652642

case-report2016

HICXXX10.1177/2324709616652642Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case ReportsUgas et al

Case Report

Salmonella TyphiInduced Septic Shock

and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
in a Previously Healthy Teenage Patient
Treated With High-Dose Dexamethasone

Journal of Investigative Medicine High

Impact Case Reports
April-June 2016: 15
2016 American Federation for
Medical Research
DOI: 10.1177/2324709616652642
hic.sagepub.com

Melissa Brosset Ugas, MD1, Timothy Carroll, MD1,

Lacey Kovar, MPH2, and Susana Chavez-Bueno, MD1

Abstract
Typhoid fever is commonly characterized by fever and abdominal pain. Rare complications include intestinal hemorrhage,
bowel perforation, delirium, obtundation, and septic shock. Herein we describe the case of a previously healthy 16-yearold male without history of travel, diagnosed with typhoid fever complicated by septic shock and acute respiratory
distress syndrome treated with high-dose dexamethasone. This case details severe complications of typhoid fever that are
uncommonly seen in developed countries, and the successful response to high-dose dexamethasone as adjunct therapy.
High-dose dexamethasone treatment has reportedly decreased Salmonella Typhi mortality, but controlled studies specifically
performed in children are lacking, and most reports of its use are over 30 years old and all have originated in developing
countries. Providers should include Salmonella Typhi in the differential diagnosis of the pediatric patient with fever, severe
abdominal pain, and enteritis, and be aware of its potentially severe complications and the limited data on safety and efficacy
of adjunctive therapies that can be considered in addition to antibiotics.
Keywords
typhoid fever, septic shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome, dexamethasone

Introduction
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi)
causes typhoid fever (TF), a disease that is common in
areas with poor sanitation and lack of access to safe food
and water.1 Approximately 27 million cases of TF are estimated to occur annually worldwide, and in highly endemic
areas, infection is more common in infants and preschool
children than in older individuals.2 Salmonella Typhi is
transmitted via the oral-fecal route, and after ingestion of
the pathogen, a 7- to 14-day asymptomatic period of incubation ensues. Thereafter, fever is the most common
symptom. Patients can also have influenza-like symptoms, malaise, and many will experience diarrhea. If
untreated, complications such as gastrointestinal bleeding, intestinal perforation, and typhoid encephalopathy
can occur, which are closely associated with increased
mortality.3 Other severe complications such as septic
shock or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
have been recorded but are uncommon. Mortality in many
developing countries in the absence of treatment ranges
between 12% and 30%.4 In the United States, TF is rare,
and it is reported mostly among travelers.4 Mortality rates

are low in the United States, and it is estimated to occur in

<0.1% of diagnosed cases.5
In this report, we present the case of a 16-year-old male US
resident with no history of travel abroad, who developed
uncommon life-threatening complications of TF, and
responded to a high-dose dexamethasone regimen that is
rarely prescribed in the pediatric population.

Case Report
A previously healthy 16-year-old male was admitted with a
2-day history of abdominal pain, melanotic diarrhea, and
1

University of Oklahoma Health Science Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA

Acute Disease Service of the Oklahoma State Department of Health,
Oklahoma City, OK, USA
2

Received April 4, 2016. Revised April 28, 2016. Accepted May 10, 2016.
Corresponding Author:
Susana Chavez-Bueno, MD, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences
Center, Department of Pediatrics, Section of Infectious Disease, 1200
Childrens Ave, Suite 12230, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
Email: [email protected]

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fever. On admission, the patient was ill appearing, showed

moderate signs of dehydration, and had diffuse abdominal
tenderness to palpation. He was tachycardic, but well perfused. The patient had blood and stool cultures performed, he
received intravenous (IV) fluids, and was admitted to the
general pediatric inpatient service.
Within 12 hours of admission, his blood cultures grew a
Gram-negative rod, and the patient was initiated empirically
on IV ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin. On hospital day 1, he
developed hypoxia and hypotension that responded initially
to fluid resuscitation and supplemental oxygen. However, his
respiratory status worsened and he was transferred to the
pediatric intensive care unit. The blood culture isolate was
confirmed as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella
Typhi) by the MicroScan WalkAway plus System (Siemens
Medical Solutions USA, Inc, Malvern, PA). Antibiotic susceptibilities performed with the TREK Sensititre GN4F Gram
negative MIC Plate (TREK Diagnostic Systems/Thermo
Scientific; Oakwood Village, OH) showed that the isolate
was susceptible to ampicillin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), ceftriaxone, azithromycin, and ciprofloxacin. Other laboratory studies revealed a white blood cell count
of 3.2 109/L, thrombocytopenia with platelets 78 109/L,
and low fibrinogen of 146 mg/dL. Physical exam showed diffuse lung crackles and a distended, tender abdomen without
organomegaly. He did not have peripheral edema or rash.
On hospital day 2, he developed fulminant ARDS with
severe hypoxemia and diffuse bilateral infiltrates on chest
radiograph. The patient was started on noninvasive positivepressure ventilation, but despite this intervention his clinical
status worsened over the course of 6 hours, and he required
endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. He
developed hypotension that was not responsive to extensive
fluid resuscitation, and he required vasopressor medication
for 24 hours. His renal function remained stable throughout
his illness.
During his pediatric intensive care unit stay, serial chest
radiographs showed worsening pulmonary edema and pulmonary infiltrates bilaterally. Due to his clinical deterioration, TMP/SMX IV was added to his antibiotic regimen with
the goal to improve intracellular bacterial killing. Blood cultures became negative within 24 hours of beginning antibiotic therapy, and he became afebrile for the remainder of his
hospitalization.
On hospital day 4, the patient required increased mechanical ventilatory support with higher inspiratory pressures and
greater FiO2, and inhaled nitric oxide was started to maintain
normal ventilation and oxygenation due to severe ARDS. He
developed bilateral transudative pleural effusions that were
more severe on the right hemithorax (Figure 1A). An echocardiogram showed normal left ventricular function but elevated
pulmonary artery pressures. He required placement of a thoracostomy tube, which was removed after 36 hours. Pleural fluid
was sent for culture, and was determined to be sterile.
Ciprofloxacin was stopped, and TMP/SMX and ceftriaxone

Figure 1. Contrasted computer tomography images of the

chest and abdomen demonstrating: (A) large right-sided and
small left-sided pleural effusion (arrows), and bilateral confluent/
fluffy airspace opacities concerning for ARDS and (B) bowel wall
thickening and diffuse ascites without intraperitoneal free air or
measurable lymphadenopathy.

were continued to provide broad coverage for possible nosocomial pathogens in addition to Salmonella Typhi infection.
On hospital day 5, the patient developed a rigid abdomen.
Contrasted abdominal computed tomography revealed thickened bowel wall with ileal enteritis and severe ascites, but no
perforation (Figure 1B). Pediatric surgical consultation was
obtained, and no surgical intervention was indicated. He
required aggressive diuresis to treat his ARDS, ascites, and
pleural effusions. The patient continued to require maximum
respiratory support and was not able to be weaned off
mechanical ventilation.
Bright red blood was noticed in his nasogastric tube,
which was concerning for worsening enteritis since his
coagulopathy had already resolved. Due to a lack of overall clinical improvement, he was started on high-dose
dexamethasone at an initial dose of 3 mg/kg, followed by
1 mg/kg every 6 hours for a total of 48 hours.6 Due to the
high-dose steroid therapy, a proton pump inhibitor was
added to his regimen to prevent gastrointestinal tract
bleeding. The patient clinically improved after completing
steroid therapy, and he was successfully extubated on

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Ugas et al

Figure 2. Pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) image of 16 representative Salmonella Typhi isolates from Oklahoman cases including
the patient described in this case report (highlighted by the arrow). Digests shown were performed with XbaI as the primary restriction
endonuclease. PFGE was completed and dendrograms were generated by the Oklahoma State Department of Health Public Health
Laboratory.

hospital day 10. TMP/SMX was stopped after 6 days of

therapy. He completed a 2-week course of ceftriaxone, followed by a week of oral amoxicillin for a total 21 days of
antibiotic therapy. He remained in the hospital for a total of
17 days, and he was discharged to his home in good
condition.

Discussion
The clinical features of enteric fever caused by Salmonella
Typhi vary between geographic regions, but most patients
present with influenza-like illness associated with diarrhea
and fever, and the majority of patients have a benign course.
Humans are the only known reservoir of Salmonella Typhi,
and transmission is mainly fecal-oral through contaminated
foods. Typhoid fever is a reportable disease in the United
States, where approximately 400 cases are reported yearly,
including 80% in travelers from Southern Asia.4 In addition
to being a rare disease in this country, severe cases are almost

unheard of, and mortality is reported in some studies as

zero.7
This case was part of an outbreak of 38 cases of Salmonella
Typhi investigated by the epidemiologists of the Acute
Disease Service of the Oklahoma State Department of Health
in Northwestern Oklahoma (NW OK). The outbreak included
23 Oklahomans with culture-confirmed Salmonella Typhi,
which had an indistinguishable pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) pattern (Figure 2). Thirteen outbreak-related
cases from NW OK had clinical symptoms consistent with
Salmonella Typhi, and contact to one or more of the confirmed case(s). Two cases in Iowa residents had Salmonella
Typhi isolates with indistinguishable PFGE patterns to those
from OK cases, and reported travel to NW OK and contact
with case families during their incubation period. All
Oklahoma cases denied travel away from NW OK during the
incubation period, but reported multiple large gatherings that
occurred during this time frame. Some of these gatherings
were attended by individuals that traveled from outside the

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Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case Reports

United States; our patient attended at least 2 of these community gatherings.

Given the fact that TF is uncommon in the United States,
a high index of suspicion is needed for early diagnosis. Blood
cultures are the gold standard for diagnosis, although they
are positive in only 50% of patients.4 Life-threatening complications of TF generally occur after 2 to 3 weeks of illness
and may include intestinal hemorrhage or perforation. A fulminant onset of TF manifested by septic shock may occur but
is unusual. The main treatment for TF is early antibiotic
therapy, which reduces the risk of mortality significantly.
Empiric treatment of TF with ceftriaxone or a fluoroquinolone is recommended.6 Our patient received broad-spectrum
antibiotics initially, but these were then tailored once susceptibilities were available and he demonstrated clinical
improvement. Adjunctive therapies such as corticosteroids,
in addition to antibiotics, are not standard of care particularly
in uncomplicated cases. However, despite broad antibiotic
coverage, our patients clinical status deteriorated and he
developed septic shock and ARDS.
There are no recent reports of ARDS in children with
severe TF in the United States, nor on the use of high-dose
dexamethasone therapy for life-threatening complications
such as this, in pediatric patients in developed countries.
Reports of ARDS associated with Salmonella Typhi infection have been published in adults, but it is described as a
rare TF complication in this population.8-12 ARDS is defined
by acute onset of respiratory symptoms, a chest radiograph
with bilateral infiltrates, and a PaO2/FiO2 ratio <300 mm Hg
(severe hypoxemia), all of which must not be fully explained
by cardiac failure or fluid overload.13,14 Our patient metall
these criteria as his clinical status deteriorated. His hypovolemic shock responded to fluid resuscitation and vasopressors; however, the severity of his ARDS required multiple
therapies including high levels of respiratory support to
maintain adequate oxygenation.
Our patients clinical deterioration prompted the consideration of high-dose dexamethasone as adjunctive therapy.
Although corticosteroids have shown improvement in organ
function score, lung injury score, and oxygenation in adults with
ARDS, treatment with corticosteroids is still controversial, and
their use for this indication in children is not routinely recommended.15,16 Despite these data, dexamethasone was administered in this case, after careful consideration of the available
evidence that support the use of high-dose steroids in TF.
A randomized trial of high-dose dexamethasone (11 mg/
kg in 48 hours) or placebo was performed in patients with TF
and sepsis.17 This study was performed in 1984 in Jakarta,
and included children as well as adults (11 out of the 38
patients studied were under the age of 14 years). All patients
were treated with chloramphenicol. The case-fatality rate of
10% in the dexamethasone group (n = 20) was significantly
lower than the fatality rate of 55.6% in the placebo group (n
= 18), with a P value of .003. A subsequent study from the
same group included 15 additional children with severe TF

that received dexamethasone in a nonrandomized fashion.

These 2 studies did not show significantly decreased mortality specifically in children who received dexamethasone versus those who did not.18 No other recent reports are available
that include new data about the use of dexamethasone at such
high dose to treat severely ill children with TF. These data
are over 30 years old, and this regimen has not been redemonstrated as effective for adults or children in any recent or
updated trials in the United States. However, high-dose
dexamethasone is still recommended by the American
Academy of Pediatrics only in patients that are critically ill
due to Salmonella Typhi despite being on appropriate antibiotic coverage.6 It is postulated that dexamethasone acts as an
antioxidant resulting in reduced fatalities, but the exact
mechanism of action is not fully understood, nor the safety
profile of this regimen.19
Our patient received high dose of steroids as specific
treatment for complications of severe TF; this is a much
higher dose and shorter course than previously studied for
ARDS, or for any other acute or severe pathology. Typhoid
fever is the only infection where a dose this high is recommended. Given the short duration of therapy, tapering of
the dexamethasone regimen was not prescribed. We saw no
significant complications with this therapy, and the patient
continued to improve clinically soon after steroids were
started.
Dexamethasone is unnecessary for most patients with
TF but is still recommended for those who are delirious,
obtunded, stuporous, comatose, or in shock, for whom this
intervention may be life-saving.6 This case illustrates the
importance of considering TF in the differential diagnosis
of patients with fever, abdominal pain, and constitutional
symptoms, regardless of their travel history. We also show
that despite appropriate antimicrobial therapy, severe complications of TF can ensue. In addition, our case demonstrates a favorable response to high-dose dexamethasone
in a pediatric patient with severe septic shock and ARDS
due to TF, treated in the United States where many physicians are unfamiliar with the use of this medication at such
high dose in children. We recognize that despite this
encouraging outcome, the safety and efficacy of this
adjunct therapeutic intervention in developed countries is
unknown.
In conclusion, TF is rare in the United States, and its
potential life-threatening complications are extremely
uncommon in children living in developed countries. Despite
the limited data on safety and efficacy, high-dose dexamethasone should be considered as adjunctive therapy in severe
cases of TF in pediatric patients, after careful consideration
of benefits against the risks.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Mark L. Lang (PhD) for his suggestions to the manuscript.

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Ugas et al
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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