Chapter twenty one

Fundamental of Machining (Cutting process)

Objective: To perform the basic concepts of metal machining theory such as mechanics
of cutting, tool cutting force, machine power and the tool operation life
21.1 Introduction
The material removal processes are an operation in which excess material is removed
from a starting work part so that the remains are the desired final geometry. A sharp
cutting tool is used to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. For
example, turning, milling, drilling, broaching and sawing.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining
involves shear deformation of the work material to form a chip, as the chip is removed a
new surface is exposed as shown in figure (21.1).

21.2 Advantages and disadvantages of cutting machining

Machining is important commercially and technologically for several reasons
1- Varity of work materials: Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work material.
Virtually all solid metals, plastic and composites can be cut by machining. Ceramics pose
difficulties to cut by machining because of their high hardness and brittleness.
2- Variety of part shapes and geometric features: Machining can be used to create any
regular geometry such as flat planes, round holes and cylinders. Irregular geometries can
be created such as screw threads and T-slots.

28
3- Dimensional accuracy: Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances.
Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of +0.025 mm, much more accurate
than most other processes.
4- Good surface finishes: Machining is capable to creating very smooth surface finishes
On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other
material removal processes
1- Wasteful of material: Machining is inherently wasteful material. The chips generated
in machining operation are wasted material.
2- Time consuming: A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given
part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.
21.3 Mechanics of machining:
1- Types of machining operations:
There are many kinds of machining operations; each is capable of generating a certain
geometry and surface textures. These types are
a) Turning: A cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating work piece to generate a cylindrical shape as in figure (21.2 a). The speed motion
in turning is provided by rotating work part and the feed motion is achieved by the
cutting tool moving slowly in direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece.
b) Cutting off: The tool moves inward the metal to separate it into tow parts, such as
sawing as shown in figure (21.2 b)
c) Milling: A rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is removed slowly relative to the
material to generate a plane or straight surface. If the direction of the feed motion is
parallel to the tool’s axis of rotation this milling is called slab milling (peripheral
milling). On the other hand if the direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the
tool’s axis of rotation this milling is called end milling (face milling) as shown in figure
(21.2 c, d). Slab milling remove layers from the surface while end milling produce cavity
in the work part.
b) Drilling: is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that
typically has two cutting edges. The tool is fed in direction parallel to its axis of rotation
into the work part to form the round hole as in figure (21.2 e)

29
2- Cutting variables:
The following cutting variable are shown in figure (21.3)
a) Shear plane and shear angle: As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed
by shear deformation along a plane called shear plane which oriented at an angle ϕ with
the surface of the work called shear angle.
b) Rake face and rake angle (α): The rake face which directs the flow of the newly
formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle called rake angle (α). The rake angle determine
the direction that the chip flow as it formed from the work part. It is measured relative to
a plane perpendicular to the work surface.
c) Flank surface and relief angle (β): The flank surface provides a clearance between the
tool and the newly generated work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion,
which would degrade the finish. This flank surface is oriented at an angle called relief
angle (β) which called also clearance angle.
d) Cutting depth (to) and chip thickness (tc): During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is
positioned a certain distance below the original work surface. This corresponds to the
thickness of the chip prior to chip formation. The cutting depth (t o) is also called the chip
thickness before cutting. As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its thickness
30
increases to tc. The chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the chip thickness
(cutting depth) before cutting (to). If the chip thickness or the cutting depth is too large,
the cutting surface and the cutting tool will be damaged.
e) Feed or feed rate and depth of cut: The feed rate is the distance of the tool travel
horizontally per revelation in turning. The depth of cut is the distance that the tool
penetrates the work piece as shown in figure (21.4)

31
3- Cutting conditions:
Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation.
The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed (v). In addition, the tool
must be moved laterally across the work. This is much slower motion called the feed (f).
The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the
original work surface called depth of cut (d). Collectively, speed, feed and depth of cut
are called cutting conditions where
MRR = vfd (21.1)
MRR is the material removal rate (mm3/s), v is the cutting speed (mm/s), f is the feed
(mm) and d is the depth of cut (mm).
Machining operations usually divided into two categories. The first one is roughing cuts
that used to remove large amount of material from the starting work part as rapidly as
possible in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material
on the piece for a subsequent finishing. The second operation is the finishing cuts that
used to complete the part and achieve the final dimensions, tolerance and surface finish.
The major independent variables in the cutting processes are (1) the tool material and its
coating (2) tool shape, surface finishing and sharpness (3) material type and the
conditions of the work part (4) cutting speed, feed and cutting depth (5) the work holding
and fixture. On the other hand, the dependant variables in the cutting processes that
influences by changes in independent variables are (1) Chip production type (2) force and
energy dissipated (3) Temperature of metal, tool and the chip (4) Toll wear failure (5)
Surface finishing of the work part.
4- Actual chip formation
There are four different types of chip formation during the cutting process
a) Discontinuous chip: When relative brittle materials are machined at low cutting speed,
the chips form into separate segment. Also high tool chip friction and large feed and
depth of cut promote the formation of this chip type as shown in figure (21.5a)
b) Continuous chip: When ductile materials are cut at high speed and small feed and
depth, long continuous chips are formed. A good surface finish typically results. A sharp

32
cutting edge on the tool and low tool-friction will form continuous chips as shown in
figure (21.5 b).
c) Continuous chip with built-up edge (BUE): When machining ductile material at low to
medium cutting speed, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work
material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. The formation of a
BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows, then becomes unstable and breaks off as in figure
(21.5 c).
d) Serrated chips (Shear-localized): These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that
they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of
alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain. This type of chips are found
with difficult-to-machine metals as titanium alloys or stainless steel machined at very
high cutting speed as in figure (21.5 d)

21.4 Force analysis in cutting operations

1) Cutting ratio (r)
to
r=
tc (21.2)
Where to, tc are chip thickness before and after the chip formed along the shear plane.
Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the corresponding thickness
before cutting, the chip ration will always be less than 1.0
In addition, the shear angle (ϕ) can be calculated using the following equation
r cos α
tan φ=
1−r sin α (21.3)

33
Where (α) is the rake angle.
2) The shear strain (γ) that occur along the shear plane can be estimated by the following
equation
γ =cot φ+tan(φ−α ) (21.4)
3) Friction angle (β)
The friction angle (β) is related with the friction coefficient (μ) between the tool-chip
interfaces
μ = tan β (21.5)
4) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone
The velocity diagram in the cutting zone is illustrates in figure (21.6). From figure (21.6)
there are three velocities referring to the tool velocity (v) also it is called cutting velocity,
shear velocity (vs) and the chip velocity (vc). These three velocities are related to each
other as in illustrate in the following equation
v vs vc
= =
cos (φ−α ) cos α sin φ (21.6)
t o vc
r= =
tc v (21.7)

5) Force in metal cutting

Several forces can be defined relative to the orthogonal cutting model. Based on these
forces, shear stress, and coefficient of friction can be defined. These forces are the forces
acting on the chip-tool interface, the forces acting on the shear plane and the forces acting
on the tool-work part interface as shown in figure (21.7).

34
The forces acting on the chip during orthogonal cutting in figure (21.7a). The forces
applied against the chip by the tool can be separated into two mutually perpendicular
components: friction force and normal force to friction. The friction force F is the
frictional force resisting the flow of the chip along the rake face of the tool. The normal
force to friction N is perpendicular to the friction force. These two components can be
used to define the coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip.
F
μ= =tan β
N (21.8)
In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are two force components applied
by the work piece on the chip as shown in figure (21.7 a): shear force and normal shear
force. The shear force Fs is the force that cause shear deformation to occur in the shear
plane and the normal shear force Fn is perpendicular to the shear force. Based on the
shear force, the shear stress that act along the shear plane between the work and the chip
is
Fs
τ=
As (21.9)
Where As is the area of the shear plane. This shear plane area can be calculated as
tow
A s=
sin φ (21.10)
Two addition components acting against the tool can be directly measured: cutting force
and thrust force as shown in figure (21.7b). The cutting force Fc is in direction of the
cutting, the same direction as the cutting speed v and the thrust force Ft is perpendicular
to the cutting force and is associated with the chip thickness before the cut to. The force
diagram for the four forces components is shown in figure (21.8).

35
From figure (21.8) the following equations produce a relationship between the four forces

R=√ F 2 + N 2=√ F 2s + F 2n= √ F 2c + F 2t (21.11)

F=F c sin α+ F t cos α (21.12)
N=F c cos α−F t sin α (21.13)
F s =F c cos φ−F t sin φ (21.14)
F n=F c sin φ+ Ft cosφ (21.15)
Example 1

36
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a
rake angle 10o. The chip thickness before the cut is 0.5 mm and the chip thickness after
the cut is 1.125mm. Knowing that the cutting force is 1559 N and the thrust force is 1272
N. The width of the cutting operation is 3 m. Determine the shear strength of the work
metal.
Solution
t 0.5
r= o = =0 . 444
t c 1 .125
r cos α 0 . 444 cos 10
tan φ= = =0 . 4738
1−r sin α 1−0 . 444 sin 10
Φ = 25.4o
F s =F c cos φ−F t sin φ=1559cos 25 . 4−1271sin 25 . 4=863 N
The shear plane area As
tow 0.5 X 3
A s= = =3. 497 mm2
sin φ sin 25. 4
F s 863
τ= = =247 MPa
A s 3 . 497
6) Power and energy relationships in machining
A machining operation required power. The product of cutting force and speed gives
power required to perform a machining operation
Cutting power (Pc) = Fc V (21.16)
Shearing power (Ps) = Fs Vs (21.17)
Friction power (Pf) = F Vc (21.18)
Where Fc , Fs and F are the cutting force, shear force and friction force respectively as
shown in figure (21.8). Also, V, V s and Vc are the cutting velocity, shear velocity and the
chip (friction) velocity respectively see figure (21.6).
Let w is the width of cut, the specific energy (U) is equal to power divided by the
material removal rate MRR where
Specific energy U = Power /MRR (21.19)
The specific energy for cutting (Uc)

37
 Pc F V F
Uc= = c = c
MRR wt o V wt o (21.20)
The specific energy for shearing (Us)
Ps FsVs
U s= =
MRR wt o V (21.21)
The specific energy for friction (Uf)
Pf Ff V f
Uf= =
MRR wt o V (21.22)
The total specific energy (Ut = Uc) where
Ut = Uc = Us + Uf (21.23)
Question 1
In machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake
angle is 10o. The chip thickness before the cut is 0.5 mm and the chip thickness after the
cut is 1.125 mm. The cutting force and the thrust force during the cutting process are
1559 N and 1271 N respectively. The width of the cutting operation is 3 mm and the
cutting velocity is 100m/min. Determine the following
1- Shear and normal shear forces
2- Friction and normal forces
3- Cutting, shear and friction powers
4- Total specific energy, shear specific energy and friction specific energy in (N.m/mm 3)
Answers:
Fs = 862.78 N , Fn = 1817 , F = 1522.7, N = 1314.3 ,
Vs = 102.15 m/min , Vc = Vf = 44.5 m/min
Pc = 155700 N.m/min , Ps = 88133 N.m/min , Pf = 67758.4 N.m/min
Uc = 1.038 N.m/mm3 , Us = 0.5876 N.m/mm3 , Uf = 0.45 N.m/mm3

21.5 Cutting temperature

Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of it (98%) is converted into heat.
This heat can caused temperature to be very high at the tool-chip interface. The
remaining energy (2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip.
38
Cutting temperature are important because high temperature
1- Reduce tool life
2- Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operation
3- Can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions due to thermal expansion of the work
material
The sources of heat during cutting operation are
1- The work done in shearing in the primary shear zone
2- Energy dissipated as friction in too-chip interface
3- Heat generated as the tool rubs the material surface
The mean temperature in orthogonal cutting (Tm) is
1. 2Y f
T m=

( )
0. 33
Vt o
ρc
K (21.24)
or

( )
0. 33
0 . 4 U t Vt o
T m=
ρc K (21.25)
Where Tm is the mean temperature in (oC or oF), Yf is the flow stress (Pa or Psi), ρc is the
volumetric specification heat (m.N/m3oC or in.Ib/in3.oF). K is the thermal diffusion (m2/s
or in2/s), to is the cutting depth and V is the cutting velocity. Ut is the cutting specific
energy (N.m/mm3 or Ib.in/in3)
The mean temperature in turning operation is
T m=V a f b (21.26)
Where V is the cutting velocity, f is the feed, a and b are operation constant depend on the
cutting tool material type. For example for carbide steel tool (a = 0.2, b = 0.125) and for
high-speed steel tool (a = 0.5, b = 0.375)
Example:
Calculate the increase in temperature above ambient temperature of 20 oC. If the specific
energy is equal to 1.038 N.m/mm3, the chip thickness before cutting is 0.5mm and the

39
cutting velocity is 100 m/min. In addition, the volumetric specific heat for the material is
equal to 3(10-3) J/mm3.C and thermal diffusion is 50 (10-6) m2/s
Solution:
The cutting velocity V = 1667 mm/s
Thermal diffusion K = 50 mm2/s

( )
0 . 33
0 . 4(1 . 038) 1667(0 . 5)
T m= =353 o C
3(103 ) 50
Adding this to the ambient temperature, the resulting cutting temperature is 20 + 353 =
373 oC

21.6 Tool life

In the cutting tool shown in figure (21.9) there are three possible modes by which a
cutting tool can fail in machining, these modes are
1- Fracture failure: This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture. Normally occur due to
high local stress at the tip of the tool.
2- Temperature failure: This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for
tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften which leads to plastic
deformation and los of the shape edge.
3- Gradual wear: Gradual wear of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in
cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn and
finally tool failure in manner similar to a temperature failure, for example, sliding the
chip on the tool rake face.

40
21.6.1 Tool wear
1- Flank wear: occur on the flank or relief face of the tool. It results from rubbing
between the newly generated work surface and the flank face adjacent to the cutting edge.
Flank wear is measured by the width of the wear band which called wear land.
2- Crater wear: Consist of a concave section on the rake face of the tool formed by the
action of the chip sliding against the surface, chemical affinity between the tool and the
cutting material and the factors influence the flank wear can influence the crater wear.
High stresses and temperatures characterize the tool-chip contact interface, contributing
to wear action. The crater can be measured wither by its depth or its area. To prevent
crater wear, the tool is coated with titanium alloy or aluminum oxide.
3- Nose wear (edge rounding): rounding the sharp part of the tool tip due to mechanical
and thermal effect. The nose wear dull the tool and effect on the chip formation and
causing rubbing of the tool over the work part.

41
4- Notch wear: occur in the cutting edge at the location corresponding to the original
surface of the work part. It occurs because the original work part surface is harder or
more abrasive than the internal material due to work hardening from cold drawing or
previous machining, sand particles in the surface from casting. As a consequence of the
hard surface, wear is accelerated at this location.
5- Chipping fracture: Small material eat from the tool due to brittle of the tool and
mechanical shock (impact due to interrupted cutting) and thermal fatigue due to cyclic
variation in temperature.
6- Thermal crack: occur always perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool due to
variation of the work part material composition or structure components.
21.6.2 Tool wear mechanisms
The mechanisms that cause wear at the tool-chip and tool-work part interfaces in
machining are
1- Abrasion: This is mechanical wearing action due to hard particles in the work material
gouging and removing small portions of the tool. This abrasive action occurs in both
flank wear and crater wear, it is significant cause of flank wear.
2- Adhesion: When two metals are forced into contact under high pressure and
temperature, adhesion or welding occur between them. These conditions are present
between the chip and the rake face of the tool. As the chip flows across the tool, small
particles of the tool are broken away from the surface, resulting in attrition of the surface.
3- Diffusion: This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes place across a close
contact boundary between two materials. In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the
tool-chip boundary, causing the tool surface to become depleted of the atoms responsible
for its hardness. As this process continues, the tool surface becomes more susceptible to
abrasion and adhesion. Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear.
4- Chemical reactions: The high temperature and clean surface at the tool-chip interface
in machining at high speeds can result in chemical reaction, in particular oxidation on the
rake face of the tool. The oxidized layer being softer than the parent tool material is
sheared away exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.

42
5- Plastic deformation: The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature
cause the edge to deform plastically, making it more vulnerable to abrasion of the tool
surface. Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.
21.6.3 Tool life
Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used. Operating the
tool until final catastrophic failure is one way of defining tool life. This is indicated in
figure (21.10) by the end of each wear curve. However, in production, it is often a
disadvantage to use the tool until this failure occurs because of difficulties in
resharpening the tool and problems with work part quality. As an alternative, a level of
tool wear can be selected as a criterion of tool life and the tool replaced when wear
reaches that level. A convenient tool life criterion is a certain flank wear value such as 0.5
mm illustrated as the horizontal line on the graph. When each of the three wear curves
intersects that line, the life of the corresponding tool is defined as ended. If the
intersection points are projected down to the time axis, the values of tool life can be
identified.
The tool life (T) van be calculated using the following equation
1 −1 −x − y
n n n n
T =C V d f (21.27)
Where C is constant, V is the cutting velocity, d is the cutting depth, f is the feed
(mm/rev), x, y, n are exponent depend on tool and work part whose values are
experimentally determined.

43
44