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The Role of Biomechanics in Understanding

Dance Movement
A Review
Margaret Wilson, Ph.D. , and Young-Hoo Kwon, Ph.D.

Abstract
This review introduces different tech
niques used in biomechanics that have
been used in analyzing dance movement.
Biomechanics provides information not
only for analysis of motion, but for un
derstanding muscle use, forces acting on
the body, issues of motor control, and the
interaction between anyone body part
and the body as a whole. The goal of this
review is to highlight the role that biome
chanical analysis plays in understanding
dance movement, with applications for
teaching, skill enhancement, and injury
prevention.

mponent ofthe emerging field

of dance science, biomechanics
rovides analytical description
and quantification of components of
a given movement, as well as measure
ment of associated forces acting on the
body. In dance biomechanics, a mecha
nistic focus on the body is adopted for
analysis; the dancer's body is viewed as
a collection of rigid segments link ed
at the joints. These joint motions are
the building blocks for investigation;
thus, a ny dance movement can be
divided into component joint motions
for analysis.
Biomechanics observes both kine
matic and kinetic aspects of a dancer's

movemen t . JG n em atics p rovides a

description of motion: h ow far, how
fast, how much change, and what type
of motion is involved. It describes a
dancer's motions and allows the re
searcher to identifY key events in the
performance of a skill. In kinematics,
quantification of component jo int
motions and identification of the
ranges of motion of individu al joints
provides a foundation for understand
ing how these elements contribute to
the dancer's total motion.
Kine tics, on the other hand , focuses
on the ca use-and-effect relationship
seen in movement: the force involved
and the resultant motion . The primary
mechanical quantities in kinetics are
forces and moments (torques) acting
w ithin the body (im ernal) and those
that origina te in the environment
(external). A dancer's environ m e nt
includes anything that is in contact
wich the body: other dancers , train
ing spaces, performance sp aces, and
the footwear in which dancers train
and perform. The internal forces and
mom ents acting on the bones, joints,
m uscles, and other connective tissues
are de te rmi ned by the a mount of
muscle activation required to create the
desired movement or are in response

Margaret Wilson, Ph.D ., is in me Department of Theatre and Dance, University of

Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. Young-Hoo Kwon, Ph.D ., is in the Biomechanics
Laboratory, Texas Woman's University, Denton, Texas.
Correspondence: Margaret Wilson, Ph.D., Department of Theatre and D ance,
University of Wyoming, Dept. 3951, 1000 East Un iversity Avenue, Laram ie,
Wyoming 82071-395 1; [email protected].

. to external forces coming from the

environment. Identifying these internal
and external forces and moments can
lead to a greater understanding of how
movement is produced. In addition,
understanding the intetaction a dancer
has with these factors and the resultant
muscle activation patterns is viral ro
preventing injury and supporting the
development of skilled performance.
Biomechanical analysis of move
ment involves th e use of spec ific
m easuremen t tools. Electromyogra
phy (EMG) , force measurement, and
video motion analysis are employed to
describe m uscular activity, understand
forces acting on the body, and to ob
serve movement of the center of mass
and movement in both segmental and
global meas ures . Employing technol
ogy provides not only for sophisticated
analysis of movement, but also for an
il nderstanding of the componenrs o f
skill, artistry, and expression.
Accord ing co M idgert, biomechan
ics can help "close the gap between
the rea li ty of movement a nd our
understan d ing of it. I Kwo n echoes
this point by advocating for inclusion
of a mechanical perspective in train
ing dancers that addresses issues of
safety and introduces the mechanical
principles of dance movements while
at the same time honoring dance as a
performing arc2
This review highlights early biome
chanical research in dance that laid

rhe foundarion for furrher analysis;

it inrroduces the an alytical ools used

109

110

Volume 12, Number 3,2008 Journal of Dance Med icine 6- Science

in current research and it reviews bio

mechanical studies in dance following
five lines of in ui : understandin
motion, m uscle actio n, ancer-envi
'ffi'riffient interaction, mo;;-r con trol,
and segment motion.

Early Research in Dance

Biomechanics

At the Dance: Verities, Values, Vi

sions: Binational Dance Conference
in Waterloo, O ntario (1971 ), several
papers introducing a biomechanical
perspective fo r dance were presented.
The "Verities" section included an
introduction to electromyography
by Joh n Basmajian and an overview
of neurophysiologic development
of dancers by Douglas Camp belP4
Research in dance biomechanics
conducted in the mid-1970s focused
on descriptive analyses of dance
movements (kinematics). Observing
six grand allegro jumps based on a
frame by frame analysis of 16 mm
film, Ryman identified segmental
Contributions of different body parts
in each jump.5 Hinson conducted a
similar study of tour-jete, and Wiley
analyzed saut de basque using qualita
tive and kinematic data. G.? Filming in
slow motion allowed these researchers
to observe movement in detail and
understand how the body segments
work together to create movement.
Nichols looked at the effect ofwork
ing at the barre on vertical alignment
during plie; Bannister analyzed the
relationship between dance training and
pelvic angle, lwnbar angle, hip mobil
ity, and low back pain; and Ryman and
Ranney observed pelvis and lumbar
spine movement in grand battement
devam .8 - 1o Becker, using forc e plate
technology and cinematographic pro
cedures, recorded kinetic and kinematic
parameters oflandings from jumpS.ll He
found that landing with the leg in exter
nal rotation, a requirement that concen
trates on the enhancement of style and
artistic appearance, did not result in low
impact landings. His recommendation
was that the focus in jwnping should
be on landing as well as preparation, or
take off. Murgia described kinematic
and kinetic variables in three selected

achieved, and amount of time spent in

the air.12
Most of this research was con
ducted as part of graduate degree
work on dancers in university dance
programs. L ater resear ch would
incl ude informatio n gathered from
professional dancers. While most
of the early research involved ballet
dancers, Krasnow identified impor
tant studies using modern dancers.13
Finally, as dance science developed as a
discipline, Ranney's chapter on dance
biomecha.nics in Clarkson and Skri
nar's Science ofDance Training (1988)
became a primer for many educators,
as it clearly described biomechanical
principles in accessible language. 14
Physicist Kenneth Laws applied
his scientific expertise to the analysis
and description of dance movement.
His original text, 1he Physics ofDance,
was published in 1984. 15 Looking at
dance from a biomechanical perspec
tive, Laws' mission was (and still is) to
help dancers understand the physics of
movement as a way of learn in g more
about techniq ue . H e has p ubl ished
numerous articles related to specific
movements in dance. For example,
he has discussed the biomechanics of
using the barre, fouette turn, grand
jete, pirouettes, mom entum transfer
and vertical jumps. 16-21 In 1994 Laws
published Physics, Dance, and the Pas
de Deux, and his most recent book
Physics and the A rt of Dance (2002)
is an expanded version of the 1984
original. 22,23 He has collaborated with
many dancers and researchers, wor k
ing speCifically toward an understand
ing of how the physical properties of
movement can be directly applied to
dance technique.24-28 By introducing
concepts of veloci ry, acceleration,
trajectory, friction, and torque to the
analysis of dance movement, a clearer
understanding of the forces acting on
and in the body is achieved.

Components of Biomechanica1
Analysis
The fi eld of biomechanics uses many
d ifferent techniq u es for ana lysis,
generally classified into three catego
ries; 1. analysis of muscle action, 2.

techn iques can be used in co mbina

tion or employed separately. As many
of the studies cited in thi s review use
o ne or more of these techniques, a
brief explanation of the fundamental
pri ncipl es and applications of each
techniq ue is in order.

Analysis ofMusde Action

Muscle action can be measured by
looking at the electrical activity in the
muscle _Electromyography (EMG) de
tects elecrrical activity elicited by the
muscle cells during contraction, using
either electrodes placed on the surface
of the skin or needles inserted into the
muscles. While the needle technique
provides valuable information about
the state of the neuromuscular system,
it is highly intrusive; therefore, most
electromyographic studies conducted
wi th dancers use surface electrodes.
These electrodes provide in forma
tion regarding the firing patterns of
specific m uscle groups. More recently,
ultrasound imaging has been used to
monitor muscle action, particularly in
the trunk and ankle. 29
Both ultrasound and EMG provide
a broad picture of movement, which
is useful for understanding the muscle
action that produces dance move
m ent. In addition, recent research in
electromyography and motor control
has re vealed muscular minimums ,
that is, low intensity muscular activity
operating in balance with maximal
muscular contractions. This informa
tion confirms that complex human
movement occu rs in a geometri
cally balanced neuromuscular system ,
which provides for both specific and
global phenomena.30 32
Analysis of Forces Acting on the
Body
In any movement, a dancer is mediat
ing different forces acting in and upon
the body: gravity, the weight and ac
celeration oflim bs, and torque created
in the joines . In any vertical excursion
away from, and returning to, the fioo r,
these forces are mul tiplied by incre
ments of the dancer's mass. Ground
reaction force (GRF) measures identify
external forces acting on the body in

dance leaps and identified differences in

analysis ot forces acting on the body,

its interaction with the ground. The

peak angular velocity at the knee, height

an d 3, ana lysis of m otion. T h ese

ground reaction force is measured with

Journal of Dance Medicine 6- Science' Vol ume 12,

the dancer standing or moving on a

force plate and reveals changes in me
dancer's center of mass as wdl as the
forces transmitted to the body through
interaction wim the plate. 33 -41Ground
reaction force data has many applica
tions. For example, it can be used in
modeling, or understand ing, forces
acting on the body; information re
garding stress on individual joints dur
ing movement can be described as net
moments.42.43 G ro un d reaction force
data can be used to understand and ad
dress the effects of the different types of
footwear. surfaces, and environmen ts
dancers train on and in.44 Finally, GRF
data provides in formation on force s
generated in me body by movements,
such as jumping, to better understand
and help prevent unnecessary injuries
in dance training.35,37
New technological advances furmer
both biomechanical research and an
understand ing of dance movement.
For example, Srinivasan and colleagues
have designed a pressure-sensing floor
constructed from modular mats that
are easily configured to different sized
spaces. The real-time data generated by
this system provides information about
the amou nt and distribution of force
being exerted on the floor mat can be
integrated with other external systems
in motion analysis and EMG.45
Analysis of Motion
Three-dimensional (3D) video mo
tion analysis is an effective tool for
understanding co m plex movement.
It allows th e research er, dance teacher,
and dancer to look at mov-emen[ in a
modeled form , yet also reveals precise
details that are not available to the
unaided eye. The visual information is
quantified with regard to general and
specific body position, joint angles,
accelerations, and u ajectories. M o
tion analysis p rovides a me ans for
understanding movem nt at any body
scale or time scale, and this informa
tion can be used to identifY skill and
efficiency or risk and inefficiency. The
data generated can be applied to un
derstanding and enh anci ng teaching,
learning, and performance.
Three-dimensional motion capture
uses m ultiple cameras (2 to Gor more)
that are lin ked with direct output to

m arker tracki ng software. Ie locates

the dancer in a general r ference frame,
but also identifies specific reference
frames for analysis of individual body
segmen ts. For example, a glo bal refer
ence frame determines movement of
the body in space, whereas m ovem em
of a particular part of the body, relative
to me whole body, is identified through
a local reference frame. The kinematic
data gathered in this way can be com
bined with inertial data an d integrated
with EMG, body segment modeling,
or GRF data for a more com prehensive
understanding of movement .
Data from motion analysis is
developed quantitatively, but is also
converted into visual representation
of the body in a modeled form: a stick
fig ure that can be viewed from any
angle. Both the quantitative data and
pictorial represemation provide insight
fo r the researcher. H owever, the model
speCifically simplifies the movem ent
to reveal key components for analysis.
M otion analysis has been used to re
veal patterns of efficiency and skilled
performance in arabesque,46.47 rond de
jambe,43.4 8 grand battement paSSe ,49'51
and port de bras.52

Understanding Motion: Grand

Plie
D ance training is characterized by the
use of repeated motions. U nderstand
ing the pattern of recruitment of the
muscles used, as well as practicing
good mechanical execution of these
motions, not only increases skill but
also mi nimizes the potential for in
jury. One of the most controversial
movements in a dancer's vocabulary
is grand plie; grand plie has been the
su bject of biomechanical an alysis to
determine the net balance between
posit ive attri b utes of the movement
and poss ible negative consequences.
Plie and grand plie have been stud
ied from a biomechanical perspective
to understand the forces ac ting on
the body, particularly at the joints,
and identifY risk potential . One of
the first studies to look at the impact
of perform ing grand plie was con
ducted by W oodruff, who observed
angular disp lacement of the center of
gravity duri ng a dancer's execution of
the movement. Noting the potential

um ber 3, 2008

11 1

for injury to the knee, she made the

recommendation to limit repetitions
in second position.53
Trep man and colleag ues , usin g
EMG analysis, identifi ed variation
in patterns of muscle use related to
different training modali ties (ballet
and m odern). In a follow-up study,
ballet dancers exhibited lower patel
lofemoral joint reaction force at the
deepest pan of a grand plie than d id
modern d ancers . T he investigators
concluded that the ballet barre dis
places some of the force at the knee for
the ballet dancers, whereas the greater
quadriceps strength in the mod ern
dancers increased the patellofemoral
forces and put them at greater risk for
. injury, particularly if they performed
the grand plie without being properly
warmed up.54.55
Barnes looked at external longi
tu di n al rotation (ELR) in d an cers
executing grand plie in all five ballet
positions and concluded that while
ELR always increased at the dep th
of the p Ue it was greatest in third
and fourth positions. 56 Barnes noted
mat grand pUe is more dangerous to
the knees than d emi-plie because it
increases patella r compression and
comprom ises knee joint stab ility. Fo r
th is reason she recommended caution
when executing repeated grand plies.
W hile m any ed ucators feel th at
grand plie is potentially dangerous, it
remains a vital part of a dancer's vocab
ulary. Using biomechanical analysis, a
more comprehensive understanding
of grand plie has been generated.
TIle results of the research conducted
have confirmed the importance of
grand plie for developing srrength in
a dancer. Specifi cally, o bserving the
freq uency and scheduling of grand
plie within me dance class can provide
maximum benefit from the movement
without crea ting un balanced pressure
in the patellofemoral joint.

Muscle Actions: Releve

Part of any dancer's repertoire is the
releve: rising to demi-pointe or full
pointe. This action can be described
as a sec ond-class lever, whe re the
weigh t of the body is being moved at a
fulcrum (the an kle) by the muscles of
the lower leg and foot. Unders tand ing

112

Volume 12, Number 3, 2008 Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

the muscle activity in this movement

may co ntribute to an appreciation of
how best to increase effectiveness and
minimize the risk for injury in train
ing dancers.
Researchers have focused on mus
cular activi' in rising to demi-pointe
and point( or releve . Yoshida and
associates k Jked at EM G activity in
the triceps surae, comparing dance
students and non-dancers. 57They iden
tified a training effect in the dancers
revealed as a delayed onset of fatigue
in a heel-rise (releve) test. Masso and
colleagues found variation in muscle
activiry in different positions of th n
legs (parallel vs. external rotation).' I
Distinct patterns were seen in the
gastrocnemius and peroneous longus
firing relative to pronation in the foot.
Specifically, they identified low activ
ity in the abductor haUucis muscle as
a risk factor for injury. Kadel observed
differences in muscular responses to
different positions and conditions en
pointe using electromyography. 59 She
identified the gastrocnemius as the key
muscle in achieving demi-pointe and
the soleus as the key muscle used in
going en poin teo
Lin and coworkers studied differen t
joint moments between the dominant
and n on-dominant ankles in re/eve en
pointe, CI rrelating the significant dif
ferences Jetween sides with injury.4 !
They found a higher peak moment in
releve for the dominanr leg, indicating
that it was more skilled at controlling
the ankle, while the non-dominant leg
had a po orer reaction to rapid move
ments in particular.
The information from each of these
srudies is useful to dance educators in
terms of understanding how to pre
pare a dancer for work on dem i-pointe
and pointe. Whereas dance training is
often considered a means unto itself,
identifying areas for focused trainin g
is useful in promoting skilled perfor
mance and preventi ng injury.

on jumping. Simpson and colleagues

published a series of articles on inter
nal joint moment forces in landing
from a jump.3 5.37 Greater patello
femo ral forces were seen wi th longer
jump displacements due to increased
eccentric forces. In add ition, these
investigators found th at increased
quadriceps force contributed to axial
forces more than joint reaction axial
forces. For example, as . he jump dis
tance increased, so did r Ie shear forces
at the ankle, kn ee, a d quadriceps
muscle group; in fact, ~he quadriceps
shear force exceeded the knee joint
force. It has been pointed out that
this exc~ssive use of the quadriceps
relat ive to underutilized posterior leg
musculature is an "arypical impact
force" that might be a predisposing
factor for injury.
D ance is characterized by spectacu
lar jumps and leaps, wi th seem ingly
effortless landings. O fte n the jump
is used fo r musical or aesthetic affect,
or to h ighlight the ath leticism of the
dancer. M easuring and q uantifying
forces acting o n the body thro ugh
biomechanical research has led ro a
greater understanding of the need
to clarify information regarding the
take off phase and landi ng of jumps,
identify m uscle imbalances that are
risk facto rs for injury, and train danc
ers to jump as a function of the whole
body.
Footwear

Biomechan~search has illumi

nated forces acting on the body in

Dancers interact with unique foot

wear, depending on the dance fo rm .
The un iq ue ness of a dancer's shoe
requires a very specific form of analy
sis, which biomechanical tools can
provide. The shoe design for many
genres of dance follows an aesthetic
principle rath er than a functional
one; therefore, understanding the re
lationship between dancers and their
footwear is an important area ofstudy
in dance biomechanics.
T he po inte shoe worn in ballet
has received the most attention. Th is
footwear must be supportive and
pliable, yet the dancer's foot absorbs
large forces when en poi nre. Teitz
and associates used transducers to

dancer-envi ro nment in teraction s.

look at pressures in pointe shoes on

Most not bly, the research has focused

the first and fifth metatarsals, and as

Dancer-Environment
Interactions
Forces in Jumping

a result they recommended the use

of padding ro diStribute these forces
througho ut th e whole foo r. 60 G alea
found high muscle forces en pointe,
which, she warned, could lead to
structural changes and pro blems in a
dancer's feet and an kles. 6 ! Albers and
coworkers recorded peak pressures
in pointe shoes for releve and eleve,
and recommen ded minimizing use
of the pointe shoe in training. G2 Doni
and Winters found pressures on the
metatarsophalangeal joints in ballet
dancers en pointe, determi ning that
the work load on the in trinsic muscles
of the foot was 2.5 to 3 times greater
than for the extrinsic muscles.43
Miller and colleagues and C un
ningham and associates, looking more
specifically at the pointe hoe design
and construction, found differences
berween shoe manufacturers for stiff
ness, strength , and fatigue .G4 65 How
ever, M iller and colleagues' conclusion
was that dancers select the shoe that
best sui ts their individual needs fo r fi t
and shape, not based on whether it is
the strongest or most durable option
available.
Dance forms featuring a stiff soled
shoe, such as flamenco and tap, have
also been the subject of biomechani
cal investigation. O f unique interest
in fl amenco and tap is the percussive
and auditory requirement for the feet.
While much of the research on these
forms has looked at injury profiles,
Voloshin and Bejjani analyzed the stress
of flamenco dancing on the body and
examined the use of insoles for shock
absorption in injury prevention. 44 GG
Wilmerding and coworkers used mo
tion analysis (0 explore postural adapta
tions in young dancers wearing heeled
footwear in flamenco dance, no ting
that children who dance in a heeled
shoe might be at greater risk fo r inj ury
because of the changes in posture as
sociated wi th persistent plantar flexion.
The recommendation from this study
was that increasing core strength and
lower exuemity flexibility, as well as
develo ping postural awareness and
proprioception, was important for
preparing young dancers for the rigors
of flamenco training 67
Looking at tap dancers in a retro
sp~ctive study, M ayers and Bronner

Jo urnal of Dance Medicine & Science

found a relatively low rate of stress
related injury.68 Based on this infor
mation, these investigators examined
ground reaction and lower extremity
forces, finding low vertical component
(Fz) values in professional tap danc
ers. They concluded that the amount
of force used contributed pri marily
to creating the sound required in the
dance form and had relatively little
influence on stress-related injury. 69
Force pl ates, electromyog raphy,
pressure transducers, and mo ti on
analysis are biomechanical tools that
have been used to understand the
effect that a dancer's footwear has on
the foot and leg. In addition, the effect
of the interaction of the foot and shoe
on the rest of a dancer's body h as been
studied. As dance shoes are not nec
essarily designed to rr,r:et functional
specifications, but rather address an
aesthetic requirement, understan d
ing how to work with footwear in
enabling dancers to perform safely is
of utmost importance.

Motor Control
lssues of balance and counterbal
ancing maneuvers are of interest in
understanding strategies that dancers
use in performing particular m ove
ments. Video analysis and ground
reaction force technology have al
lowed researchers to understand subtle
panerns in a dancer's movement
profile relating to body orientation
and balance. It is clear that balancing
strategies consritute an intrinsic skill
that dancers develop, but they shed
more light on the neuronal and reflex
adjustments that accompany dance
training in general than on a specific
movem ent.
M o uchnino and colleagues found
that dancers' training established mo
tor programs that allowed them to
maintain vertical orientation of the
head using a counter-rotational trans
lation strategy of the trunk, pivoting
around the hip joint, to compensate
for the movement of the leg. 70 Mon
asterio looked at postural adjustments
made in voluntary leg m ovements
relative co postural muscle recruit
ment prior to the leg motion, and
M ouchnino and colleagues looked at
spine m otion duri ng leg movem ent

an d fo und different strategies for fa

cUitating movement of the leg to the
side using the tru nk for baiancing.7I.72
More recen d y, Ojofei t imi studied
lateral disp lacement of the center of
pressure (CP), revealing that skilled
dancers maintained m ore vert ical
trunk alignment than beginners dur
ing a weight shift task. 73 She equated
the ability to understand the effects
of dance training with understand
ing rehabilitation for balance-related
problems in general .
Another compone n t o f motor
control has to do with muscle recruit
ment. Electromyography documents
patterns of muscular re cru itment
that illuminate an individual d ancer's
strategy for performing movement.
These individual patterns of m uscle
recruitm ent often demonstrare vari
abil ity between dancers perform ing
the same <,,:tion. In fact , m ost of th e
studies reviewed imro lvi ng EMG
data showed vari a b ili ty between
su bj ects.l0.32.54,55.57.71 .74.77.79,80 R ather
than viewing thi s vari ability as a
limitatio n o f the research modality,
Chatfield states that it is important in
understanding dancers' p erform ance
patterns. 7S Even for a h ighly skilled
performer, no two perfo rmances are
exactly the same. Observing multiple
trials for the same individual over
cirr.e generates information regard
ing neuromuscular activi ty that can
be used to illustrate the consistencies
and irregularities in the performance.
Therefore, variability is a useful mea
sure of learning. Observing this vari
ability rep'r esents a shift away fro m a
behavioral approach to understanding
movement to one in whi ch control of
joint coordination is the measure of
the dancer's ability to adapt to chang
ing conditions or events. 82.84
Dance is characterized by gesturing
in the limbs, necessitating prepara
tion in the spine and compensation
in the corso. This core control helps
create the illusion of effortless action
in a dancer. While dancers, teachers,
and researchers know this intuitively,
these stud ies provide so und evidence
for und e rs tanding th e neuromo
tor ad ap tations that are an imegral
part of dance traini ng. In add ition,
understa nding that each individual

lolume 12, Number 3,2008

113

dancer has a unique pattern of muscle

recruitment in the perfo rmance of any
given movem ent is crucial in train in g
dancers. T e movem ent m ay appear
co be the s. ,n e, bue the subtle internal
choreograph y of the m uscles m oving
the bones is as distinctive as the indi
vidual dancer.

Segment and Joint Motions

O ften biomechanical research has
focused on the interplay between joint
motion and whole body m ovement.
Th is app roach reveals th e effect that
movement in one seglT'ent of the body
has on other joints, nd movement
as a whole. It has bel 1 employed to
assess rehabilitation s~ai:US , as well as
to develop baseli ne data on healthy
dancers. In the first case, Bronner
and coworkers used two-dimensio nal
mo tion analysis to study dancers w ith
repairedACL knees, noting that an in
jury to a single joint can affect changes
in the body in both the involved and
uninvolved extremities, and O jo
feiti rni addressed the use of motion
analysis and COP measures for evalu
ating balance in rehabilitation. 47,5 1,52,73
In the latter case, research has focused
on understanding the effect that one
limb executing specific components
of a movement has on the body as a
whole. Many researchers have looked
at the grand jete to understa! ld how
the center of mass moves, and h ow
dancers can create a floating illusion
by raising thei r arms and legs in mid
jump.1. 18,2 1,25
Research focused on action of the
ges tu re leg in movemen ts re'(i u ir
in g large range of motion discusses
the effect [his move ment has on a
dancer's spine and pelvis. Feipel and
associates used th ree-dimension al
kinematics to observe lumbar spi ne
displacement relative to low back
pain in arabesque, developpe a la sec
onde, and pied-e n-main (foot in the
hand)Y They fou nd that lower li m b
elevati on was facilitated more by h ip
flexib ili ty than lumbar accommoda
tio n . Wilson and coworkers, looking
at gesture leg-pelvis interacrion, found
that skilled dan cers had greater range

of motion in the pelvis accompanying

the range of motion fo r (he gesturing
leg than dld less skilled dancers.48 A

I 14

Volume 12, Number 3, 2008 ]ournal of Dance Medicine & Science

follow- up srudy investigated the role

of the pelvis in facititating gesrure
leg motion and the related "cost" of
the muscles involved. 43 Each of these
srudies provides information to clarifY
interactions between the gesture leg,
the pelvis, and the lumbar spine in
facilitating [he extreme ranges of mo
tion in movements charactep::;tic of
dance.
Dance also provides examples of
segment-whole body interactions rela
tive to the environment. Wilmerding
and colleagues, using e1ectrom yog
raphy, id entified different muscular
responses in the supporting leg for
developpe devant at the barre and
in the center floor'?? She found that
the use of the barre diminished the
use of the supporting leg lower limb
musculature. The use of the barre has
a very specific role in educating the
dancer as to movement components
involved in a given action, but limits
the development of the muscles in the
sup porting leg necessary for center
floor work. Poggini studied young
novice dancers and noted the need
for additional jump training to help
them maintain proper body position
in the air. 7B
Finally, biomechanical research
has also provided information on
distinguishing components that dif
ferentiate skill levels in groups of
dancers. 48 ,85,86 Discrete adaptations in
a skilled performance may be subtle
enough to escape o bservation and
definition . Understanding small shifts
in weight, anticipatory movements,
and counter-movements adds to an
understanding of excellence in dance
performance. Biomechanical analysis
can illumin ate these differences and
quantifY the minute changes that
distinguish a skilled from a highly
skilled dancer.

Summary
D ance has often been described as
both an artistic and athletic pursuit.
Biomechanical analysis can identifY
and quantifY elements of physical
skills, but also contributes to an un
derstanding of the artistry of dance.
Specifically, biomechanical analysis

helps us understand a dancer's body in

terms of mechanical motion, quanti

fi es restrictions and ranges of motion
for individual joint segments, looks at
forces generated in the body, and mea
sures external forces affecting dancers
in their interac tions wi th the environ
ment. Biomechanics can measure the
effect that a particular environment
or adaptation has on a dancer's body,
w hich is key to preventing injury and
su pporting the development of skilled
performance of movement .
O bservation and quantification of
the variables of performance through
biomechanical analysis en hances our
understandi ng of dance movements
and skills and has applications to art
isuy, pedagogy, and further research.
Usin g technology to a ug ment the
trained eye of the teacher and the in
nate understanding that dancers have
of their bodies, biomechanical analysis
has illuminated many in tricacies of
discreet movements, often invisible in
the real-time execution of the m ove
ment . Without red ucing skill to a n u
merical formula or graphed pattern,
expert performance can clearly be seen
and described using biomechan ical
tools. Both quantitative and descrip
tive d ata are generated, which provide
rich detail of a given movement.
Adjusting the scale of focus to
include both full body and specific
joint angle p arameters, lo oking at
timing and interactions with the en
vironment, including contact forces
w ith other d ancers (as in co ntact
improvisation), further investigations
in dance science technology-electro
myography, ground reaction forces,
and motion analysiS-Wi ll further not
only the field of biomechanics, but the
field of dance.

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88

THE

TRUNK

The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration. It is shaped like a hrge dome at the in ferior
end of the thoracic cage, and divides the rhorax from the abdomen. The right side of the dome
is slightly higher than the left because of the presence of rite liver just below it. T he level of the
top of the dome varies from the 4th intercostal space (during expiratio n) [Q the 6th intercostal
space (during inspi ration).

cmtral tendon

Unlike any other mllse!

structure, but on its ow
and shaped somewhat I
the diaphragm is pierce.
descending aorta.
The muscular porr ion 0
tendon. The sternal ori,I
surfaces of ribs 7- 12 all(
transversus abdominis n
from th e bodies of L [ -L
ligaments. T he single m
over the abdominal e /ltf
body of L1 to its tranvel
arcua te ligaments extenc
tus lumborum muscle.
The j nfe rior surface of t
contracting. the diaphra!

(in piration). When [he

decreases, and air is expe

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