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Running Head: PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY

Pilots Alcohol Violations and Flight Safety

Morat Lafia Abdoulaye
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Professor Benjamin Bell

ASCI 634 Aviation/Aerospace Psychology
January, 2017

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
Table of Contents
Abstract..3
Introduction............4
Alcohol violations......4
Effect of alcohol on pilots performance.......6
Prevalence of alcohol in aviation accidents.......7
Countermeasures........9
Conclusion...........12
References....13

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
Abstract
Alcohol consumption is one of the plagues that hamper flight safety. There is evidence that
the crew performance can be impaired by alcohol consumption, even when their blood alcohol
concentration returns to zero. A significant number of alcohol-related accidents and incidents
have been identified. The fatalities involving commercial flights are relatively low, while a large
number of accidents involving pilots are found in general aviation. This paper explores alcohol
violations, the effect of alcohol on pilots performance, the prevalence of alcohol in aviation
accidents and discusses the countermeasures.

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
Pilots Alcohol Violations and Flight Safety

Introduction

Alcohol is known for its intoxicating effects to human being for thousands of years.
However, alcohol in aviation has only a very recent history. Pilots have a higher opportunity for
alcohol consumption. Actually, some factors like pressure, stress, the fact of being away from
home and boredom may push them to alcohol consumption. There is no room for errors in
aviation and pilots are subsequently aware of the danger related to alcohol intake. In high
workload and demanding situations, even the residual effects of alcohol may seriously influence
their performance. It is therefore a major potential risk to flight safety. The slight error from the
part of an intoxicated crew can lead to devastating consequences. Stringent safetyguards need to
be taken to prevent pilots alcohol violations and its unfortunate consequences on flights safety.

In the following, we will discuss the violations of alcohol, its impact on pilots; also address
the cases of accidents and the current countermeasures.

1-Alcohol violations

Alcohol is drunk worldwide and sometimes seen as the cornerstone of social celebrations
and gatherings. Defining a limit is important specifically for those working in the safety sensitive
areas. With regard to this, an alcohol violation is defined as a blood alcohol concentration of
0.04 mg/dl or greater in ones body. It has become important in some countries to develop a
random alcohol test for the aviation personnel or a systematic test in case of suspicion. In a study
conducted by Baker et al (2010) between 1995 to 2005, a total of 2,284 alcohol tests were
performed to calculate the positive predictive value (PPV) of suspected violations using data

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
from the FAA. The PPV was 37.7% for reasonable-cause testing program while the random
testing revealed 0.09% of alcohol violations. The research suggests that the violations increased
from 0.07% between 1995 and 1997 to 0.11% between 1998 and 2005, while the annual testing
rate fell from 25% to 10% for the random testing. However this is still relatively low (Baker et
al, 2010). From this study, the physical observation of a person can also be effective in detecting
if a person is intoxicated.

The issue of alcohol has been a major concern in the United States. A variety of programs
have been implemented nationwide especially after the repeal of the prohibition in 1933. The
driving while intoxicated (DWI) Program was launched to systematically test all persons who
drive or pilot and punish in case of revealed alcohol violation. The program includes the different
modes of transportations. If someone is found guilty of alcohol or drug-related violations when
driving, his or her driving privilege is suspended or revoked. However, the person may be
eligible for a conditional license in participating in the DWI Program as indicated in the
"Revocation or Suspension Order". It also indicates the office where the person can enroll in the
DWI Program and, if applicable, apply for a conditional license or privilege. The DWI program
is an in-depth training on high-risk alcohol and other drug consequences to help identify and
change behaviors to reduce alcohol and drug related incidents and fatalities. The program can be
perceived by the offenders as a sanction and a condition to get another chance to drive.
Christopher (1997) conducted an extensive review of the literature on the likelihood of aircrew
alcohol violation and driving while intoxicated. He concluded that even though the phenomenon
is rare in commercial aircrew, a number of accidents are attributed to alcohol in general aviation.
In 1987, approximately 10,300 licenses were suspended or revoked for alcohol violations both
for commercial and private aircrew. The DWI Program has also helped to collect data for

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
statistical purpose. It is essential to know the gender and age of the population most involved in
alcohol abuse in order to prevent and take coercive actions toward these groups of population.
Baker et al (2005) suggest that the prevalence of driving while intoxicated peaked at age 3034
years in male pilots and at age 2529 years in female pilots. He concluded that overall, the
prevalence rate of driving while intoxicated history for male pilots was three times the rate for
female pilots. By testing crews, it is common to come across with people who are either under
the influence of alcohol or under other narcotics. But in the great majority of cases, the
consumption of alcohol predominates. But the alcohol intake is not without influence on the
performance of pilots.

2- Effect of alcohol on pilots performance

The consumption of alcohol has undesirable effects not only on the health of the individual
but also and especially on his physical and cognitive abilities. Its effect on the abuser may
depend on the habit, gender, age and weight of the person concerned. People are unaware of the
extent to which alcohol can affect the performance of a pilot. To address this concern, the
Federal Aviation Administration undertook some experiments. A sample of 52 pilots was tested
in a simulator to observe their attitudes and behaviors. The result showed pilots impairment in
their ability to fly an ILS approach, IFR flight and even to perform routine VFR flight tasks
while under the control of alcohol, regardless of individual flying experience (Antuano, M.J.
and Salazar, G.J., 2006). Even with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.04 mg/dl or less, some
pilots showed decrements in their performance (Table 1). Thus, some decrements in performance
was observed for many pilots with blood alcohol concentrations as low as the 0.025 mg/dl.
However, the number of serious errors committed by pilots drastically increased at or above
concentrations of 0.04 mg/dl blood alcohol. Actually, alcohol impairs almost all forms of

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
cognitive functions such as information processing, decision-making, attention and reasoning.
Vestibular and visual functions are also seriously impacted. Some of the effects are hypoxia,
physiological stress, fatigue and miscommunication with ATC (Li et al, 2007). The table 1 below
summarizes the impacts of different blood alcohol concentrations.

0.01-0.05
(10-50 mg%)
average
individual
appears
normal

0.03-0.12
0.09-0.25
((30-120 mg%) ((90-250 mg%)
mild euphoria,
talkativeness,
decreased
inhibitions,
decreased
attention,
impaired
judgment,
increased
reaction time

emotional
instability, loss
of critical
judgment,
impairment of
memory and
comprehension,
decreased
sensory
response, mild
muscular
incoordination

0.18-0.30
(180-300 mg%)

0.27-0.40
(270-400 mg%)

0.35-0.50
(350-500 mg%)

confusion,
dizziness,
exaggerated
emotions
(anger, fear,
grief) impaired
visual
perception,
decreased
pain
sensation,
impaired
balance,
staggering
gait, slurred
speech,
moderate
muscular
incoordination

apathy,
impaired
consciousness,
stupor,
significantly
decreased
response to
stimulation,
severe
muscular
incoordination,
inability to
stand or walk,
vomiting,
incontinence of
urine and feces

unconsciousness,
depressed or
abolished
reflexes,
(abnormal body
temperature,
coma; possible
death from
respiratory
paralysis (450
mg% or above)

Table 1: Some of the effects of various blood alcohol concentrations (adapted from FAA data)

3-Prevalence of alcohol in aviation accidents

The consequences of alcohol use by pilots can range from negligible error to unfortunate
disaster. There are many published and uncommon histories of aviation accidents in which
alcohol was a cause or contributing factor. In the United Kingdom for example, the first aviation
accident in which alcohol may have been a factor, occurred in 1930 (Christopher, 1997). The
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Office of Aerospace Medicine aims to protect the public
and pilots from death or injury due to pilots incapacitation. For this reason, the FAA performs

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
toxicology test on almost every pilot who is fatally injured in an aviation accident to determine
his or her medical condition (Antuano, M.J. and Salazar, G.J., 2006). In addition, several
studies have shown a significant proportion of aircraft accidents associated with alcohol
violations.
Baker (2005) reviewed a study of the Federal Aviation Administration which examined
the link between driving while intoxicated and crash risk from 1994 to 2000 in a population of
335,672 general aviation pilots whose 3.4% used to be intoxicated. He concluded that those who
used to drive while intoxicated present a 43% increased risk of crash involvement. In addition he
found that male, older age and inexperience were associated with significantly increased risk of
crash involvement after alcohol consumption. It also showed that general aviation accounted for
over 90% of all fatal aviation crashes and about 80% of all aviation fatalities.
Canfield et al (2012) examined the results of toxicology tests performed by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Office of Aerospace Medicine for all pilots died from 2004 to 2008 in
aviation accidents. Of the 1,353 bodies tested, 507 were found to take drugs and 92 consumed
alcohol. Note that these results do not take into account the medical condition of the persons
concerned before the accident (if they were under medication). Since the study is relatively
recent, there is cause for concern. They suggest that with a ratio of 97%, males are more
involved in alcohol violations than females (3%). They also reported that the percentage of
positive drug findings for some drugs has stayed relatively constant over the past 20 years for
most drugs.
The Forensic Toxicology Research Section of the FAA Civil Aerospace Medical reported
the annual pilot fatalities in general aviation accidents between 1987 and 1993 which are

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
summarized on table 2 below. This information is based on the analysis of blood and tissue
samples from pilots involved in fatal aviation accidents.

Year

General Aviation
Pilot Fatalities

Pilots with BAC of

0.02% or more

Pilots with BAC of

0.04% or more*

1987

341

13.5%

8.5%

1988

364

6.6%

6.3%

1989

349

12.9%

8.0%

1990

367

14.2%

7.9%

1991

379

12.9%

7.9%

1992

396

11.9%

7.3%

1993

338

12.7%

8.9%

Table 2: Fatal general aviation accidents with alcohol as possible contributing factor (Adapted
from FAA data)

4-Countermeasures
A good education can help to avoid some scourges of society such as alcohol. The Driving
While Intoxicated Program ranges from prevention education to enforcement. For the countries
where alcohol is strictly prohibited or regulated, it is clear that there is little chance to have crash
associated with alcohol consumption. But in most countries where alcohol is not prohibited for
pilots, regulation, awareness and sanctions are necessary to limit the consequences of alcohol
consumption. In the United States, the use of alcohol and drugs by pilots is regulated by FAR
91.17. This regulation states that no person may operate or attempt to operate an aircraft within
8 hours of having consumed alcohol, while under the influence of alcohol, with a blood alcohol
content of 0.04 mg/dl or greater or while using any drug that adversely affects safety. Since

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
1995, compulsory alcohol testing has been implemented. In addition, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) requires airmen to report legal actions involving ethanol and other drugs.
Legal actions of concern include driving while impaired by or while under the influence of
alcohol or other drugs (Antuano, M.J. and Salazar, G.J., 2006). All these measures are
accompanied by sanctions for non-compliance. So, according to FAR 14 CFR 61.15, the FAA
may suspend or revoke a pilots certificate, rating, or authorization if the pilot has had two or
more DWI convictions in the past 3 years.
Since 2002, like the other states, New Mexico has intensified the implementation of the
DWI Program. The percentage of DWI convictions has therefore been increased (Graph 1)
resulting in a decrease of serious alcohol related accidents and injuries (Graph 2). Although the
report does not exclusively concern pilots, it shows a drastic downward trend in the
consequences of the alcohol consumption for all drivers in general, and thus an efficiency of the
DWI Program. In addition, Hosmane and McFadden (2007) compared a 5-year period (1986
1990) prior to the implementation of the driving while intoxicated DWI Program against a 5-year
period (19931997) after implementation on over 160,000 commercial pilots. He reported a
substantial reduction of alcohol intake after the implementation. Moreover, following enhanced
educational efforts and restrictive FAA regulations, alcohol involvement in fatal general aviation
crashes has decreased considerably in the past four decades. The reported proportion of pilot
fatalities with positive blood alcohol concentrations declined from over 30% in the 1960s to
approximately 8% in the 1990s (Baker, 2005). It is true that it is not easy to make the connection
between a plane crash and the consumption of alcohol except in cases where palpable evidence is
found. Most of the time, alcohol tests are done post mortem. We can rejoice at the statements of

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
Christophe (1997) when he thinks that no pilot of a certified US carrier had given a positive test
in such circumstances since at least 1964.

Graph 1: Increase of DWI convictions screened at New Mexico between 2003 and 2013

Graph 2: Decrease of alcohol related accidents and injuries at New Mexico (Local DWI
Program FY14 Annual Report, New Mexico, 2015)

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
Conclusion
Though in most countries drinking is not prohibited, operating an aircraft under the
influence of alcohol is illegal. A blood alcohol concentration of 0.04 mg/dl or greater in ones
body is considered as a violation. Alcohol consumption just before flying can have significant
consequences both on physical and cognitive skills and jeopardize flight safety. Even when the
blood alcohol concentration returns to zero, the post effects of alcohol can still impair pilots
performance. Several researches have shown alcohol as the cause or contributing factor to some
incidents and accidents especially in general aviation but in United States and other countries,
safetyguards have been taken to address the issue. Although the DWI Program appears to be
effective in decreasing substantially alcohol related consequences, so much has to be done in
general aviation where the case is critical.

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PILOTS ALCOHOL VIOLATIONS AND FLIGHT SAFETY
References
Antuano, M.J. and Salazar, G.J.(2006). Alcohol and Flying, a Deadly Combination. Federal
Aviation Administration. Retrieved
from https://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/alcohol.pdf
Baker, S.P., Grabowski, J.G., McCarthy, M.L. Li, G., and Qiang,Y. (2005). Driving-whileIntoxicated history as a risk marker for general aviation pilots. Journal: Accident
Analysis & Prevention -37( 1).179184. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/science/article/pii/S0001457
504000697
Baker, S.P., Brady, J.E., DiMaggio, C., Li, G., and Rebok, G.W.(2010).
Validity of suspected alcohol and drug violations in aviation employees. Journal:
Addiction. 105(10). 7711775. Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/doi/10.1111/j.13600443.2010.03051.x/full#footer-article-info
Canfield, D. V., Chaturvedi, A. K., Dubowski, K. M., and Whinnery, J. E. (2012).
Drugs and Alcohol Found in Civil Aviation Accident Pilot Fatalities from 20042008.
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Christopher, C., and Cook, H.(1997).Alcohol and aviation. Journal: Addiction: 92(5).539-

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555. Retrieved from http://vw9tq4ge9f.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF
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Li, G.; Baker, P.S.; Qiang, Y.; Rebok, W.G.; and McCarthy, L. (2007). Alcohol Violations and
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