Machining Metals
Machining Metals
Machining Metals
Machining
MACHINING
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
MECHNICSOFMACHINING
TOOLWEAR,TOOLLIFE,SURFACEFINISH,ANDMACHINABILITY
TOOLMATERIALSANDCUTTINGFLUIDS
SELECTEDMACHINETOOLSANDMACHININGPROCESSES
MACHININGCENTERS
1. INTRODUCTION
US industries spend annually $60 billion to perform metal removal operations that range from simple
clean-up of castings or welds to high precision work.
What is Machining?
Machining is a process designed to change the size, shape, and surface of a material through removal
of materials that could be achieved by straining the material to fracture or by thermal evaporation.
Why Machining?
Offers important benefits such as
Excellent dimensional tolerances
-Example is forged crankshaft where holes and bearing surfaces require tight tolerances.
External and internal geometrical features
- Sharp corners, grooves, fillets, various geometry
Surface finish
-Example is a copper mirror by diamond turning
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Cutting speed (V) is the largest of the relative velocities of cutting tool or workpiece. In turning (Figure
2), it is the speed of the workpiece while in drilling and milling, it is the speed of the cutting tool. In
turning, it is given by the surface speed of the workpiece, V = D1N where D1 is the diameter of the
workpiece.
Depth of cut (d) is the distance the cutting tool penetrates into the workpiece. In turning, for example,
it is given by: d = (D1-D2)/2
Feed (f) is movement of the tool per revolution. In turning, it is the distance the tool travels in one
revolution of the workpiece and is given the units of mm/rev or in./rev.
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Consider a square element subjected to a shear stress. If the distance sheared is "a" and the
edge length of square is "b", then the shear strain is given by: = a/b.
In metal cutting, the shearing process is similar to a deck of playing cards sliding against
each other as shown in figure. See Figure 8.3. We can write:
= AB/OC = (AO + OB)/OC = Cot + tan ( - )
Low shear and rake angles result in high . A value of >5 indicates much greater deformation in
machining than in metal forming where it is under 1.
WORK OUT PROBLEM 8.90
3. Velocity Ratio
If the velocities are considered (see Figure 8.3),
Q = w toV = w tc Vc
V/Cos ( - ) = Vs / Cos = Vc/Sin
4. Shear Strain-rate
d /dt = Vs/d where d = OC ~ 10-3 to 10-4 inch
Shear strain rate is on the order of 103- 106/sec
Thus, it is this combination of large strains and high strain rates make it difficult to predict chip
formation.
Chip formation affects the surface finish, cutting forces, temperature, tool life and
dimensional tolerance. A chip consists of two sides 1) the side in contact with the tool is
called shiny side (flat, uniform) due to frictional effects, 2) the other side is the free
workpiece surface that has a jagged appearance due to shear.
A. Continuous
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B. BUE (continuous)
Built-up-edge (BUE) forms when there is a chemical affinity between workpiece and the
tool. It becomes unstable, breaks up and then forms again. The process is repeated
continuously.
- Favorable growth conditions such as high strain-hardening, low speed, large depth of cut,
low rake angle, and high temperature
- Degrades the surface finish changes tool geometry
- Thin BUE helps to improve the tool life
- Cutting fluids will prevent the formation of BUE
C. Discontinuous
-Occurs in brittle materials
-Inclusions/impurities promote this
- Very low or hi V
-Large depth of cut
-Lack of cutting fluid
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Because of the discontinuous nature of the chips, forces vary continually leading to vibrations and
chatter in the machine tool with the end results of poor surface finish and loose tolerances.
D. Serrated chips
6. Force Analysis
The forces acting on the cutting tool are shown in Figure 8.12. Except Fc and Ft, all other forces can
not be experimentally measured. A dynamometer (force transducer) mounted on the workpiece or tool
holder is used to measure Fc and Ft. Draw the free body diagrams of chip, tool and workpiece to
understand how the forces act on. We can write the forces as:
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These forces are small on the order of few hundred newtons, but the local stresses are very high due to
smaller contact areas leading to wear, chipping, fracture. The tool-chip contact length is also small
(about 1 mm).
Coefficient of Friction
At the tool-chip interface, there is friction. The coefficient of friction, , can be written as:
= F/N = tan
F and N are expressed in terms of other forces using a circular force diagram shown in Figure5.
F = Fc sin + Ft cos and N = Fc cos - Ft sin
= F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/ (Fc-Ft tan )
is on the order of 0.5 to 2 indicating the chip faces considerable frictional resistance when climbing
over the tool face.
Shear Angle
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This is a challenging parameter to determine. Several theories are advanced to find the shear angle.
One of the earliest analyses (Merchant's) says, "the shear angle leads to maximum shear stress".
Hence we write, = Fs/As = R cos( + - )/(w to/sin )
Differentiate the shear stress w.r.to the shear angle and set it equal to zero (assume that is
independent of ), then we find
= 45 + ( - )/2
see Figure 8.17 to see how this equation poorly predicts the experimental data. Note another equation
(8.21) has been developed but does equally poor in predicting the experimental data.
As the rake angle increases, the shear angle increases. An increase in shear angle will reduce the chip
thickness (how) and reduce the temperature rise.
Let us substitute the above equation in Fc, which becomes
Fc = R cos ( - ) = R sin 2
Stresses in shear plane
There are two stresses in the shear plane caused by Fs and Fn. The average shear stress is:
= Fs/As and = Fn/As
7. Power Analysis
The cutting force system in 3D-turning consists of three forces: Fc is the largest force that accounts for
99% the power required, Ft requires very small power because feed rates are very small, and Fr the
radial force contributes very small also because velocity in the radial direction is negligible.
Ignoring the thrust and radial forces, the total input power to cutting is given by:
Pc = FcV
Pc = Ps + Pf = FsVs + F Vc
where Ps = power required for shearing
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chip, tool, and workpiece. The cutting fluid, if used, is an excellent heat sink. There are three sources
for heat development:
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3.TOOLWEAR,TOOLLIFE,SURFACEFINISHANDMACHINABILITY
ToolWear
SeeFigures8.23,8.24and8.25
oDegradesthesurfacefinish
oIncreasesthetoleranceand
oIncreasesthecostofmachining
_PRIVATE__Typesofwear
Mechanisms
Flank
Temperature,Adhesion,Abrasion,Plasticflow
Crater
Temperature,Diffusion,Oxidation
Chipping,Fracture
MechanicalshockandThermalfatigue
(interruptedcutting)
Adhesion:Highpressure/temperaturecauseadhesionofofasperitiesbetweenthetoolandthechip.
Abrasion:HardparticlesintheworkpiececauseabrasionofthetoolDominantmechanismfor
flank
PlasticFlow:Hightemperaturesoftensthetoolandhighstressescausetheplasticdeformationof
thecuttingedges
Diffusion:Exchangeofatomsacrossthecontactboundarybetweenthechipandthetool.Toolmay
lose"hardatoms"
ToolLifeisdeterminedbydifferenttypesofwear.Flankwearissaidtobethegoverningfactor.
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FlankwearincreaseswithtimeasshowninFigure6.Inthebreakinperiod,thecuttingedgeslose
theirsharpnessrapidly.Inthesteadystate,thereisanuniform wear, and in the accelerated
region,thereisrapidwearduetohightemperature.
Ifweplotflankwearasafunctionoftime,wefindFigure7.Flankwear(alsocalledaswearland)
isthedistanceVBwhichisthecriterionfortoollife(toolhastoberesharpenedorchanged).VBis
measuredusingatoolmaker'smicroscope.
SeeTable8.6forthemaximumvalueofVBallowedfordifferentmachiningoperations.
VBisestablishedbasedonTaylor'stoollifeequationgivenby
VTn=C(forgivenvaluesofd,f)
V=cuttingspeed,mostcriticalparameter
T=toollife,minutes,todevelopflankwearlandVB
C=constant=Toollifefor1min
SeeFigure8.27.Theplotisloglog.Ingeneral,T=60120minforHSStooltodevelopVBand3060minfor
carbidetooltodevelopVB.
WORKOUTPROBLEMS8.97and98
Factorsaffectingn,C
Cisinfluencedbythetypeofworkpieceandcuttingconditions.
nisafunctionofthecuttingtoolmaterial
Sinceflankweariscumbersometoevaluateinproductionenvironment,severalsimple,subjectivecriteriamay
beused.
Completefailureofthecuttingedge
Visibleobservationoftheflankwear
Fingernailtestacrossthecuttingedge
Changesinthesound
Changesinchipformation
Degradationofsurfacefinish
Increasedconsumptionofpower
(wattmeterconnectedtothemachinetool)
Numberofworkpiecesmachined
-- Cuttingtime
SurfaceFinishandIntegrity
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Finishrepresentsgeometricpropertieswhileintegritypertainstopropertiessuchasfatiguelife,corrosionetc.
ReadSection4.2.1formoreinformationonsurfaceintegrity.
_PRIVATE__Finish(geometricfeatures)
Roughness
Waviness
Lay
FlawsIntegrity
Residualstresses
Phasetransformation
Plasticdeformation
Cracks
Figure4.2showsthesurfaceterminologyandsymbols.
Roughnesscloselyspaced,irregulardeviations
Wavinessgreaterspacingdeviationscausedbythedeflectionsoftools,dies,thermal
warping,unevenlubrication,vibrationsetc
Flawsscratches,holes,cracks,depressions,inclusions
Laydirectionofthepredominantsurfacepattern
MeasuresofSurfaceRoughness
1.Arithmeticaverage(AA)Widelyadopted
2.Rootmeansquare(RMS)Usedmostlypriorto1950
3.Roughnessheight(Peaktovalleydistance)
Surfaceprofilometer(Figure4.4)isusedtomeasuresurfaceroughness.Readsection4.3.
Figure8.33showstheroughnessdataforvariousmachiningprocesses.Variablesthatinfluencetheroughness
are:
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BUEmoredamagingeffectonroughness
Toolradiussharperthetool,higherwouldberoughness
Feedlargerthefeed,higherisroughness
Vibration/chatterincreasetheroughness
Machinability
Machinabilityisatermthatincludesseveralparameters:finish,integrity,toollife,cuttingspeed,force,chip
formation,compositionandpropertiesofmaterialetc.Ingeneral,toollifeandsurfacefinisharemeasuresof
machinability.Theratingsaregivenformaterials.AISI1112steelisgivenratingof100.Whatitmeansisthat,
thesteelcanbemachinedat100fpmfor60minutesoftoollife.Someothermaterialsratingsare:
MaterialMachinabilityRating
AISI314055
Brass300
2011Al200
Grayiron70
Inconel30
4.TOOLMATERIALSANDCUTTINGFLUIDS
ToolMaterials
Acuttingtoolissubjectedto:
oHightemperatures(300to1500oF)
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Tool Materials
Steels
Cast Alloys
Carbides
Ceramics
Carbon
Co-Cr-W
Si3N4, CBN,
Diamond
High-speed
5. SELECTEDMACHINETOOLSANDMACHININGPROCESSES
Lathes - Oldest machine tools
Engine Lathe - Simple and versatile but require a skilled machinist because all controls are manipulated
by hand. It is inefficient for large production runs (Figure 8.55).
Tracer Lathe - Machine tool with an attachment that is capable of turning parts with various contours.
Turret Lathe - Several cutting tools are mounted on the turret in the cross-slide. They are capable of
performing multiple operations such as turning, boring, drilling, facing, thread cutting.
Automatic Lathes - Also called as chucking machines, they are usually vertical and do not have tailstock
and are used for machining regular and irregular shapes.
CNC Lathe- turret lathe controlled by CNC. Automated, suitable for low to medium volumes of
production (Figure 8.56).
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Operations on a Lathe
SEE Figure 8.51. Straight turning, taper turning, grooving, threading, facing, profiling, drilling, boring,
cutting off, and knurling.
TURNING
The turning parameters include tool geometry, feed, depth of cut, and cutting speed.
Tool Geometry
Turning operations use single-point geometry cutting tools. The tool geometry affects cutting speed,
chip control, surface finish, tolerances (vibration and chatter) and cutting force. The geometry of a
right-hand cutting tool (i.e. tool travels from right to left) is shown in Figure 8.52.
The effects of tool geomtery on various aspects are given in the table below.
Feed, Depth of Cut, and Cutting speed
See Table 8.14 for a summary
See Table 8.12 for typical values of cutting parameters.
Forces in Turning
See Figure 8.53. These forces are important in the design of machine tools as well as in the deflection
of tools for precision machining.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS 8.96, 8.100, 8.101, 8.102, and 8.103
Turning Process Capabilities
1. Production Rates - See Table 8.15, relative ratings
2. High-speed machining, > 2000 fpm
-Important in aerospace and automotive to improve productivity only when cutting time is
the largest.
1. Ultraprecision machining - surface finish in nanometers, and accuracies in sub-micron range.
Examples are optical mirrors, computer memory disks, drums for copying machines. Diamond
turning is common. The workpiece materials include Cu, Al, Ag, Au, Ni, and plastics. The depth
of cut is in the nanometer range. High-stiffness machine tools, vibration-isolation tables, and
dust-free environment are needed.
2. Hard turning - use CBN tools for finish-machining hardened steels.
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Geometry
Advantages
Limitations
Rake Angles
Weakens edges
5to20
Reduce Fc
Difficult to grind
Reduce Temp
Reduce friction
Reduce heat
Tool chatter
Equations 1 and 2 do not include the effects of workpiece material, vibration and type of machine tool.
BORING
Boring consists of producing circular, internal profiles in hollow workpieces or on holes. The boring
bar is long and must be stiff. Boring can be accomplished in the lathe or in boring mills if large pieces
are used. SEE Figure 8.58.
DRILLING
Drilling machine, called as drill presses, are vertical machine tools. Significant problems include the
chip disposal, accurate locations, carefulness in preventing the drill from breaking and supplying cutting
fluid.
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Thrust force, if excessive, will break the tool. Usually it is small, on the order of few hundred lbs. It is a
function of cutting parameters in addition to the strength of workpiece material. It can be small when
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Includes a number of processes that are capable of producing a variety of configurations. See Figure
8.63.
Typesofmillingmachinesandtheircomponents
1. Horizontal spindle (see Figure 8.70)
2. Vertical spindle (see Figure 8.71)
Three forms of milling:
o Slab Milling (Horizontal)
o Face Milling (Vertical)
o End Milling (Vertical)
See Table 8.18 for milling parameters and formulas.
Slab milling , (see Figure 8.64) also called as peripheral milling, the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to
the workpiece surface. The depth of cut is in the range 0.04" to 0.3". Go through Example 8.8
Face milling, (see Figure 8.65) the cutter is mounted on a spindle having axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface. See next apages for calculations. Go through Example 8.9.
End milling, where the cutter is smaller than the face miller, can be used to produce various profiles
including dies.
Conventional(Up)andClimb(Down)milling
Up Milling
Down Milling
Advantages
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Drawbacks
1. Tool chatter
Drawbacks
2. Feed marks
3. Clamp workpiece
(work moves up)
WORK OUT PROBLEMS 8.106, 107, 108, 109, 110 and 111.
6. MACHINING CENTERS
READ TEXT SECTION 8.10 (READING ASSIGNMENT)
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