

IEEE 802.11 
7 Community networks
8 Security
 9 Non-standard 802.11 extensions and
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 10 See also
Jump to: navigation, search  11 References
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[edit] General description

the wifi certified logo found on many wifi enabled

products

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards carrying out

wireless local area network (WLAN) computer
communication in the 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz
frequency bands. They are created and maintained A Compaq 802.11b PCI card
by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee
(IEEE 802). The 802.11 family includes over-the-air
modulation techniques that use the same basic
protocol. The most popular are those defined by
the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, which are
amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997
was the first wireless networking standard, but
802.11b was the first widely accepted one,
followed by 802.11g and 802.11n. Security was
originally purposefully weak due to export
requirements of some governments,[1] and was
The popular Linksys WRT54G contains an later enhanced via the 802.11i amendment after
802.11b/g radio with two antennas governmental and legislative changes. 802.11n is
a new multi-streaming modulation technique.
Contents Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service
amendments and extensions or corrections to the
[hide] previous specifications.

 1 General description 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band,
 2 Protocols operating in the United States under Part 15 of the
o 2.1 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy) US Federal Communications Commission Rules
o 2.2 802.11a and Regulations. Because of this choice of
o 2.3 802.11b frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may
o 2.4 802.11g occasionally suffer interference from microwave
o 2.5 802.11-2007 ovens, cordless telephones and Bluetooth devices.
Both 802.11 and Bluetooth control their
o 2.6 802.11n
interference and susceptibility to interference by
 3 Channels and international compatibility using spread spectrum modulation. Bluetooth uses
 4 Frames a frequency hopping spread spectrum signaling
 5 Standard and amendments method (FHSS), while 802.11b and 802.11g use
o 5.1 Standard or amendment? the direct sequence spread spectrum signaling
 6 Nomenclature (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) methods, respectively.
802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for Sep 1, 2,
12 14
much of the world, offers at least 19 non- b 199 2.4 20 5.5, 1 DSSS 38 460
0 0
overlapping channels rather than the 3 offered in 9 11
the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band.[2] Better or
worse performance with higher or lower
frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending 1, 2,
on the environment. 6, 9,
12,
Jun OFD
The used segment of the radio frequency spectrum 18, 12 14
g 200 2.4 20 1 M, 38 460
varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 24, 0 0
3 DSSS
802.11g devices may be operated without a 36,
license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules 48,
and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels 54
one through six (802.11b) fall within the 2.4 GHz
amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio
operators may operate 802.11b/g devices under 7.2,
Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, 14.4,
allowing increased power output but not 21.7,
commercial content or encryption.[3] 28.9,
23 25 820[
20 43.3, 70
0 0 6]
57.8,
[edit] Protocols 65,
72.2[
z]
Oct
[hide]802.11 network standards v • d • e  2.4 OFD
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  IEEE 802.11y-2008 extended operation
[5]
( of 802.11a to the licensed 3.7 GHz band.
(m (ft
m (ft) Increased power limits allow for a range
) )
) up 5000m. As of 2009, it is only being
licensed in the United States by the FCC.
 z
  Assumes Short Guard interval (SGI)
Jun
10 enabled, otherwise reduce each data rate
– 199 2.4 20 1, 2 1 DSSS 20 66 330
0 by 10%.
7

6, 9, 11 12 [edit] 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy)

5 35 390
12, 0 0
Sep 18, Main article: IEEE 802.11 (legacy mode)
OFD
a 199 20 24, 1
M 5, 16,
9 3.7 36, The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11
[y] 48, -- -- 00 000[ was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is
54 0 y] today obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1
or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward
error correction code. It specified three alternative dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b
physical layer technologies: diffuse infrared (compared to the original standard) along with
operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread simultaneous substantial price reductions led to
spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive
direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 wireless LAN technology.
Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio
technologies used microwave transmission over 802.11b devices suffer interference from other
the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices
at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies operating in the 2.4 GHz range include:
used lower frequencies, such as the U.S. 900 MHz microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby
ISM band. monitors and cordless telephones.

Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread [edit] 802.11g

spectrum was rapidly supplanted and popularized
by 802.11b. Main article: IEEE 802.11g-2003

[edit] 802.11a In June 2003, a third modulation standard was

ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band
Main article: IEEE 802.11a-1999 (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM based
transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a
The 802.11a standard uses the same data link maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s
layer protocol and frame format as the original exclusive of forward error correction codes, or
standard, but an OFDM based air interface about 22 Mbit/s average throughput.[7] 802.11g
(physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band hardware is fully backwards compatible with
with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus 802.11b hardware and therefore is encumbered
error correction code, which yields realistic net with legacy issues that reduce throughput when
achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s[citation compared to 802.11a by ~21%.
needed]

The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly

Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the adopted by consumers starting in January 2003,
point of being crowded, using the relatively well before ratification, due to the desire for
unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant higher data rates as well as to reductions in
advantage. However, this high carrier frequency manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-
also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-
range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g. In mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile
theory, 802.11a signals are absorbed more readily adapter card or access point. Details of making b
by walls and other solid objects in their path due and g work well together occupied much of the
to their smaller wavelength and, as a result, cannot lingering technical process; in an 802.11g
penetrate as far as those of 802.11b. In practice, network, however, activity of an 802.11b
802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds participant will reduce the data rate of the overall
(802.11b will reduce speed to 5 Mbit/s or even 1 802.11g network.
Mbit/s at low signal strengths). However, at
higher speeds, 802.11a often has the same or Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices suffer interference
greater range due to less interference. from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz
band.
[edit] 802.11b
[edit] 802.11-2007
Main article: IEEE 802.11b-1999
In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll
802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version
Mbit/s and uses the same media access method of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as it
defined in the original standard. 802.11b products was called, created a single document that merged
appeared on the market in early 2000, since 8 amendments (802.11a,b,d,e,g,h,i,j) with the base
802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation standard. Upon approval on March 8, 2007,
technique defined in the original standard. The
802.11REVma was renamed to the current base almost as liberal as Japan, disallowing only
standard IEEE 802.11-2007.[8] channel 14, while North America and some
Central and South American countries further
[edit] 802.11n disallow 12 and 13. For more details on this
topic, see List of WLAN channels.
Main article: IEEE 802.11n-2009
Besides specifying the centre frequency of each
802.11n is a recent amendment which improves channel, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a
upon the previous 802.11 standards by adding spectral mask defining the permitted distribution
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and many of power across each channel. The mask requires
other newer features. The IEEE has approved the that the signal be attenuated by at least 30 dB
amendment and it was published in October 2009. from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the centre
[9][10]
Prior to the final ratification, enterprises were frequency, the sense in which channels are
already migrating to 802.11n networks based on effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that
the Wi-Fi Alliance's certification of products stations can only use every fourth or fifth channel
conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n without overlap, typically 1, 6 and 11 in the
proposal. Americas, and in theory, 1, 5, 9 and 13 in Europe
although 1, 6, and 11 is typical there too. Another
is that channels 1-13 effectively require the band
[edit] Channels and 2.401–2.483 GHz, the actual allocations being, for
international compatibility example, 2.400–2.4835 GHz in the UK, 2.402–
2.4735 GHz in the US, etc.
See also: List of WLAN channels

Spectral masks for 802.11g channels 1-14 in the

2.4 GHz band
Graphical representation of Wi-Fi channels in 2.4 Since the spectral mask only defines power output
GHz band restrictions up to ±22 MHz from the center
frequency to be attenuated by -50 dBr, it is often
802.11 divides each of the above-described bands assumed that the energy of the channel extends no
into channels, analogously to how radio and TV further than these limits. It is more correct to say
broadcast bands are sub-divided but with greater that, given the separation between channels 1, 6,
channel width and overlap. For example the and 11, the signal on any channel should be
2.4000–2.4835 GHz band is divided into 13 sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with
channels each of width 22 MHz but spaced only a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the
5 MHz apart, with channel 1 centered on near-far problem a transmitter can impact a
2.412 GHz and 13 on 2.472 GHz to which Japan receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but only
adds a 14th channel 12 MHz above channel 13. if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter)
or operating above allowed power levels.
Availability of channels is regulated by country,
constrained in part by how each country allocates Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11
radio spectrum to various services. At one are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or
extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels product density, the 1–6–11 guideline has merit. If
(with the exclusion of 802.11g/n from channel transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6,
14), while at the other Spain initially allowed only and 11 (for example, 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap
channels 10 and 11 and France allowed only 10, between the channels may cause unacceptable
11, 12 and 13 (now both countries follow the degradation of signal quality and throughput.[13]
European model of allowing channels 1 through However, overlapping channels may be used
13[11][12]). Most other European countries are
under certain circumstances. This way, more  Power Management: The Power
channels are available.[14] Management bit indicates the power
management state of the sender after the
[edit] Frames completion of a frame exchange. Access
points are required to manage the
connection and will never set the power
Current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for
saver bit.
use in transmission of data as well as management
and control of wireless links.
 More Data: The More Data bit is used to
Frames are divided into very specific and buffer frames received in a distributed
standardized sections. Each frame has a MAC system. The access point uses this bit to
header, payload and FCS. Some frames may not facilitate stations in power saver mode. It
have payload portion. First 2 bytes of MAC indicates that at least one frame is
header is a frame control field that provides available and addresses all stations
detailed information about the frame. The sub connected.
fields of the frame control field is presented in
order.  WEP: The WEP bit is modified after
processing a frame. It is toggled to one
 Protocol Version: It is two bits in size and after a frame has been decrypted or if no
represents the protocol version. Currently encryption is set it will have already been
used protocol version is zero. Other values one.
are reserved for future use.
 Order: This bit is only set when the "strict
 Type: It is two bits in size and helps to ordering" delivery method is employed.
identify the type of WLAN frame. Control, Frames and fragments are not always sent
Data and Management are various frame in order as it causes a transmission
types defined in IEEE 802.11. performance penalty.

The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration

 Sub Type: It is four bits in size. Type and
ID field. This field can take one of three forms:
Sub type are combined together to identify
Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and
the exact frame.
Association ID (AID).
 ToDS and FromDS: Each are one bit in
An 802.11 frame can have up to four address
size. They indicate whether a data frame is
fields. Each field can carry a MAC address.
headed for a distributed system. Control
Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the
and management frames set these values to
transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering
zero. All the data frames will have one of
purposes by the receiver.
these bits set. However communication
within an IBSS network always set these
 The Sequence Control field is a two-byte
bits to zero.
section used for identifying message order
as well as eliminating duplicate frames.
 More Fragment: The More
The first 4 bits are used for the
Fragmentation bit is set most notably when
fragmentation number and the last 12 bits
higher level packets have been partitioned
are the sequence number.
and will be set for all non-final sections.
 An optional two-byte Quality of Service
Some management frames may require
control field which was added with
partitioning as well.
802.11e.
 The Frame Body field is variable in size,
 Retry: Sometimes frames require
from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead
retransmission, and for this there is a Retry
from security encapsulation and contains
bit which is set to one when a frame is
information from higher layers.
resent. This aids in the elimination of
duplicate frames.  The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the
last four bytes in the standard 802.11
frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic
 Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for  Deauthentication frame: Sent from a
integrity check of retrieved frames. As station wishing to terminate connection
frames are about to be sent the FCS is from another station.
calculated and appended. When a station  Disassociation frame: Sent from a station
receives a frame it can calculate the FCS wishing to terminate connection. It's an
of the frame and compare it to the one elegant way to allow the access point to
received. If they match, it is assumed that relinquish memory allocation and remove
the frame was not distorted during the WNIC from the association table.
transmission.[15]  Probe request frame: Sent from a station
when it requires information from another
Management Frames allow for the maintenance of station.
communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes  Probe response frame: Sent from an access
include: point containing capability information,
supported data rates, etc., after receiving a
 Authentication frame: 802.11 probe request frame.
authentication begins with the WNIC  Reassociation request frame: A WNIC
sending an authentication frame to the sends a reassociation request when it drops
access point containing its identity. With from range of the currently associated
an open system authentication the WNIC access point and finds another access point
only sends a single authentication frame with a stronger signal. The new access
and the access point responds with an point coordinates the forwarding of any
authentication frame of its own indicating information that may still be contained in
acceptance or rejection. With shared key the buffer of the previous access point.
authentication, after the WNIC sends its  Reassociation response frame: Sent from
initial authentication request it will receive an access point containing the acceptance
an authentication frame from the access or rejection to a WNIC reassociation
point containing challenge text. The request frame. The frame includes
WNIC sends an authentication frame information required for association such
containing the encrypted version of the as the association ID and supported data
challenge text to the access point. The rates.
access point ensures the text was
encrypted with the correct key by Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data
decrypting it with its own key. The result frames between stations. Some common 802.11
of this process determines the WNIC's control frames include:
authentication status.
 Association request frame: sent from a  Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After
station it enables the access point to receiving a data frame, the receiving
allocate resources and synchronize. The station will send an ACK frame to the
frame carries information about the WNIC sending station if no errors are found. If
including supported data rates and the the sending station doesn't receive an ACK
SSID of the network the station wishes to frame within a predetermined period of
associate with. If the request is accepted, time, the sending station will resend the
the access point reserves memory and frame.
establishes an association ID for the  Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS
WNIC. and CTS frames provide an optional
 Association response frame: sent from an collision reduction scheme for access point
access point to a station containing the with hidden stations. A station sends a
acceptance or rejection to an association RTS frame to as the first step in a two-way
request. If it is an acceptance, the frame handshake required before sending data
will contain information such an frames.
association ID and supported data rates.  Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station
 Beacon frame: Sent periodically from an responds to an RTS frame with a CTS
access point to announce its presence and frame. It provides clearance for the
provide the SSID, and other parameters for requesting station to send a data frame.
WNICs within range. The CTS provides collision control
 management by including a time value for ambulances and passenger cars) (working—June
which all other stations are to hold off 2010)
transmission while the requesting stations  IEEE 802.11r: Fast roaming Working "Task Group r"
transmits. (2008)
 IEEE 802.11s: Mesh Networking,
Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, Extended Service Set (ESS) (working—September
etc. within the body.[16] 2010)
 IEEE 802.11T: Wireless Performance
[edit] Standard and Prediction (WPP)—test methods and
metrics Recommendation cancelled
amendments  IEEE 802.11u: Interworking with non-802
networks (for example, cellular) (working—
Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group,[4] the September 2010)
following IEEE Standards Association Standard  IEEE 802.11v: Wireless network
and Amendments exist: management (working—June 2010)
 IEEE 802.11w: Protected Management
 IEEE 802.11: The WLAN standard was Frames (September 2009)
originally 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz  IEEE 802.11y: 3650–3700 MHz Operation
RF and infrared [IR] standard (1997), all in the U.S. (2008)
the others listed below are Amendments to  IEEE 802.11z: Extensions to Direct Link
this standard, except for Recommended Setup (DLS) (August 2007 – December 2011)
Practices 802.11F and 802.11T.
 IEEE 802.11aa: Robust streaming of
 IEEE 802.11a: 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard Audio Video Transport Streams (March 2008 –
(1999, shipping products in 2001)
June 2011)
 IEEE 802.11b: Enhancements to 802.11 to  IEEE 802.11mb: Maintenance of the
support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999) standard. Will become 802.11-2011. (Expected
 IEEE 802.11c: Bridge operation publication 8/02/11)
procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D  IEEE 802.11ac: Very High Throughput
standard (2001) <6 GHz[17]; potential improvements over
 IEEE 802.11d: International (country-to- 802.11n: better modulation scheme
country) roaming extensions (2001) (expected ~10% throughput increase);
 IEEE 802.11e: Enhancements: QoS, wider channels (80 or even 160MHz),
including packet bursting (2005) multi user MIMO[18]; (September 2008 – December 2012)
 IEEE 802.11F: Inter-Access Point  IEEE 802.11ad: Very High Throughput
Protocol (2003) Withdrawn February 2006 60 GHz (December 2008 – December 2012)
 IEEE 802.11g: 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz  IEEE 802.11ae: QoS Management
standard (backwards compatible with b)  IEEE 802.11af: TV Whitespace
(2003)
 IEEE 802.11h: Spectrum Managed There is no standard or task group named
802.11a (5 GHz) for European "802.11x". Rather, this term is used informally to
compatibility (2004) denote any current or future 802.11 amendment,
 IEEE 802.11i: Enhanced security (2004) in cases where further precision is not necessary.
 IEEE 802.11j: Extensions for Japan (2004) (The IEEE 802.1X standard for port-based
 IEEE 802.11-2007: A new release of the network access control is often mistakenly called
standard that includes amendments a, b, d, "802.11x" when used in the context of wireless
e, g, h, i & j. (July 2007) networks.)
 IEEE 802.11k: Radio resource
measurement enhancements (2008) 802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices
 IEEE 802.11n: Higher throughput rather than standards, and are capitalized as such.
improvements using MIMO (multiple
input, multiple output antennas) (September 2009) [edit] Standard or amendment?
 IEEE 802.11p: WAVE—Wireless Access
for the Vehicular Environment (such as
Both the terms "standard" and "amendment" are Many hotspot or free networks frequently allow
used when referring to the different variants of anyone within range, including passersby outside,
IEEE 802.11. to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by
volunteer groups to establish wireless community
As far as the IEEE Standards Association is networks to provide free wireless connectivity to
concerned, there is only one current standard; it is the public.
denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that
it was published. IEEE 802.11-2007 is the only [edit] Security
version currently in publication. The standard is
updated by means of amendments. Amendments
In 2001, a group from the University of
are created by task groups (TG). Both the task
California, Berkeley presented a paper describing
group and their finished document are denoted by
weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent
802.11 followed by a non-capitalized letter. For
Privacy (WEP) security mechanism defined in the
example IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b.
original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer,
Updating 802.11 is the responsibility of task
Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled "Weaknesses in
group m. In order to create a new version, TGm
the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4". Not long
combines the previous version of the standard and
after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly
all published amendments. TGm also provides
announced the first verification of the attack. In
clarification and interpretation to industry on
the attack, they were able to intercept
published documents. New versions of the IEEE
transmissions and gain unauthorized access to
802.11 were published in 1999 and 2007.
wireless networks.
The working title of 802.11-2007 was 802.11-
The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a
REVma. This denotes a third type of document, a
replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously
"revision". The complexity of combining 802.11-
this work was handled as part of a broader
1999 with 8 amendments made it necessary to
802.11e effort to enhance the MAC layer). The
revise already agreed upon text. As a result,
Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification
additional guidelines associated with a revision
called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a
had to be followed.
subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft.
These started to appear in products in mid-2003.
[edit] Nomenclature IEEE 802.11i (also known as WPA2) itself was
ratified in June 2004, and uses government
Various terms in 802.11 are used to specify strength encryption in the Advanced Encryption
aspects of wireless local-area networking Standard AES, instead of RC4, which was used in
operation, and may be unfamiliar to some readers. WEP. The modern recommended encryption for
the home/consumer space is WPA2 (AES Pre-
For example, Time Unit (usually abbreviated TU) Shared Key) and for the Enterprise space is
is used to indicate a unit of time equal to 1024 WPA2 along with a RADIUS server; the strongest
microseconds. Numerous time constants are is EAP-TLS.
defined in terms of TU (rather than the nearly-
equal millisecond). In January 2005, IEEE set up yet another task
group, TGw, to protect management and
Also the term "Portal" is used to describe an entity broadcast frames, which previously were sent
that is similar to an 802.1H bridge. A Portal unsecured. See IEEE 802.11w.
provides access to the WLAN by non-802.11
LAN STAs. [edit] Non-standard 802.11
[edit] Community networks extensions and equipment
Many companies implement wireless networking
With the proliferation of cable modems and DSL,
equipment with non-IEEE standard 802.11
there is an ever-increasing market of people who
extensions either by implementing proprietary or
wish to establish small networks in their homes to
draft features. These changes may lead to
share their broadband Internet connection.
incompatibilities between these extensions.[citation
needed]
For more details on this topic, see 802.11 non- usually provides a connection through an access
standard equipment. point to the wider internet. This gives users the
mobility to move around within a local coverage
[edit] See also area and still be connected to the network.

 Bluetooth, another wireless protocol Wireless LANs have become popular in the home
primarily designed for shorter-range due to ease of installation, and the increasing
applications. popularity of laptop computers. Public businesses
 Comparison of wireless data standards such as coffee shops and malls have begun to
 MLME offer wireless access to their customers;
 OFDM system comparison table sometimes for free. Large wireless network
 Ultra-wideband projects are being put up in many major cities:
 Wi-Fi Alliance
New York City, for instance, has begun a pilot
 Wi-Fi operating system support
program to cover all five boroughs of the city with
 Wibree
wireless Internet access.[citation needed]

Wireless LAN Contents

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [hide]

Jump to: navigation, search 1 History

2 Architecture

2.1 Stations

2.2 Basic service set

2.3 Extended service set

2.4 Distribution system

3 Types of wireless LANs

3.1 Peer-to-peer
The notebook is connected to the wireless access 3.2 Bridge
point using a PC card wireless card.
3.3 Wireless distribution system

4 Roaming

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

[edit] History
A diagram showing a Wi-Fi network

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links

devices via a wireless distribution method
(typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and
 existing short distance radio system, typically in the
two meter amateur band. The second generation of
wireless modems was developed immediately after the
FCC announcement in the experimental bands for non-
military use of the spread spectrum technology. These
modems provided data rates on the order of hundreds
of kbit/s. The third generation of wireless modem then
aimed at compatibility with the existing LANs with
data rates on the order of Mbit/s. Several companies
developed the third generation products with data rates
An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL- above 1 Mbit/s and a couple of products had already
RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi card been announced by the time of the first IEEE
widely used by wireless Internet service providers Workshop on Wireless LANs."[2]
(WISPs) in the Czech Republic.

In 1970 Norman Abramson, a professor at the

University of Hawaii, developed the world’s first
computer communication network, ALOHAnet,
using low-cost ham-like radios. With a bi-
directional star topology, the system connected
seven computers deployed over four islands to
communicate with the central computer on the
Oahu Island without using phone lines.[1]

"In 1979, F.R. Gfeller and U. Bapst published a paper

in the IEEE Proceedings reporting an experimental
wireless local area network using diffused infrared 54 Mbit/s WLAN PCI Card (802.11g)
communications. Shortly thereafter, in 1980, P. Ferrert
"The first of the IEEE Workshops on Wireless LAN
reported on an experimental application of a single
was held in 1991. At that time early wireless LAN
code spread spectrum radio for wireless terminal
products had just appeared in the market and the IEEE
communications in the IEEE National
802.11 committee had just started its activities to
Telecommunications Conference. In 1984, a
develop a standard for wireless LANs. The focus of
comparison between infrared and CDMA spread
that first workshop was evaluation of the alternative
spectrum communications for wireless office
technologies. By 1996, the technology was relatively
information networks was published by Kaveh
mature, a variety of applications had been identified
Pahlavan in IEEE Computer Networking Symposium
and addressed and technologies that enable these
which appeared later in the IEEE Communication
applications were well understood. Chip sets aimed at
Society Magazine. In May 1985, the efforts of Marcus
wireless LAN implementations and applications, a key
led the FCC to announce experimental ISM bands for
enabling technology for rapid market growth, were
commercial application of spread spectrum
emerging in the market. Wireless LANs were being
technology. Later on, M. Kavehrad reported on an
used in hospitals, stock exchanges, and other in
experimental wireless PBX system using code division
building and campus settings for nomadic access,
multiple access. These efforts prompted significant
point-to-point LAN bridges, ad-hoc networking, and
industrial activities in the development of a new
even larger applications through internetworking. The
generation of wireless local area networks and it
IEEE 802.11 standard and variants and alternatives,
updated several old discussions in the portable and
such as the wireless LAN interoperability forum and
mobile radio industry.
the European HiperLAN specification had made rapid
The first generation of wireless data modems was progress, and the unlicensed PCS Unlicensed Personal
developed in the early 1980s by amateur radio Communications Services and the proposed
operators, who commonly referred to this as packet SUPERNet, later on renamed as U-NII, bands also
radio. They added a voice band data communication presented new opportunities."[3]
modem, with data rates below 9600-bit/s, to an
WLAN hardware was initially so expensive that it Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as
was only used as an alternative to cabled LAN in laptops, personal digital assistants, IP phones, or
places where cabling was difficult or impossible. fixed devices such as desktops and workstations
Early development included industry-specific that are equipped with a wireless network
solutions and proprietary protocols, but at the end interface.
of the 1990s these were replaced by standards,
primarily the various versions of IEEE 802.11 [edit] Basic service set
(Wi-Fi). An alternative ATM-like 5 GHz
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of all stations
standardized technology, HiperLAN/2, has so far
that can communicate with each other.
not succeeded in the market, and with the release
of the faster 54 Mbit/s 802.11a (5 GHz) and There are two types of BSS: Independent BSS
802.11g (2.4 GHz) standards, almost certainly (also referred to as IBSS), and infrastructure BSS.
never will.
Every BSS has an identification (ID) called the
[edit] Architecture BSSID, which is the MAC address of the access
point servicing the BSS.

An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad-hoc network

that contains no access points, which means they
can not connect to any other basic service set.

An infrastructure can communicate with other

stations not in the same basic service set by
communicating through access points.

[edit] Extended service set

An extended service set (ESS) is a set of one or
more interconnected BSSes. Access points in an
ESS are connected by a distribution system. Each
ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte
(maximum) character string.

Wireless Networking in the Developing World. [edit] Distribution system

(PDF book)
A distribution system (DS) connects access points
[edit] Stations in an extended service set. The concept of a DS
can be used to increase network coverage through
All components that can connect into a wireless
roaming between cells.
medium in a network are referred to as stations.

All stations are equipped with wireless network [edit] Types of wireless LANs
interface cards (WNICs).
[edit] Peer-to-peer
Wireless stations fall into one of two categories:
access points, and clients.

Access points (APs), normally routers, are base

stations for the wireless network. They transmit
and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled
devices to communicate with.
Peer-to-Peer or ad-hoc wireless LAN network infrastructure is the more common
wireless LAN application the one being covered.
An ad-hoc network is a network where stations Since wireless communication uses a more open
communicate only peer to peer (P2P). There is no medium for communication in comparison to
base and no one gives permission to talk. This is wired LANs, the 802.11 designers also included
accomplished using the Independent Basic Service shared-key encryption mechanisms: Wired
Set (IBSS). Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network allows wireless Access (WPA, WPA2), to secure wireless
devices to directly communicate with each other. computer networks.
Wireless devices within range of each other can
[edit] Bridge
discover and communicate directly without
involving central access points. This method is A bridge can be used to connect networks,
typically used by two computers so that they can typically of different types. A wireless Ethernet
connect to each other to form a network. bridge allows the connection of devices on a
wired Ethernet network to a wireless network. The
If a signal strength meter is used in this situation,
bridge acts as the connection point to the Wireless
it may not read the strength accurately and can be
LAN.
misleading, because it registers the strength of the
strongest signal, which may be the closest [edit] Wireless distribution system
computer.
A Wireless Distribution System is a system that
enables the wireless interconnection of access
points in an IEEE 802.11 network. It allows a
wireless network to be expanded using multiple
access points without the need for a wired
backbone to link them, as is traditionally required.
The notable advantage of WDS over other
solutions is that it preserves the MAC addresses of
client packets across links between access points.
[4]

An access point can be either a main, relay or

Hidden node problem: Devices A and C are both remote base station. A main base station is
communicating with B, but are unaware of each typically connected to the wired Ethernet. A relay
other base station relays data between remote base
stations, wireless clients or other relay stations to
IEEE 802.11 define the physical layer (PHY) and
either a main or another relay base station. A
MAC (Media Access Control) layers based on
remote base station accepts connections from
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
wireless clients and passes them to relay or main
Collision Avoidance). The 802.11 specification
stations. Connections between "clients" are made
includes provisions designed to minimize
using MAC addresses rather than by specifying IP
collisions, because two mobile units may both be
assignments.
in range of a common access point, but out of
range of each other. All base stations in a Wireless Distribution
System must be configured to use the same radio
The 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: Ad
channel, and share WEP keys or WPA keys if
hoc mode enables peer-to-peer transmission
they are used. They can be configured to different
between mobile units. Infrastructure mode in
service set identifiers. WDS also requires that
which mobile units communicate through an
access point that serves as a bridge to a wired
every base station be configured to forward to External Roaming (2): The MS(client) moves into
others in the system. a WLAN of another Wireless Internet Service
Provider (WISP) and takes their services
WDS may also be referred to as repeater mode (Hotspot). The user can independently of his
because it appears to bridge and accept wireless home network use another foreign network, if this
clients at the same time (unlike traditional is open for visitors. There must be special
bridging). It should be noted, however, that authentication and billing systems for mobile
throughput in this method is halved for all clients services in a foreign network.[6]
connected wirelessly.

When it is difficult to connect all of the access

points in a network by wires, it is also possible to
put up access points as repeaters.

[edit] Roaming

Roaming between Wireless Local Area Networks

There are 2 definitions for wireless LAN roaming:

Internal Roaming (1): The Mobile Station (MS)

moves from one access point (AP) to another AP
within a home network because the signal strength
is too weak. An authentication server (RADIUS)
assumes the re-authentication of MS via 802.1x
(e.g. with PEAP). The billing of QoS is in the
home network. A Mobile Station roaming from
one access point to another often interrupts the
flow of data between the Mobile Station and an
application connected to the network. The Mobile
Station, for instance, periodically monitors the
presence of alternative access points (ones that
will provide a better connection). At some point,
based upon proprietary mechanisms, the Mobile
Station decides to re-associate with an access
point having a stronger wireless signal. The
Mobile Station, however, may lose a connection
with an access point before associating with
another access point. In order to provide reliable
connections with applications, the Mobile Station
must generally include software that provides
session persistence.[5]