: Weld seam accumulations
at corner connections provide a more favourable force
characteristic (Figure 62).
9.8 Stresses
When welding thermoplastics, various stress states
Corner joint occur depending on the welding method used. Within a
weld seam they can be transverse or longitudinal and in
the case of relatively thick semi-finished products they
can also be perpendicular. These stresses are brought
about by local warming in conjunction with non-uniform
cooling.
Frame corner
When a material is warmed in the weld seam zone, 9

compressive stresses build up due to a thermal change
in length; during the welding process a certain amount of
relaxation in stresses has taken place owing to the plas-
tic behaviour of the material. Thermal tensile stresses
Figure 62: Corner design
develop in the subsequent cooling process. Whilst the
longitudinal stresses occurring in the weld seam cross-
Accumulations of weld seams should be avoided. Inter-
secting seams are not permitted (Figure 63).
section are independent of welding method, this is not stresses arise in the starting zone. As welding proceeds,
the case with the transverse stresses also occurring. The the tensile stress also proceeding develops throughout
level of transverse stresses depends for the most part on the entire weld seam zone. On account of stress relaxa-
whether the sheets being welded are firmly clamped or tion the tensile stresses initially decrease in the starting
whether they are free to move. zone of the weld seam but as the welding operation
proceeds they increase again. This means that a hot-gas
In hot-gas welding it is the weld seam structure that is weld seam only has tensile stresses in the longitudinal
responsible for the amount of transverse stress. Owing to direction, which explains the bowing in welded sheets
the stress relaxation already mentioned, thermal tensile (schematic representations: Figures 64 & 65).
longitudinal
Heated-tool welding Welding direction

Tensile force
transverse Hot-gas welding

transverse
Stress
Pressure
r se
ve
ns
tra
longitudinal
Figure 64: Characteristic of welding stresses over the length of the weld seam during heated-tool butt welding and hot-gas welding
(according to Menges)
Seam centre
longitudinal
Tensile force
transverse
Stress
Pressure
Hot-gas welding seam

with filler
se
r
ve
ns
Heated-tool butt
tra
welding seam
longitudinal
Figure 65: Characteristic of welding stresses above a cut at right angles to the weld seam. The level of transverse stresses in the case of a
heated-tool butt welded seam is heavily dependent on the amount and duration of welding pressure (according to Menges)
9.9 Stress cracking
All thermoplastic materials tend more or less towards

stress cracking. Especially the amorphous thermoplas-
tics such as polystyrene and PMMA are highly suscep-
tible to stress cracks, which are easy to detect visually
on account of the usually transparent structure of these
plastics. In the case of dyed, partially crystalline thermo-
plastics it is often impossible to detect stress cracks, so
they can then only be identified by their effects, such as
leaks. This phenomenon is also known with metals. There
it is referred to as stress crack corrosion, caused by a
mechanical load interacting with chemical or electro-
chemical processes.
Stress cracks in plastics, on the other hand, are primarily

Figure 66: Cracking in a plastic
due to physical processes. Therefore, in the case of plas-
tics it is better to use the term stress cracking. Within
a crack a substantial stretching of molecules occurs Three physical effects influence stress cracking in combi-
which are anchored to crack edges and counteract the nation with mechanical stresses acting at the surface:
opening of a crack. For the development of stress cracks
in plastic parts two triggering factors have to exist, both 1. Wetting
of which must occur together: 2. Swelling
3. Diffusion
1. The part must be subject to a tensile load or a
bending load. Owing to the tensile stresses occurring at the surface
2. A medium that triggers cracks for that material must of a component, crazes (flow zones) develop which do
be present. not yet cause any major damage to the material. These
are zones of substantially stretched molecular chains
whose ends are anchored to amorphous zones and
consequently counteract the opening of a crack (Figure
66). The occurrence of crazes does not necessarily mean
damage to the material but a weak point in the structure.
By means of wetting and diffusion the attacking medium
now enters flow zones close to the surface and advances
from there to the root of the notch. There a decrease in
bonding forces occurs due to physical interaction. This
process has a positive influence on the mobility of the ness by means of this continuous process. Nowadays,
macromolecules. Thus, the external or internal stresses extruded sheets are of major importance, not only in the
acting in this area build up because of the formation PVC sector. Extruded thermoplastics can be manufac-
of new flow zones or the growth of existing ones. Crack tured up to wall thicknesses of 50 mm.
propagation occurs.
The properties of an extruded sheet are different in the
High temperatures generally exacerbate the formation of direction of extrusion and at right angles to it. This ap-
stress cracks. Swelling and diffusion also tend to speed plies both to the chemical properties and to the thermal
up crack propagation. properties. The stress level of an extruded sheet is also
higher than that of a pressed sheet. For this reason a
In chemical apparatus construction the stress crack pressed sheet offers advantages wherever a low inherent
risk usually only arises in combination with medium and stress level is necessary in the application or isotropic
mechanical stresses. Semi-finished products not subject mechanical properties are required. A low inherent stress
to mechanical loads, e.g. sheets or pipes, are not at risk. level also offers benefits with regard to stress cracking
Joining zones and forming zones in which high residual and the dimensional stability of a component after
stresses remain involve a high risk. Especially hot-gas mechanical processing.
weld seams and cold-bent semi-finished products are
often affected by stress cracks due to the high level of Pressed sheets Extruded sheets
inherent stress. Butt-welded seams, hot-bent edges and Inherent stresses low existent
Orientations non-existent existent
fold welds, on the other hand, are less critical.
Anisotropy* non-existent existent
Recovery at tempera- low large
tures close to CMR**
or glass transition
To reduce the risk of stress cracking it is best to perform temperature
heat treatment afterwards (annealing), the temperature Production tolerances large small
of which is approx. 20C below the crystalline melting
point for partially crystalline thermoplastics, but just * Anisotropy = properties independent of load
below glass transition temperature in the case of amor- direction
phous ones. The heat treatment times required depend ** CMR = crystalline melting range
on the wall thickness of the materials.
Table 10: Comparison of properties of pressed sheets and 9
extruded sheets
9.9.1 Inherent stresses
In the beginnings of plastics engineering, sheets made of

thermoplastics were only manufactured by the pressing
process. With the introduction of extrusion technology it
was possible to increase productivity and cost-effective-
9.10 Calculation of permissible cold-bending radii In the relevant literature, information about the relax-
ation modulus is difficult to find. The creep modulus can
In the manufacture of upright circular tanks the cylin-
be used as an alternative.
drical surfaces are usually subjected to cold bending and
then butt-welded. A cylindrical surface manufactured by
When cold-bending PE it is important to make sure 1% is
this method is prone to tensile stresses on the outside
not exceeded. In the case of materials PP, PVDF and
and compressive stresses on the inside. The neutral
ECTFE, however, more critical standards should be
layer, which retains its original length, is located at the
applied. Approximate values for permissible cold-bending
middle of the wall cross-section. Owing to the viscoelas-
radii under various surface-layer strains in relation to
tic behaviour of thermoplastics, these stresses decline in
wall thickness, which also have to be assumed for tank
the course of time as a result of relaxation. The smaller
construction conforming to DVS, can be found in Table
the bending radius and the larger the wall thickness, the
11.
higher the critical tensile stress on the outer skin. With
the method described below it is possible to quantify the
Material Surface-layer strain
amount of surface-layer stresses by approximation.
PE-HD 1.00
PP-H 0.50
To determine the amount of surface-layer strain, the PP-B 0.75
strain is calculated at the level of the neutral layer and PP-R 1.00
surface layer. It is performed with an equation adapted PVDF 0.50

PVC-U 0.20
for this purpose:
CPVC 0.10
50 Note: For PE 93, PE 80 and PW 100 the value for PE-HD may be
R = s applied.
r
Table 11: Tolerable surface-layer strain
Surface-layer strain R is consequently distributed in
proportion to wall thickness s and in inverse proportion If owing to design-related requirements smaller bending
to bending radius r. If surface-layer strains of < 0.2% are radii are required, we recommend hot bending (tempera-
determined in this way, it is possible to use Hookes law ture depends on the material).
to deduce the existing surface-layer stress. Strains of
< 0.2% are in the linear viscoelastic range. Here the Generally speaking, surface-layer stress is highest
stress and strain are proportional to one another. With actually during the production of a cold-bent part and
the modulus of elasticity, the influence exerted by time then it is relaxed on a time-dependent basis. When cold
and temperature is taken into account. For this reason bending, it is therefore important to always ensure that
the modulus of elasticity must be inserted in the equa- the deformation rate remains low and constant. Sudden
tion of Hookes law as a relaxation modulus. Hookes law deformations can generate spontaneous stress peaks,
is as follows: which can lead to fracture.
=E
If a constant deformation is forced upon a body, the ma- of ageing, whilst thermodynamically unstable states are
terial is exposed to load, the amount of which decreases referred to as internal causes.
more during the first 100 hours than in the period In the course of time, chemical influences can lead to a
between the 100th hour and the 1,000th hour. For this change in the molecular structure or molecular size of
reason, such components exposed to relaxation should the material and in the case of multiphase plastics they
not be subjected to additional loads after load applica- can bring about a change in a component of the material
tion, e.g. impact load. For PVC-U it is a general rule that and thus alter the property of the material. In the case of
in tank construction virtually no cold bending is permis- physical processes the state of aggregation or the ratio
si-ble. Table 12 shows cold-bending radii in relation to of concentrations of the components in multi-substance
surface-layer strain and wall thickness, taking PE 100 as systems is altered. On account of erosion or possibly the
an example. chalking of pigments, the surface structure of a compo-
nent changes, which may lead to a reduction in structu-
Surface-layer strain = 1.0 % ral strength.
Wall thickness Permissible
s bending radius
The following physical or technological parameters can
2 mm 0.100 m
be used as ageing indicators:
3 mm 0.150 m
4 mm 0.200 m
J Tensile strength
5 mm 0.255 m
6 mm 0.300 m J Tensile strain at break
8 mm 0.400 m J Impact strength
10 mm 0.500 m J Viscosity
12 mm 0.600 m J Colour value
15 mm 0.750 m J Surface gloss
20 mm 1.00 m
25 mm 1.25 m
30 mm 1.50 m 9.11.1 Ageing processes due to light

Table 12: Cold-bending radii for PE 100
9.11.1.1 Photolysis
In outdoor applications, plastics absorb light depending

9
9.11 Ageing on wavelengths. Especially ultraviolet fractions of sun-
light are able to split primary valence bonds or detach
Like other materials, plastics are subject to ageing.
parts of the macromolecule (e.g. HCl detachment in the
Ageing is the sum of all irreversible chemical and phys-
case of PVC). This process is termed photolysis. Due to
ical processes in a material during a certain period.
the absorption of light and its conversion to heat, the
Examples include the action of light, heat, moisture and
plastic heats up. The resulting temperature increase in
erosion by snow, rain, hail, dust, sand or chemicals. To
the material can be considerable and can trigger thermal
summarise, these processes are termed external causes
degradation (heat ageing).
9.11.1.2 Photo-oxidation 9.11.3 Ageing tests
As opposed to photolysis, in which short-wave ultraviolet Changes in mechanical properties, viscosity, gloss or
light is the triggering factor, in photo-oxidation it is the colour can be used as criteria for ageing. The real problem
long-wave fractions of light. Oxygen has the property of is how to forecast the ageing behaviour of newly devel-
diffusing into a plastic surface, where it interacts with oped material formulations. For this purpose equipment
long-wave light to trigger a complex sequence of radical was developed (e.g. the QUV tester) with which artificial
reactions. This also causes a change in molecular weathering of plastic test specimens can be conducted.
weight. A temperature increase caused by the absorption The effects of light, moisture and heat are simulated,
of light also speeds up photo-oxidation. as a result of which artificial and accelerated ageing
of plastic test specimens can be achieved. However,
intensification of influences that trigger ageing modifies
9.11.2 Other ageing processes the various ageing processes in different ways. For this
reason every short-term test should be accompanied by
Influences such as rain, snow, hail, dust and sand cause
outdoor weathering tests. The more accelerated a test
erosion on the surface of plastic. Dirt on the surface, if it
is, the more inferior its correlation with practice under
is not removed, counteracts the effect of light. Dust, for
normal circumstances.
example, can form a protective layer against the effect of
light (see also oxidic protective layer on aluminium).
Ageing behaviour of the most important SIMONA
Through fine hairline cracks on the surface of a plastic
thermoplastics
part water can penetrate and if it freezes it can cause
the cracks to become larger.
Polyethylene
With regard to ultraviolet radiation unstabilised SIMO-
Further ageing processes relate to internal processes,
NA PE-HD natural and SIMONA PE 100 natural exhibit
which are brought about by a deviation from the thermo-
a substantial decrease in tensile strength and tensile
dynamic equilibrium. In the case of partially crystalline
strain at break after only a few months of outdoor wea-
thermoplastics post-crystallisation may possibly take
thering. The behaviour of high-molecular-weight unco-
place below the crystalline melting temperature. In this
loured PE, e.g. SIMONA PE 500 or SIMONA PE 1000,
context, the material generally becomes harder and more
is slightly more favourable. Uncoloured PE is therefore
brittle. In the case of amorphous thermoplastics, too, a
unsuitable for outdoor applications, or only to a limited
change in molecular structure is possible below glass
extent.
transition temperature due to entropy-elastic effects.
This produces an increase in the modulus of elasticity,
Excellent UV stability, and hence favourable ageing be-
lower stretchability and a higher level of swellability.
haviour, is provided by SIMONA PEHD black, SIMONA
PE 100 black and SIMONA PE-EL. These materials are
stabilised with carbon and there are many years of posi-
tive experience with regard to ageing.
Polypropylene and can also heat up beyond the limiting temperature
Uncoloured, UV-unstabilised PP types (SIMONA PP-H of 60C. Consequently, heat distortion temperature in
natural) behave in a manner similar to that of unstabil- particular constitutes a problem here. For many years of
ised PE. After only a few months of outdoor use there is outdoor use SIMONA PVC-MZ COLOR in particular is to
a noticeable decline in mechanical properties. SIMO- be recommended.
NA PP-H AlphaPlus is particularly heat-stabilised and
suitable for applications at temperatures of up to 100C. Polyvinylidene fluoride
In outdoor applications this material shows changes in The material PVDF has excellent ageing resistance. With
colour after only a short period after approximately regard to the uncoloured type SIMONA PVDF and SIMO-
one year of outdoor use chalking and a partial decline in NA PVDF-EL there are no reservations about many years
mechanical properties are observed. of outdoor use.
DVS 2210-1 contains a clause for possible outdoor use Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene
of PP: Where the useful life of a PP pipe outdoors is Like PVDF, ECTFE also belongs to the fluoroplastics, so
limited to < 10 years, the formation of an oxide layer it has good resistance to ultraviolet radiation. Therefore,
under ultraviolet radiation can be compensated by a SIMONA ECTFE is also to be recommended for many
mathematical addition to wall thickness. Depending on years of use in outdoor applications.
the intensity of ultraviolet radiation and the duration of
exposure to ultraviolet light the addition to wall thickness
must be specified as 2mm.
Carbon-stabilised PP types such as SIMONA PP-EL have

favourable ageing behaviour in outdoor applications.
Owing to this stabilisation, the strength of unweathered
material, however, is lower than in the case of SIMONA
PP-H AlphaPlus and SIMONA PP-H natural.
Polyvinyl chloride
Generally, PVC in an unstabilised state also ranks among
9
the moderately resistant plastics. After only one year
of weathering, noticeable yellowing and a decrease in
impact strength can be detected. The standard material
for chemical apparatus construction, SIMONA PVC-
CAW, is only suitable for lengthy outdoor use in the white
colour (possibly also in light grey and ivory). All the other
colours, e.g. dark grey, absorb sunlight very considerably
10 Legal note and advice
Legal note Advice

Upon publication of a new edition all previous editions Our applied technical advice is given according to our
shall become void. The authoritative version of this publi- best knowledge and is based on the information you
cation can be found on our website at www.simona.de. have provided and the state of the art known to us at the
time such advice is furnished. The advice shall not con-
All information furnished in this publication reflects our stitute a guarantee or warranty of specific characteristics
current scope of knowledge on the date of publication or qualities and shall not establish an independent
and is designed to provide details of our products and contractual legal relationship.
potential fields of application (errors and omissions
excepted, including typographical mistakes). This shall We shall only be liable for cases of intent or gross
not be deemed as constituting the provision of legally negligence. Under no circumstances shall we be held
binding guarantees or warranties as to specific proper- liable for the correctness or completeness of information
ties of the products or their suitability for specific areas you have provided or the advisory/consulting services
of application. rendered by us on the basis of such information. Any
information provided by us shall not release you from
We provide warranty for the faultless quality of our prod- your obligation to conduct your own assessments and
ucts solely within the framework of our Standard Terms evaluations.
and Conditions of Business and only within the scope
specified therein. We reserve the right to update information without notice
as part of our continuous research and development
We shall assume no liability for the application, utilisa- programme.
tion, processing or other use of this information or of
our products. Furthermore, we shall assume no liability Our sales staff and members of the Technical Service
for any consequences related thereto. The purchaser is Centre look forward to advising you on all issues relating
obliged to examine the quality and properties of these to the processing and application of semi-finished ther-
products; he shall be responsible in full for selecting, moplastics.
applying, utilising and processing said products as well
as applying any information relating thereto, which shall Phone +49 (0) 67 52 14-587
also include all consequences associated with such Fax +49 (0) 67 52 14-302
actions. Third-party property rights shall be observed [email protected]
accordingly.
10
11 List of illustrations, tables and literature
List of illustrations
Figure 1: Structural model of an amorphous thermoplastic 9

Figure 2: Structural model of a partially crystalline thermoplastic 9
Figure 3: Mechanical properties of amorphous thermoplastics 12
Figure 4: Mechanical properties of partially crystalline thermoplastics 13
Figure 5: Structural model of a thermoset plastic 14
Figure 6: Addition reaction of an epoxide 15
Figure 7: Synthesis scheme of a methylene phenol group as a structural element
of a conventional phenolic resin consisting of phenol and formaldehyde 16
Figure 8: Various schematic representations of polyethylene 17
Figure 9: High-density PE 17
Figure 10: Low-density PE 17
Figure 11: Diagram of the properties of PE-HD in relation to length of molecular chain 18
Figure 12: Diagram of PP 18
Figure 13: Diagram of isotactic PP 18
Figure 14: Diagram of syndiotactic PP 18
Figure 15: Diagram of atactic PP 19
Figure 16: Diagram of PVC-U 20
Figure 17: Diagram of PVDF 21
Figure 18: Diagram of ECTFE 22
Figure 19: Diagram of ETFE 23
Figure 20: Diagram of PFA 23
Figure 21: Diagram of PETG 24
Figure 22: Diagram of PLA 24
Figure 23: Polyamides cross-linked by means of hydrogen bridges; a) Polyamide 4.6;
b) Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA) 25
Figure 24: Diagram of PMMA 25
Figure 25: Diagram of PC made of phosgene and bisphenol A 26
Figure 26: Stress-strain diagram 34
Figure 27: Principle of the shear test 35
Figure 28: Mechanical models of the viscoelastic body 35
Figure 29: Stress relaxation 36
Figure 30: Creep and creep recovery 36
Figure 31: Change in specific volume with temperature 38
Figure 32: Diagram of the stress-strain curve of a partially crystalline thermoplastic 40
Figure 33: Stress-strain curve with tensile strength S, tensile strength at break B and
the associated strains for amorphous thermo-plastics 40
Figure 34: Short-term modulus of elasticity of SIMONA thermoplastics in relation

to temperature 41
Figure 35: Diagram of a 3-point and 4-point bending test 42
Figure 36: Torsion pendulum test 43
Figure 37: Damped vibration 44
Figure 38: Ring shear test 45
Figure 39: Segment shear test 45
Figure 40: Test arrangement for measuring adhesive tensile strength (test specimen
shape A) 46
Figure 41: Charpy impact bending test 46
Figure 42: Notched impact strength as a function of temperature 47
Figure 43: Basic setup of the sand-slurry test 50
Figure 44: Relative wear of thermoplastics as a function of temperature 51
Figure 45: Thermal coefficient of linear expansion as a function of temperature for
some thermoplastics 54
Figure 46: Diagram of the SBI test 57
Figure 47: Capacitor arrangement with polarisation charges; a) without dielectric;
b) with dielectric 63
Figure 48: Creep modulus of PE 100 for 25 years 70
Figure 49: PE 100 creep curve 72
Figure 50: Using a creep curve 73
Figure 51: Isochronous stress-strain diagram of PE 100 for 23C 74
Figure 52: Relaxation and retardation sections on an isochronous stress-strain diagram 74
Figure 53: Stress orientations 77
Figure 54: Dependence of specific volume on temperature; left: amorphous
thermoplastics; right: partially crystalline thermoplastics 78
Figure 55: Stress characteristic for alternating temperatures 81
Figure 56: Theoretical analysis of uniform stress distribution 85
Figure 57: Stress distribution in notched test specimens 85
Figure 58: Weld seam strength as a function of weld seam position in corner connections 88
Figure 59: Weld seam strength as a function of weld seam position in T-shaped connections 88
Figure 60: Connecting sheets in one plane 88
Figure 61: Influence of weld seam when there is a change in cross-section 89
Figure 62: Corner design 89
11
Figure 63: Weld seam accumulations 89
Figure 64: Characteristic of welding stresses over the length of the weld seam during
heated-tool butt welding and hot-gas welding (according to Menges) 90
Figure 65: Characteristic of welding stresses above a cut at right angles to the weld
seam. The level of transverse stresses in the case of a heated-tool butt welded
seam is heavily dependent on the amount and duration of welding pressure
(according to Menges) 91
Figure 66: Cracking in a plastic 92
List of tables
Table 1: Selection of thermoplastics and the (possible) associated monomers 10

Table 2: Specifications of PE 17
Table 3: Molecular weight in g/mol 17
Table 4: Properties of various thermoplastics 23
Table 5: Mechanical properties of some thermoplastics 39
Table 6: Thermal conductivity of some materials 52
Table 7: Mean thermal coefficient of expansion for some materials 54
Table 8: Assessment of fire behaviour 56
Table 9: Radiation resistance 69
Table 10: Comparison of properties of pressed sheets and extruded sheets 93
Table 11: Tolerable surface-layer strain 94
Table 12: Cold-bending radii for PE 100 95
Literature
J Wolfgang Retting: Mechanik der Kunststoffe, Hanser Verlag

J Saechtling: Kunststoffhandbuch, Hanser Verlag
J Stephan/Mayinger: Thermodynamik, Springer Verlag
J Michaeli/Brinkmann/Lessenich-Henkys: Kunststoffbauteile
werkstoffgerecht konstruieren, Hanser Verlag
J KRV: Kunststoffrohrhandbuch, Vulkan Verlag Essen
J Menges: Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe, Hanser Verlag
J Ehrenstein: Mit Kunststoffen konstruieren, Hanser Verlag
J Frank/Biederbrink: Kunststoff-Kompendium, Vogel-Verlag
J Lechner, Gehrke, Nordmeier: Makromolekulare Chemie,
Birkhuser Verlag, 3. Auflage, 2003
J DVS Paperback Fgen von Kunststoffen
Authors
Konstantin Birt
Mathias Conrad
Dieter Eulitz
Philipp Kuhn
Dr. Ren Stangenberg
Marco Stallmann
The said authors of the current edition would

like to thank all their colleagues who collabo-
rated on previous editions of this document
and thus laid the foundation of knowledge for
this edition. We would also like to express our
thanks in respect of all the works mentioned in
the list of references and their publishers for
granting permission to use relevant
quotations.
11
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Upon publication of a new edition all previous editions shall become void. The authoritative version of this publication can be found on our website at www.simona.de.
All information furnished in this publication reflects our current scope of knowledge on the date of publication and is designed to provide details of our products and potential
fields of application (errors and omissions excepted, including typographical mistakes).
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What are plastics capable of solving?

What are plastics capable of solving?

What does the technical handbook cover?

What does the technical handbook cover?

technical.

1 Preface 7 3.14 Polycarbonate (PC) 25

2 Chemical fundamentals of plastics 8 4 Material specifications 27 3

In nature there are numerous biopolymers but the 2.1 Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are divided up into amorphous ones and

Figure 2: Structural model of a partially crystalline thermoplastic

In industry, a very wide variety of thermoplastics are

Partially crystalline thermoplastics, on the other hand,

Polypropylene (PP) Propylene

Service Owing to the molecular structure or the addition of

TG FT ZT 1. Secondary relaxation range:

melt. This temperature range is used for welding. J SIMONA PVC-GLAS-SX

Typical amorphous thermoplastics in the

In terms of structure, partially crystalline materials have

to softened amorphous components and the existing J SIMONA PE 100

components. J SIMONA PVDF

2.1.4 Summary of thermoplastics

s As is evident from the previous chapters, the molecular

Amorphous thermoplastics have

Figure 4: Mechanical properties of partially crystalline thermo- J higher strength

E = Modulus of elasticity J higher surface quality

TG = Glass transition temperature J less thermal expansion

s = Yield stress J less distortion tendency

Various acids and dialcohols are of special technological

H O In contrast to UP resins, the reactive double bonds are

Another advantage is attributable to the secondary hy-

Figure 7: Synthesis scheme of a methylene phenol group as a

Crystallinity Density Melting range

PE-HD 60 80 0.95 0.97 130 145

To assess the behaviour of different types of polyethyl-

PE-HD 6,000 4,000,000 ca. 100,000

PE-HMW 500,000 1,000,000 500,000

PE-UHMW > 1,000,000 Approx. 4,500,000

Table 3: Molecular weight in g/mol

M < 10,000 = wax-like

Figure 13: Diagram of isotactic PP

3.2.2 Syndiotactic polypropylene

Figure 14: Diagram of syndiotactic PP

ten used in chemical apparatus construction, mainly

For technical applications, isotactic PP must be regarded

The properties of polypropylene can be influenced by

Since pure PVC does not have a balanced property

Relevant standards and guidelines refer not only to

PVC-HI (High Impact) grades are types that have raised

On account of their high chemical resistance and ther-

However, the processing of ECTFE is slightly more critical

It is worth noting that various PFA types are available

resistance and service temperature with good weldability. Fluorine content % 0 0 57 76

Table 4: Properties of various thermoplastics

PFA has precisely these properties and can even be used

Figure 21: Diagram of PETG

Figure 24: Diagram of PMMA

In the trade, PMMA is usually marketed under the name

3.14 Polycarbonate (PC)

In formal terms, polycarbonates are polyesters of carbo-

In the SIMONA product range, polycarbonates are to be

Physiologically safe BfR

Physiologically safe BfR

Physiologically safe BfR