5 Vector Valued Functions

31
Lecture 5
5.1
Vector-Valued Functions
Vector-Valued Functions and Their Graphs.
The function y = f (x) assigns to each x from the domain D R a real value y from
the codomain B R, and hence it is a real-valued function. The equation of a line
in 2-space has the form
x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb,
which can also be written in vector form
~r = ~r0 + t~v ,
where ~r = hx, yi, ~r0 = hx0 , y0 i, ~v = ha, bi.
We can regard ~r = ~r0 +t~v as a function which assigns to each t a vector ~r = ~r0 +t~v .
Thus we have a vector-valued function here.
In general, a vector-valued function in 2-space has the form
~r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i = x(t)~i + y(t)~j,
in 3-space, a vector-valued function has the form
~r(t) = hx(t), y(t), z(t)i = x(t)~i + y(t)~j + z(t)~k.
The real-valued functions x(t), y(t) and z(t) are called the components of ~r(t).
Clearly ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j + z(t)~k is equivalent to
x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t).
We call this later system of equations the parametric form of the vector-valued
function ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j + z(t)~k.
Let ~r(t) be a vector-valued function in 2-space or 3-space defined on some closed
interval [a, b]. Then the range of ~r describes a curve C, which we call the graph of
~r(t), or the graph of the equation ~r = ~r(t). It might be helpful to visualise a vector
function as the trajectory of a point moving in space in dependence of time t.
Clearly C has the parametric equation
x = x(t),
y = y(t)
x = x(t),
y = y(t),
(in 2-space)
z = z(t)
(in 3-space).
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5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives
Example 1. Describe the graph of the function

~r(t) = cos t~i + sin t ~j, 0 t 2.
Solution: The equation has the parametric form
x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 t 2
which is just the parametric equation for the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1. Thus the graph
is the unit circle.
2
Example 2. Describe the graph of the vector-valued function
~r = (2 + t)~i + 3t~j + (5 4t)~k,
t R.
Solution: The equation is equivalent to

x = 2 + t, y = 3t, z = 5 4t.
We know this is the parametric equation for the line passing through (2, 0, 5) and
parallel to the vector h1, 3, 4i.
Or we can simply rewrite the vector equation as
~r = h2, 0, 5i + th1, 3, 4i.
This is the equation of the line through (2, 0, 5) parallel to h1, 3, 4i.
5.2
Limits, Continuity and Derivatives
The notions of limit, continuity and derivative for real-valued functions can all be
passed to vector-valued functions through the components. Namely,
(1) Limit. For ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j, define

lim ~r(t) = lim x(t) ~i + lim y(t) ~j.
ta
ta
ta
For vectors in 3-space, the definition is similar. If at least one of the limits of
the component functions does not exist, then we say lim ~r(t) does not exist.
ta
(2) Continuity. ~r(t) defined on some domain D R is said to be continuous at

t0 D 7 if
7
Sometimes the condition that ~r(t) is defined at t0 is stated explicitly, but we take the point
of view that continuity or non-continuity are notions that make sense only for points that are a
priori in the domain of the function.
33

(a) lim ~r(t) exists and
tt0
(b) lim ~r(t) = ~r(t0 ).

tt0
Clearly ~r(t) is continuous at t0 if and only if all its component functions are
continuous at t0 .
(3) Derivative. The derivative of ~r(t0 ) is defined by
~r (t0 ) =
~r(t0 + h) ~r(t0 )
d
~r(t) = lim
.
h0
dt
h
This can be reformulated as

~r(t) = ~r(t0 ) + ~r (t0 )(t t0 ) + ~e(t, t0 ),
where the error term ~e(t, t0 ) has the property
lim
tt0
||~e(t, t0 )||
= 0,
t t0
(6)
i.e. ||~e(t, t0 )|| tends to zero faster than t t0 . In other words, is approximately
a linear function
~r(t) ~r0 + t~v ,
where ~r0 = ~r(t0 ) t0~r (t0 ) and ~v = ~r (t0 ). The error is small, even compared
to the small quantity t t0 .
We introduce here a convenient notation that we will use later, namely
~e(t, t0 ) = o(t t0 ),
to express (6).
More generally the o notation
f (t) = o(g(t)) as t t0
has the meaning
lim
tt0
|f (t)|
= 0.
|g(t)|
Notice that this notation is always related to a variable (here) t approaching a

certain limit. This limiting process has to be stated or to be known by default.
Example. x2 = o(x) as x 0; cos x = o(1) as x 2 ; xm = o(xn ) as x 0
if m > n, we say xm tends to zero at a higher order that xn .
The convenience of the o is the simplicity of its arithmetic. Without knowing
the particular functions we can state:
1. o(xn ) o(xn ) = o(xn ) (as x 0.)
34

2. o(xn ) o(xm ) = o(xn+m ).
3. o(xn ) = o(xm ) if n m.
4. If f (x) is a bounded function defined in some neighbourhood of 0 then

f (x) o(xn ) = o(xn ).
Notice that o(x) is not the notation for a function, but only expresses a property of a function.
In coordinates the derivative of a vector function is
~r (t) = x (t)~i + y (t)~j
~r (t) = x (t)~i + y (t)~j + z (t)~k
if ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j,

if ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j + z(t)~k.
The following theorem collects some of the most important properties of derivatives for vector-valued functions.
Theorem 1
(1) ~r (t0 ) is tangent to the curve ~r = ~r(t) at ~r(t0 ) and points in the direction of
increasing parameter.
~ = ~0, where C
~ is a constant vector.
(2) (a) (C)
(b) (k~r(t)) = k~r (t), where k is a scalar.
(c) [~r1 (t) ~r2 (t)] = ~r1 (t) ~r2 (t)
(d) [f (t)~r(t)] = f (t)~r (t) + f (t)~r(t) (product rule)

(e) ~r(u(t)) = ~r (u(t))u (t) (chain rule)
(3) (a) [~r1 (t) ~r2 (t)] = ~r1 (t) ~r2 (t) + ~r1 (t) ~r2 (t) (product rule for dot product)
(b) [~r1 (t) ~r2 (t)] = ~r1 (t) ~r2 (t) + ~r1 (t) ~r2 (t) (product rule for cross
product)
(4) If ||~r(t)|| is constant for all t, then ~r(t) ~r (t) = 0, i.e., ~r(t) and ~r (t) are
always perpendicular.
Proof: For (1) notice that the vector equation of a secant through ~r(t0 ) and ~r(t1 )
is
~r(t) = ~r(t0 ) + ~v t
where
~r(t1 ) ~r(t0 )
.
t1 t0
The tangent vector is the limiting position of secant vectors where t1 approaches t0 .
This limit is, as in single variable calculus, by definition the derivative ~r (t0 ).
~v =
35
The properties (2) (a)-(e) can be proved in the same way as in one variable
calculus, or, even simpler, reduce to those properties.
Although (3) (a) also reduces to properties of one variable functions we will give
a proof that shows the advantage of the o notation. Notice that our proof below
works for any dimension. We have
~r1 (t) = ~r1 (t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 )(t t0 ) + o(t t0 )
~r2 (t) = ~r2 (t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 ) + o(t t0 )
By forming the dots product of both sides and using dot product rules we get
~r1 (t) ~r2 (t) =~r1 (t0 ) ~r2 (t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 ) ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 )(t t0 ) ~r2 (t0 )+
+ (~r1 (t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 )(t t0 )) o(t t0 )
+ (~r2 (t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 )) o(t t0 )
=~r1 (t0 ) ~r2 (t0 ) + (~r1 (t0 ) ~r2 (t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 ) ~r2 (t0 ))(t t0 ) + + o(t t0 )
Here we have used that ~r1 (t0 )+~r1 (t0 )(tt0 ) and ~r2 (t0 )+~r2 (t0 )(tt0 ) are bounded
in some neighbourhood of t0 , i.e.
||~r1(t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 )(t t0 )|| M
||~r2(t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 )|| M
and therefore, by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequalities,

|(~r1 (t0 ) + ~r1 (t0 )(t t0 )) o(t t0 )| M|| o(t t0 )|| = o(t t0 )
|(~r2 (t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 )) o(t t0 )| M|| o(t t0 )|| = o(t t0 ).
This line proves the claim.
The proof of (3) (b) is exactly the same with replaced by .
To prove (4), let us first recall that ||~r(t)||2 = ~r(t) ~r(t). Hence ~r(t) ~r(t) C
for all t.
It follows that
0 = (C) = (~r(t) ~r(t))
= ~r (t) ~r(t) + ~r(t) ~r (t) (using property (3)(a))

= 2~r(t) ~r (t)
This implies ~r(t) ~r (t) = 0 for all t. The proof for (4) is complete.
Example 3
36
(a) Find ~r (t) for ~r(t) = (2 + t)~j + (3t)~j + (4t 1)~k

(b) Find ~r (t) and ~r (0) for ~r(t) = sin t~i + cos t~j.
Solution:
(a)
~r (t) = (2 + t)~i + (3t)~j + (4t 1)~k

= ~i + 3~j + 4~k
(b)
~r (t) = ( sin t)~i + (cos t)~j

= cos t~i sin t~j
~r (0) = cos 0~i sin 0~j

= ~i
2
Note: In part (a), the graph of ~r(t) is a straight line and ~r (t) is a constant
vector which is parallel to the line. Recall that property (1) in Theorem 1 says
~p
r (t) is tangent to the line and our example confirms this. In part (b), ||~r(t)|| =
( sin t)2 + (cos t)2 = 1 and property (4) in Theorem 1 says ~r(t) ~r (t) = 0. Here
we can also check directly:
~r(t) ~r (t) = ( sin t~i + cos t~j) ( cos t~i sin t~j)
= ( sin t)( cos t) + (cos t)( sin t)
= sin t cos t cos t sin t = 0.

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31

Vector-Valued Functions and Their Graphs.

5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

Example 1. Describe the graph of the function

Solution: The equation is equivalent to

Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

(2) Continuity. ~r(t) defined on some domain D R is said to be continuous at

5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

(b) lim ~r(t) = ~r(t0 ).

This can be reformulated as

Notice that this notation is always related to a variable (here) t approaching a

5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

4. If f (x) is a bounded function defined in some neighbourhood of 0 then

if ~r(t) = x(t)~i + y(t)~j,

(d) [f (t)~r(t)] = f (t)~r (t) + f (t)~r(t) (product rule)

5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

~r2 (t) = ~r2 (t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 ) + o(t t0 )

+ (~r2 (t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 )) o(t t0 )

||~r2(t0 ) + ~r2 (t0 )(t t0 )|| M

and therefore, by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequalities,

= ~r (t) ~r(t) + ~r(t) ~r (t) (using property (3)(a))

5.2 Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

(a) Find ~r (t) for ~r(t) = (2 + t)~j + (3t)~j + (4t 1)~k

~r (t) = (2 + t)~i + (3t)~j + (4t 1)~k

~r (t) = ( sin t)~i + (cos t)~j

~r (0) = cos 0~i sin 0~j

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