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D 301.40 : 238

Ai Weather Service

Technical Report 238

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AI HE IC
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A SUMMARY OF AIRLINE

WEATHER - RADAR

OPERATIONAL

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

By

Paul W.Kadlec , Major , USAFR

THIS DOCUMENT
HAS BEEN APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE AND SALE ;
ITS DISTRIBUTION IS UNLIMITED .

PUBLISHED BY

AIR WEATHER SERVICE (MAC)

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

**
 September 1970 Technical Report 238

PREFACE

Airborne weather- radar policies and procedures currently in use by 11 air

lines in the United States have been summarized for use as a reference by mili
tary meteorologists . The report was prepared during a US Air Force annual
active duty tour with the Aerospace Sciences Deputate , Hq Air Weather Service
(MAC ) , Scott Air Force Base , Illinois .

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the following individuals

and their respective airlines for providing the information included in this
report .

Mr. P. E. Kraght Capt . P. A. Soderlind

Manager , Weather Services Director , Flight Research
American Airlines & Development
Northwest Airlines
Mr. J. Y. Deen
Meteorology Department Mr. L. R. Ulrich
Braniff International Superintendent of Meteorology
Pan American Airways
Mr. R. D. Buell
Director, Flight Control Mr. J. A. Browne
Continental Airlines Director , Meteorology
Trans World Airlines
Mr. C. L. Chandler
Superintendent , Weather Analysis Mr. W. B. Beckwith
Delta Airlines Manager of Meteorology
United Airlines
Capt . A. V. Appelget
Director , Flight Standards Mr. N. Rose
Eastern Airlines Director , Flight Control
Western Airlines
Mr. C. R. Rucks
Chief , Dispatch
National Airlines

PAUL W. KADLEC , Major, USAFR

Hq Air Weather Service
Scott Air Force Base , Illinois 62225
September 1970
-

DISTRIBUTION : " F" Plus Special

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Technical Report 238 September 1970

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION O . 1

II . AIRBORNE WEATHER - RADAR POLICY SUMMARY . 2

General . 2
Radar Policy . 2
Flight Planning . 2
Takeoff and Landing . 3
In Flight . . 3
Radar Failure in Flight:
Radar Requirements
Summary : 4

III . AIRBORNE WEATHER - RADAR OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES . 5

General . 5
Specific Airline Procedures . 5
AMERICAN AIRLINES .
BRANIFF INTERNATIONAL .
CONTINENTAL AIRLINES
DELTA AIRLINES O
EASTERN AIR LINES . 8
NATIONAL AIRLINES . 9
NORTHWEST AIRLINES 10
PAN AMERICAN AIRWAYS 10
TRANS WORLD AIRLINES 12
UNITED AIR LINES 14
WESTERN AIRLINES 15
Summary : . 16

IV . REFERENCES . 16

ii
September 1970 Technical Report 238

A SUMMARY OF AIRLINE WEATHER - RADAR OPERATIONAL

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

I. INTRODUCTION

In 1945 , American Airlines , under Navy contract , began the initial

flight - test evaluation of an AN / APS - 10 radar operating at a wavelength of
3.2 centimeters . Later in 1953 , United Airlines began a similar test of a
5.5 - cm radar installed in a DC - 3 cargo - liner dubbed " Sir Echo . " During the

ensuing years , especially since the mid - 1950's , the aviation industry has
accumulated a wealth of operating experience with the fleet -wide installa
tion of weather radar on commercial airlines .

Airborne weather -radar manufacturers provide a choice of equipment that

operates at either of the following two wavelengths : 3.2 cm ( X -band ) and
5.5-5.7 cm ( C -band ) . The individual airlines determine which of these
wavelengths is best suited for their needs after evaluating their own par
ticular operational requirements .

In order to obtain a representative cross section of radar operating

techniques , the meteorology or flight operations departments of ll airlines
were requested to provide operating information from their operations man
uals or appropriate flight operations publications . This report summarizes
the policies and procedures currently in use by the airlines without at
tempting to differentiate between the relative merits of either X- or C
band radar .

At certain military installations throughout the world , the Air Weather

Service provides forecasts and flight - crew briefing services to the air
lines . Therefore , this summary has been compiled primarily for use as a
reference by the military meteorologist . It should be emphasized , however ,
that these policies and procedures do not necessarily coincide with those
of the Air Weather Service or other Air Force organizations . It is custom
ary for each major command of the USAF to establish its own weather - radar
operating procedures .

The salient features of the various airline weather - radar operational

policies as described in their company manuals have been condensed into a
composite policy statement . However , the radar - operating procedures of the
ll airlines are described in detail . A complete list of manuals and publi

cations that identify the specific source of the material discussed in this
report is included in the References .

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Technical Report 238 September 1970

II . AIRBORNE WEATHER - RADAR POLICY SUMMARY

A. General

1. The basic criteria for operating transport - category aircraft with re

gard to radar equipment requirements are defined in Federal Air Regulations
Part 121.357 . This FAR establishes the requirement that all transport

category aircraft (except C - 46 type airplanes ) must have approved airborne

weather - radar equipment installed , whether the airplane is used in passen
ger -carrying or cargo -only operations . In addition , FAR 121.357 ( c ) states
the following :

" ( 1 ) Dispatch . No person may dispatch an airplane (or begin the flight of
an airplane in the case of an air carrier or commercial operator that does
not use a dispatch system ) under IFR or night VFR conditions when current
weather reports indicate that thunderstorms, or other potentially hazard
ous weather conditions that can be detected with airborne weather radar ,
may reasonably be expected along the route to be flown , unless the airborne
weather - radar equipment is in satisfactory operating condition . (2 ) If
the airborne weather radar becomes inoperative enroute , the airplane must
be operated in accordance with the approved instructions and procedures
specified in the Operations Manual for such an event . " .... The only air
craft excepted from this regulation are those that are used solely within
the States of Hawaii or Alaska , over Northwestern Canada , or during any
training , test , or ferry flights .

2 . The individual airlines have generally developed their own radar pol
icies by expanding this regulation to include more specific information
regarding flight through areas of severe weather .
B.
Radar Policy . Experience and good judgment are the only ingredients
that can determine the proper action in any given weather situation since
even the best written policy can only serve as a guide .

1 . Flight Planning .

a . Planning and operation of all flights require that safety and pas

senger comfort must be given first and second priority and in that order .
No flight shall be planned , dispatched , or released that will knowingly
require penetration of thunderstorm cells . In preflight planning , consider
use of an alternate route if this action will avoid areas of severe
weather .

b . Treat every thunderstorm as a hazardous one and avoid rather than

penetrate thunderstorm activity . Airborne radar is designed as a weather
avoidance rather than a weather - penetration system , and shall not be used
to penetrate thunderstorms (except in an emergency when no safer course of
action is available ) . Airborne weather - radar equipment shall be used on
all flights as a means of detecting and circumnavigating turbulence and

2
September 1970 Technical Report 238

hail associated with storm areas . When thunderstorm activity is antici

pated , the Captain shall , after a thorough review of the weather reports
and forecasts , plan his flight so as to avoid the storm areas or permit
their circumnavigation with airborne and ground radar . Aircraft shall not
be dispatched or flown when current or forecast weather reports indicate
thunderstorms in the area or along the route to be flown unless the air
borne weather - radar equipment is in satisfactory operating condition , or
the storms are widely scattered and reports indicate that the tops can be
circumnavigated visually or by direction of ground radar facilities .

2 . Takeoff and Landing .

a . In recognition of the present - day limitations of ATC and airborne

radar , do not enter or depart terminal areas which are blanketed by thunder
storms except where known thunderstorm - free routes exist and are followed .
Airborne weather - radar equipment and all available weather reports will be
utilized to make this determination .

b . No takeoff or landings will be made when a squall line is in the

immediate vicinity of the airport , unless in the Captain's judgment the
takeoff or landing can be completed before the associated turbulence and
gustiness present a problem .

3 . In Flight .

a . An early enroute detour of a thunderstorm area is preferable to

detouring individual storms within the thunderstorm area . However , only

aircraft with operative radar are intentionally operated on routes where

thunderstorms are more intense than weak or more numerous than widely scat
tered . A flight may proceed through an area of thunderstorms if individual

cells can be detoured with sufficient margin either visually or by use of

radar .

b . Severe thunderstorms may produce or be accompanied by hail and / or

tornadoes . When a line of solid and intense storms is known or forecast to

exist across the route of flight , such as may be anticipated in a severe

squall line or frontal activity , and detouring is not practicable , flights
will be held on the ground until the line has passed , dissipated , or can be
circumnavigated . No flight shall be dispatched through an area of known or

anticipated tornadic action unless such flight can detour the storm centers .
If a detour is not feasible , the flight will hold on the ground until the
storms have passed , or dissipated .

C. Because of reduced buffet margins , it is undesirable to fly above

35,000 feet in an attempt to top areas of greater than MODERATE turbulence ,
unless there is good reason to believe the turbulent area can be overflown
in relatively smooth air . Due to the effect of aircraft gross weight on
performance , 35,000 feet is not an absolute dividing line . A higher alti

tude might be acceptable for a lightweight condition , while a lower alti

3
Technical Report 238 September 1970

tude might be more appropriate for the heavy condition . If deviation from
course and altitude is not feasible and the area of turbulence must be
penetrated , flight procedures for turbulence penetration for the particu
lar type of aircraft should be followed .

d . Passengers shall be directed to fasten their seat belts whenever it

is expected that significant turbulence will be encountered or when it may
be necessary to maneuver the airplane abnormally . The cabin attendants
shall be informed as early as possible whenever turbulence is anticipated ,
and directed to check that seat belts are fastened and galley equipment is
secured .

e . If enroute weather conditions do not require use of the radar , a

functional check will be made to determine the operational status of the

radar before the completion of any flight .

4. Radar Failure In Flight . In the event of enroute radar failure , the

responsibility rests with the Captain to determine whether a thunderstorm
area can be traversed with safety and with reasonable comfort to passengers .
He should monitor weather -trend broadcasts ; review latest available weather
reports , forecasts , and SIGMETS ; and consider all information regarding
hazardous weather conditions provided by any approved source . However , the
pilot shall make every effort to avoid severe weather conditions .

5 . Radar Requirements .

a . For DAY VFR FLIGHTS . Radar is not required whether or not weather
conditions indicate that thunderstorms may exist on the route to be flown ,
provided that there is reasonable assurance that thunderstorms may be cir
cumnavigated visually . When a flight is planned under these conditions to

avoid thunderstorms by operation " on - top , " extreme care and consideration
must be given to the upper limits and restrictions on aircraft performance

capability .

b . For DAY IFR FLIGHTS . Radar is not required when weather conditions
indicate that IFR flights may be operated in VMC (Visual Meteorological
Conditions ) .

6 . Summary :

a . As a general approach to the use of airborne weather radar , remem

ber that the equipment is not a positive on -off type of device . It re
quires careful and skillful manipulation to extract maximum information
coupled with knowledgeable interpretation of what is displayed . Unless the
weather radar has been observed to be fully operational on all functions
earlier in the flight , do not rely on it completely in a serious weather

situation .
b . From the foregoing policy information it is obvious that airborne
radar should be used to detect , avoid , or circumnavigate rather than pene

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September 1970 Technical Report 238

trate thunderstorms . If a radar failure occurs in flight , the responsi

bility rests with the Captain to determine if navigation through a thun

derstorm area can be accomplished with safety and reasonable comfort to
passengers .

III . AIRBORNE WEATHER - RADAR OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

A. General . Recommendations regarding the procedure for avoiding severe

storms are included in the Operations Manuals or other publications of the

various airlines . The following discussions relating to these procedures
have been extracted from the individual manuals of the il airlines that
responded to the request for this information .
B. Specific Airline Procedures .

1 . AMERICAN AIRLINES ( 1 ) :

The primary purpose of our airborne radar equipment is fixing the

position of thunderstorm cells so that these areas of turbulence , and
possible hail , may be avoided . In avoiding thunderstorm cells the
following cell clearance rules shall be observed .

a . When operating below 20,000 feet , aircraft may be flown

through an area where radar echoes indicate a weak rainfall gra

dient if such action dictates that this is the best course to
follow . Above 20,000 feet weak rainfall gradient areas should be

avoided by 10 miles.

b . Areas where echoes indicate a steep rainfall gradient should

be avoided by 20 miles at all altitudes .

C. Echoes that are rapidly. changing in size , shape, or intensity

and those having prominent scallops , hooks, fingers, or other pro

trusions should be treated with concern and the above distance
should be increased accordingly .

d. Hail damage and turbulence can be expected any time an air

craft is flown too close to thunderstorms . Observe the clearance
criteria set forth in the previous paragraphs . The most charac
teristic hail " patterns " are hooks or scallops protruding from the
main thunderstorm echo .

e . Tornado identification is much less reliable , but it is known

that certain major tornadoes produce an echo arranged like the
figure six . Other tornadoes will leave no characteristic echo
for identification .

f . When flying above echoes that are rapidly changing or those

having prominent protrusions, maintain a minimum of 5000 feet
vertical separation .

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Technical Report 238 September 1970

2 . BRANIFF INTERNATIONAL [2 ]:

a . Heavy rain within a thunderstorm always shows up on an oper

ative ar as a bright return on NORMAL function . In general ,
the more intense the activity within a thunderstorm the brighter
the target indication on NORMAL function . Switching to CONTOUR

function usually punches a black hole in the target corresponding

to areas of heavier precipitation . Within and around this area ,

turbulence is encountered which may constitute a flight hazard .

b . There are certain rules to be followed in respect to these

" holes" that the " contour" circuit punches in the rainstorms . The

first one is that if the transition from light to dark on " con
tour" is sharp and clearly defined, it represents what is known to
the meteorologists as " steep rain gradient , " the sharply defined
meeting place of two masses of air of different temperatures and
having considerable relative motion . Should the transition from
light to dark be gradual , spread over several miles then although
bumpy and wet , passage of such an area would not be hazardous and
could be undertaken if necessary . Steep rain gradients , however ,
must be avoided . The following recommendations are made .

Outside air temperature above 32 ° F - avoid steep rain

gradient by a minimum of 5 miles .

(2 ) Outside air temperature below 32 ° F avoid steep rain

gradient by a minimum of 10 miles .

(3 ) Above 25,000 feet avoid all echoes by 5 miles and steep

rain gradient by 20 miles .

(4 ) Above 30,000 feet , avoid all echoes by 20 miles.

c . Where the high rainfall area is on the edge of a storm ,

switching to " contour" will apparently bite a segment out of the
storm . Remember the outer invisible edge is a sharp transition
from heavy rainfall to none at all and hence very turbulent .

d . Hail produces extremely weak radar echoes , which cannot be

seen on the scope . Dry hail is essentially transparent to c band
radar . Hailstones which have warmed sufficiently at lower alti
tudes to cause melting and wetting of the surface , produce strong
returns, but because of the low density per unit volume of hail as
compared with rainfall , echoes may still be too weak to produce a

target on the scope .

e . Since hail is always associated with a thunderstorm , hail can

be avoided if the thunderstorm is avoided . Hail falls out charac
teristically on the downwind side of the storm core . Since ancils

form on the downwind side , flying under such formations must be

6
September 1970 Technical Report 238

avoided because of the strong possibility of hail fall -out, which

may be encountered as far as 7 to 10 NM from the storm target .

f . Hail is associated with certain shapes of weather targets .

Watch for and avoid the following echo patterns : pointed fingers ,
hooked fingers , scalloped edges . The pointed and hooked finger
echoes as well as the " 6 - shaped " echo indicate possible tornado
areas .

3. CONTINENTAL AIRLINES ( 3 ) :

a . Thunderstorm avoidance means not merely avoiding flight through

thunderstorms , but also avoiding immediate proximity to them . For
practical purposes , the following rules of thumb should be ob
served .

(1 ) Strong radar echoes ( those with sharply defined edges

and/ or contour indications of heavy precipitation ) should
be avoided by 20 miles if possible .

(2 ) Moderate radar echoes ( those less sharply defined than

the above , but still indicative of moderate thunderstorm

activity ) should be avoided by 10 miles if possible .

(3 ) Flight beneath a thunderstorm of moderate or severe in

tensity should not be attempted . Flight above a rapid
building thunderstorm should not be attempted with less
than 5000 feet vertical clearance from the cloud tops .
Flight above any thunderstorm should not be attempted
unless the pilot is assured of vertical clearance from
the clouds .

b . Particular attention will be given to areas within which

severe thunderstorms or tornadoes have been forecast by Continen

tal Meteorology or by the Weather Bureau's Severe Storm Center .

(1) Flights will not be planned through such areas if a

practicable alternate route is available .

(2 ) If no practicable alternate route is available , flights

may operate through severe weather forecast areas only
if all thunderstorms are avoided by at least 20 miles .
In addition , an en route weather alternate will be
specified in the dispatch release . The en route weather
alternate must be outside the severe forecast area , must
be capable of being reached without penetrating the area ,
and must be forecast to have alternate minimums at the
time of arrival .

c . If the radar become inoperative en route , the flight may not

enter a known or forecast thunderstorm area unless the Captain is

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Technical Report 238 September 1970

satisfied that thunderstorms can be avoided visually . If already

in a thunderstorm area when the radar becomes inoperative , the

flight will avoid thunderstorms visually or , if this is impossi

ble , slow to recommended turbulence penetration speed and take the

shortest course out of the area consistent with safety .

d . Turbulence . Flights will not be operated in areas of known

severe or greater turbulence .

4 . DELTA AIRLINES [ 4 ] :

a . When a flight encounters thunderstorm conditions it is desir

able , when feasible , that the area be detoured VFR if possible .
Early detours of storm areas are recommended dependent upon trip
length and position of storms. Caution : Any weather detected at
100 miles or more is likely to be of significance .
b . When early evasive action is not practicable , the following
suggested minimum clearance distances should be applied : Steep
rainfall gradient eas of in echo are to be avoided by at least
5 miles (using the 20 - mile range ) . This distance must be in
creased at the higher altitudes (doubled at 20,000 feet ) . Echoes

which are changing either shape , size, or intensity rapidly or for

echoes which have prominent scallops , hooks , fingers, or other pro
trusions should also be avoided by at least 5 miles .

C. A navigable corridor through thunderstorm areas should be the

minimum distances as determined by paragraph b .

d . Weak echoes or areas of weak rainfall gradient may be flown

through or adjacent to if judgment dictates this to be the most
desirable procedure .

e . When using the 20 -mile range for circumnavigating storm cells ,

the 50 -mile range should be monitored at frequent intervals to
determine the total extent of the storm area as well as to watch
for additional developments .

f. When taking off in thunderstorm areas , the radar set should be

operated on the ground using upward antenna tilt to determine best
possible climbout path .

5 . EASTERN AIR LINES ( 5 ) :

a . Flights shall be planned with a view towards avoiding known

areas of turbulence .

(1 ) When taking off in thunderstorm areas the radar set

should be operated on the ground using upward antenna
tilt to determine best possible climbout path .

(2 ) Rainfall gradient is the rate of change in rain intensity

8
September 1970 Technical Report 238

per unit distance . Steep rainfall gradient is associ

ated with maximum turbulence and is a rapid change in
rain intensity over a short horizontal distance and will
be indicated by a sharp edge on the echo .

(3 ) When a flight encounters thunderstorm conditions it is

desirable , when feasible , that the area be detoured .
Early detours of storm areas are recommended depending
upon trip length and position of storms . When early
evasive action is not practicable , rules ( 4 ) through (7 )
apply .

(4 ) Avoid steep rainfall gradient areas of an echo by at

least 5 miles (using 20 -mile range ) . Increase this dis
tance at higher altitudes whenever feasible , although
steep rainfall gradients will be relatively fewer above
20,000 feet . Also increase this distance for echoes

which are changing either size , shape, or intensity rapid

ly or for echoes which have prominent scallops, hooks ,
fingers, or other protrusions. Above 20,000 feet , avoid
even weak echoes if possible . Recommended distances from
weak echoes is 5 miles at 20,000 feet , 10 miles at 25,000
feet , 20 miles at 30,000 feet and above .

(5 ) Below 20,000 feet weak echoes or areas of weak rainfall

gradient may be flown through (or near ) if judgment dic
tates this to be the most desirable procedure .

(6 ) When using the 20 -mile range to circumnavigate storm

cells , monitor the 50 - mile range frequently to determine
total extent of the area and to watch for additional de
velopments .

(7 ) Maintain minimum vertical separation of 5000 feet when

flying above an echo .

b . Radar inoperative aircraft may be dispatched provided that the

Dispatcher and Captain agree on one of the following :

(1) Weather reported is such that no hazardous conditions

exist that could be detected by airborne radar .

(2 ) The flight can be operated over an alternate route on

which no adverse weather will be encountered .

(3 ) The flight should be delayed until the weather conditions

have passed or dissipated .

6 . NATIONAL AIRLINES [6 ] :

Avoid thunderstorm cells both visually and with radar . Special

9
Technical Report 238 September 1970

attention should be given to avoiding contoured cells and cells that

are changing rapidly in size and configuration .

7 . NORTHWEST AIRLINES ( 7 ) :

a . Radar should normally be used under the following policy .

First choice : detour the overall area of thunderstorms complete
ly . Second choice : detour the individual thunderstorm cells .
An early detour is best , if feasible , since it allows taking the
first of the above choices . If cells are painted beyond 75 miles ,
they will usually be strong whether or not contour holes are
shown . To show up on radar at such distance , a storm has to have
substantial rainfall . When storms are detected at the longer
ranges , an early detour is especially desirable . Exposure to
turbulence will be least when the distance between you and the
thunderstorm cell is the greatest . While no single detouring
distance will fit all cases , the following minimum recommended
distances may be used as a guide .

Altitude Minimum Distance to Cell

Below 10,000 feet 5 miles

10,000 feet - 25,000 feet 10 miles

Above 25,000 feet 20 miles

In other words , do not normally allow the cells to penetrate with

in the range ring marking the above margins . And please note once
again , these values and other facets of the recommendations will
give poor results unless you use the proper tuning procedures .

b . Storms near the upwind end of a squall line , or on the upwind

flank of a large storm complex , can nearly always be expected to
grow . Storms near the downwind end can generally be expected to
dissipate . Further , new cells are most likely to form on the up
wind end . For these reasons it is usually best to detour around
the downwind end of these areas . If necessary to detour around
the upwind end, a wider margin should be allowed . In general ,
the upwind end is Sw , while the downwind end is NE . In general
then , detours around the NE end of the squall line or storm com

plex are preferable .

8 . PAN AMERICAN AIRWAYS [8 ] :

a . Overflying a thunderstorm is not advisable unless several
thousand feet of clearance above the storm top is assured . If
vertical scanning of a storm core indicates development to high
altitudes , there is probably hail within the core . The mere fact

10
September 1970 Technical Report 238

that a storm projects up into the lower stratosphere indicates the

existence of extremely strong convective drafts which can throw up
supercooled rain and hail as high as 5000 feet above the storm
top .

b . If it is necessary to fly through tops , or less than 5000 feet

above , the radar should be operated on the 50 NM range with the

antenna tilted as required to display the storm core . The volume
above the core should be avoided by 10 to 15 NM if possible .

C. Heavy rain within a thunderstorm always shows up on an oper

ative radar as a bright return on NORMAL function . In general ,
the more intense the activity within a thunderstorm the brighter
the target indication on NORMAL function . Switching to CONTOUR
function usually punches a black hole in the target corresponding

to areas of heaviest precipitation . Within and around this area ,

turbulence is encountered which may constitute a flight hazard .

d . Squall lines . Thunderstorms of the most severe intensity

frequently form along a rapidly advancing , cold front in the mid
dle latitudes . They may , in a given instance , form a practically
unbroken line of storm cells several hundred miles or more in
length , but perhaps only a relatively few miles in depth . They
may contain very heavy turbulence and hail, and constitute per
haps the most significant en route weather hazard to flight . If
a squall line lies across the track and cannot be overflown , it
should be studied carefully when it comes within radar range ( 150
NM ) . After locating targets on NORMAL function and adjusting
antenna TILT for optimum target brightness , switch to CONTOUR
function and analyze the displayed storm cores so that a decision
can be made whether or not to detour or to penetrate the squall
line through the most feasible aperture between cells (use step
sensitivity analysis if CONTOUR function is inoperative ) .

e . The probability of a lightning strike is greatest in the vi

cinity of a Cb and around the freezing level . In climb - outs ,
let - down , and in holding patterns , the airborne weather radar may
provide the only means of indicating the necessary detour around
thunderstorms to minimize the probability of a lightning strike .

f . Since hail is always associated with a thunderstorm , hail can

be avoided if the thunderstorm is avoided . Hail falls out char
acteristically on the downwind side of the storm core . Since

anvils form on the downwind side , flying under such formations

must be avoided because of the strong possibility of hail fall
out , which may be encountered as far as 7 to 10 NM from the
storm target .

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Technical Report 238 September 1970

Hail is associated with certain shapes of weather targets .

Watch for and avoid the following echo patterns : Pointed fingers ,
hooked fingers , and scalloped edges . The pointed and hooked fin
ger echoes as well as the " 6 - shaped" echo indicate also possible
tornado areas .

h . Hail has been found in a high percentage of cases with pro

trusions of 1 to 5 NM in length , and scallops or blunt protuber

ances I to 3 NM from the edge of thunderstorm echoes . In view of

the fact that hail is capable of producing severe damage to air

craft , and since hail cannot be detected directly , conditions
which are known to produce hail should be avoided if at all pos
sible .

9 . TRANS WORLD AIRLINES (9 ):

a . Avoid Severe Turbulence . Careful pre - flight planning and ag

gressive in - flight analysis using all available information must

be done to avoid severe turbulence . Although cruising altitudes

available permit topping some thunderstorms and avoiding others ,

there are other factors to consider , clear air turbulence being
one , which will reduce the margin between stall and mach buffet .

b . Monitor Weather Radar . Carefully adjust the radar for use, and
continually monitor it when operating in weather conditions asso
ciated with turbulence . Frovide reasonable clearance around rain
areas by steering headings which will permit clearance of the
storm cells by 5 miles when OAT is above freezing , 10 miles when
OAT is below freezing , and 20 miles when at or above 25,000 feet .

C. Pre - frontal squall lines are probably the most violent of

thunderstorm types . They occur mainly in the spring and early

summer , and most often during the afternoon or evening hours ,
although they may occur during any season or at any hour .

a . Wind shifts associated with squall lines (and in some cold

fronts ) are often sharp and sometimes extend ahead of the squall
line by as much as 5 to 10 miles . An aircraft passing through the
wind shift may momentarily experience a marked change in indicated

airspeed . The airspeed will increase whenever the headwind com

ponent increases , and decreases when the headwind component de

creases .

e . Some suggestions on procedures to minimize hazards of flying

in squally conditions are as follows :

(1 ) Avoid takeoffs and landings during severe wind - shift

conditions .

(2) Monitor airspeed closely at all times , and allow an extra

12
September 1970 Technical Report 238

margin above stall speed when flying in squally condi

tions in order to allow for any sudden variations which
may take place in the wind - shift zone .

(3 ) Avoid making sharp turns during squally conditions be

cause of the increased stall speed while in a banked po
sition and the possibility of encountering a sudden
severe roll from a gust . If a turn must be made , a right

turn is better than a left turn ( in the northern hemis

phere ) .

(4 ) In approaching a known squall line zone , enter at right

angles to the wind -shift line, because this flight path

involves the shortest distance through the zone . In ad

dition , a flight crossing the wind - shift line on a nearly

parallel course can be subject to large and rapid changes
in airspeed .

(5 ) If the clouds can be topped , on - top flight is recommended .

If not , it is sometimes wise to consider holding on the
ground until the line has passed . Planes on the ground
should be well secured , as instantaneous wind shift with
gusts of 50 to 65 KTS are not uncommon .

f . Hail forms in the thunderstorm cell which is in the building

state and falls from it when the cell has progressed to the mature
stage . Hail is at its largest size near the freezing level in the
area of heavy precipitation . Thus , the chances of encountering
damaging hail are greatest at that level . Flight well above or
below the zero degree isotherm decreases the risk .

Static electricity builds up on the aircraft by frictional

contact with solid particles present in the air . Discharges occur
only in moist air , and most often near the freezing level . The

following points may aid in reducing the number of discharges .

( 1) Static discharges are more common when on instruments at

or near the freezing level . Flight in either colder or

warmer temperatures reduce the possibility .

(2 ) Flight in frozen precipitation , and particularly in wet

snow , is very conducive to the occurrence of a discharge ,
and should be avoided when possible .

(3 ) If a discharge appears imminent , as indicated by corona ,

radio static , etc. , reduced airspeed may forestall its
occurrence .

13
Technical Report 238 September 1970

10 . UNITED AIR LINES [ 10 ] :

a . Operation (Radar tuned and operating normally ) . When a

flight encounters thunderstorm conditions it is desirable , when

feasible , that the area be detoured . Early detours of storm
areas are recommended dependent upon trip length and position of
storms .

b . When early evasive action is not practicable , the following

rules apply .

(1 ) Avoid steep rainfall gradient areas of an echo by at

least 5 miles (using 20 -mile range ) . Increase this dis
tance at higher altitudes whenever feasible , although
steep rainfall gradients will be relatively fewer above
20,000 feet . Also increase this distance for echoes

which are changing either size , shape, or intensity rap

idly or for echoes which have prominent scallops , hooks ,
fingers, or other protrusions . Above 20,000 feet avoid
even weak echoes if possible . Recommended distance
from weak echoes is 5 miles at 20,000 feet , 10 miles at
25,000 feet , 20 miles at 30,000 feet and above .

(2 ) Below 20,000 feet weak echoes or areas of weak rainfall

gradient may be flown through (or near ) if judgment dic
tates this to be the most desirable procedure .

(3) When using the 20 -mile range to circumnavigate storm

cells , monitor the 50 -mile range frequently to deter
mine total extent of the area and to watch for addi
tional developments .

(4 ) Maintain minimum vertical separation of 5000 feet when

flying above an echo .

c. A navigable corridor with ample room will normally be found

reasonably close .

d . When taking off in thunderstorm areas the radar set should be

operated on the ground using upward antenna tilt to determine

best possible climb -out path .

e . The radar is not to be used as a terrain avoidance tool .

However , it may be used in terrain mapping to establish the
relative position of the aircraft to high terrain , large bodies
of water, and other easily distinguishable ground features .

f . Tornadoes and large hail , two products of the thunderstorm ,

constitute serious hazards to flying even though both are rela
tively infrequent . Radar offers the best means of avoidance . A

14
September 1970 Technical Report 238

majority of hail echoes show on the scope with characteristic

fingers or hooks or scallops protruding from the main thunderstorm
echo . Tornado identification is much less reliable , but it is

known that certain major tornadoes produce a protrusion much like

the shape of a figure six . Other tornadoes will leave no char
acteristic fingerprint identification . In either case the most
reliable evasive method is to avoid sharp edged echoes by at
least 5 miles .

8 . Avoid flying under a cumulonimbus overhang , whenever practi

cable . If such flight cannot be avoided , tilt the radar antenna

full up occasionally , to guard against a fresh shaft of hail

falling suddenly from the overhang .

ll . WESTERN AIRLINES [ 11 ] :

a . Use of radar in airline operation to detour thunderstorms .

Using the maximum range , 180 NM , a storm can be surveyed from a

long range , and a detour can be started in time to bypass the

storm and add very little to the flight plan time .

b . Use of radar in airline operation to penetrate thunderstorm

areas .

(1) In case the storm system is far too extensive to be de

toured satisfactorily ( some systems 150 NM wide have
been observed ) flight can be conducted through corridors
of weak activity .

(2 ) Tests have shown that no attempt should be made to fly

through any corridor indicated on the scope to be less
than 5 miles wide . Until a more thorough knowledge of
corridor penetration by radar is gained , it is suggested
that flying through any corridors appearing on the scope
to be less than 10 NM wide be avoided .

(3) It is important to avoid the temptation to leave contour

on at all times , since once again , accurate evaluation
cannot be made without a comparison of the appearance of
the storm with contour off against its appearance with
contour on .

C. Use of radar in airline operation to determine best route at

terminal having thunderstorm . While it is possible to pick the
most desirable route into or out of an airport in thunderstorm
activity , it is not always possible to be cleared over that
route due to conflicting air traffic . If a storm exists at a

terminal where the tower is equipped with a radar of suitable

frequency , the tower can observe the location and movement of

15
Technical Report 238 September 1970

the storm and clear all traffic accordingly .

C. Summary :

Review of the various operating procedures reveals agreement among the

airlines that avoidance of thunderstorms and severe weather is of para
mount importance to the safe operation of the flight as well as the rea
sonable comfort of the passengers . Improved weather - radar systems are
available in the aircraft currently being delivered to the airlines . Ad

vanced models of this equipment will be installed in the forthcoming

generation of superjets including the Boeing 747 , DC - 10 , Lockheed 1011,
and the supersonic transports . Refinement in operational policies and
procedures based on research and flight experience must continue to ac
company the development of avionics equipment to achieve maximum safety
and comfort in flight .

IV . REFERENCES

[1 ] " Flight Manual American Airlines , Part I , Section 5 , pp . 11-12 ,

dated April 14 , 1969 .

[2 ] " Technical Training Department Manual , Braniff International , Weather

Radar (For training purposes only ) Section VI , pp . 11-14 , dated
August 2 , 1965 .

[3] " Operations Manual, " Continental Airlines , Section 8 , page 2-305 ,
dated August 25 , 1968. Page 2-306 , dated July 25 , 1968 .

[4 ] " Operating Manual ," Delta Airlines , Section 21.15 , pp . 21-43 , dated
January 4 , 1968 .

(5 ) " Flight Operations Manual , " Eastern Air Lines, Section 5.7 . , p . 5-7-1 ,
dated March 2 , 1967. Page 5-7-2 , dated August 15 , 1966 .

[6 ] Unpublished information obtained from National Airlines.

(7 ) " Flight Standards Bulletin No. 6-64 , " Northwest Airlines, pp . 9-11 ,
dated November 1 , 1968 .

[8 ] " Operations Manual , Pan American Airways , Weather Radar Interpreta

tion , Section III, pp . 4-7 , dated July 12 , 1965 .

[9 ] " Flight Operations Policy Manual , " Trans World Airlines , Section
06.05 , pp . 1-2 , dated August 1 , 1968 .

[ 10 ] " Flight Operations Manual , United Air Lines , Weather Section , page
110 , dated April ll , 1960 .

[ 11 ] " Operations Manual, " Western Airlines, Weather Radar System Section
5-12 , page 52B , dated August 1 , 1966 .

16
 UNCLASSIFIED
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DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA · R & D
(Security classification of title , body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overall report is classified)
1. ORIGINATING ACTIVITY (Corporate author ) 2a . REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Hq Air Weather Service Unclassified
2b . GROUP
N / A
3. REPORT TITLE

A Summary of Airline Weather - Radar Operational Policies and Procedures

4. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ( Type of report and inclusive dates)

N / A
5. AUTHOR ( S ) (First name, middle initial, last name)

Paul W. Kadlec , Major , USAFR

6. REPORT DATE 7a . TOTAL NO . OF PAGES 7b . NO . OF REFS
September 1970 18 ll
8a . CONTRACT OR GRANT NO . 9a . ORIGINATOR'S REPORT NUMBER ( S )
N / A
b . PROJECT NO . Air Weather Service Technical
Report 238
c. 96. OTHER REPORT NO (S ) (Any other numbers that may be assigned
this report )
d.
10. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

This document has been approved for public release and sale ; its
distribution is unlimited .

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 12. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY

NA
13. ABSTRACT

This report discusses and summarizes the Weather - Radar operational

policies and procedures of eleven US commercial airlines .

DD FORM
KOM. 1473 17 UNCLASSIFIED
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UNCLASSIFIED
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LINK A LINK B LINK C
KEY WORDS
ROLE WT ROLE WT ROLE WT

Weather - Radar
Thunderstorm
Turbulence
Hail

UNCLASSIFIED
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