Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.

Wastewater Engineering
Treatment and Reuse
(Fourth Edition)

George Tchobanoglous
Franklin L. Burton
H. David Stensel

Wastewater Engineering:
An Overview
1-1

TERMINOL(X;Y 3

12

IMPAO OF REGUlATIONS ON WASTEWATER ENGINtERING 3

1-3

HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAl CONCERNS IN WASTEWATER

MANAGEMENT 7

1-4

WASTEWATER CHARAOERISTICS 9
Improved Analyt1cal Techniques 10
Importance oF Improved vVastewater Characterization

1-5

10

WASTEWATER TREATMENT 10
Treatment Mefhods I I
Current Status 12
New Directions ond Concerns 15
Future Trends in Wastewot Treatment

20

16

WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE

Current Status 21
New Directions and Concerns 2 1
Future Trends in Technology 21

1-7

BIOSOLIDS AND RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT

Current Status 22
New Directions and Concerns 23
Future Trends in Biosolids Processing 23

20

22

REFERENCES 24

Every community produce" both liyuid and solid wastes and air emissions. The liquid
wastr-wastewater--i~ e~scntially

the water supply of the community after it has been

used in a variety ()f applic<Uiuns (see Fig. 1-1 ). From the standpoint of sources of gener~
ation, wastewater may he de fined a~ a combmation of the liquid or water-carried wastes
removed from residence-;. imtimtinns, ;md commercial and industrial establishmentc;,
together with such groundwater. ~urface water. and stonnwater as may be present.
When untreated wastt'v.. ater aa:curnulates and is allowed to go septic. the decomposition of tbe organic rnaucr il contain~ will lead to nuisaoce conditions including the
production of malodorou" ga!'.es. In addition, untreated wastewater contains numerous

I Chapter 1

Wasl'ewoter Engineering: An Overview

Figure 1-1
Schematic diogrom of a
waslewoter monogeme11t
infrastructure.

Domeslie

~ wastewater

cso
treatment

facility

OWF

/rreatment
facility

pathogenic microorgan i~ms that dwell in the human intestinal tract. Wastewater also
contains nutrient~, which can ~timulate the growth of aquatic plants, and may contain
toxic compound!! or compounds that potentially may be mutagenic or carcinogenic. For
these reasons, the immediate and nuisance-free removal of wastewater from its sources
of generation, followed by treatment, reuse, or dispersal into the environment is necessary to protect public health and the environment.
Wastewater engineering is that bmnch of environmental engineering in which the
basic principles of science and engineering are applied to solving the issues associated
with the treatment and reuse of wastewater. The ultimate goal of wastewater engineering
is the protection of publi<.: health in a manner commensurate with environm ental, economic, social, and political concerns. To protect public health and tbe environmem, it is
necessary to have knowledge uf (I) constituents of concern in wastewater, (2) impacts of
these constituent~ when wastewater is dispersed into the environment. (3) the transformation and 1ong-term fate of these constituents in treatment processes, (4) treatment

1-2 Impact of Regulations on Wa~tewoter Engineering J 3

methods that can be used to remove or modify the constituents found in wastewater, and
(5) methods for beneficial usc or disposal of solids generated by lhe treatment systems.
provi?e an initi~l persp~ctive on the field of wa~:~tewater engineering, common
tenmnology lS first detmed followed by (I ) a discussion of the issues that need to be
addressed in the planning and de!.ign of wastewater management systems and (2) the
current status and new directions in wa~tewater engineering.

!o

1-1 TERMINOLOGY
ln the literature. and in governmental regulanons, a variety of terms have been used for
individual constituents of concern in wastewater. The tenninology userl commonly for
key concepts Ulld tenns in the field of wastewater management is summarized in Table
1- 1. In some cases. confusion and undue negative perceptions arise with the use of the
terms contdminants. impuriries, and pollutants, which are often used interchangeably. To
avoid confusion. the term cotlstiruent is used in thi~ text in place of these terms to refer to
an individual compound or clement, such as ammonia nitrogen. The term characteri.r;tic
is used to refer to a group of constituents, such a) physical or biological chamcteristic~.
The tenn <~sludge" has been u11ed for many years to signify the residuals produced
in wastewater treatment. (n 19<>4, the Water Environment Fedenu.ion adopted a policy
defining "biosolids.. as a prim;uily organic, solid wastewater treatment product that can
be recycled beneficially. Tn th is policy, "solids'' are defined as the residuals thar are
derived from the treatment of wastewater. Solid~ that have been treated to the poim at
which they are suimble for ben~ficia1 use are termed ''biosolids." In this text, the tenns
of solids and biosolids are used exten"iively, but "sludge" continues to be used. especially in cases where untreated solid material and chemical residuals are referenced.

1-2 IMPACT OF REGULATIONS ON

WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
From about 1900 to the early 1970s, treatment objectives were concerned primarily
with (I) the removal of colloidal, suspended, and floatable material, (2) the treatment
of biodegradable organic!\, and (3) the elimination of pathogenic organismo;. Implementation in the United State!. of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972 (Public Law 92-500). also known as the Clean Water Act (CWA), stimulated
substantial changes in wascew11ter treatment to achieve the o~jectives of "fishable and
swimmable" water.s. Unfortunately. these objectives were not uniformly met.
From the early 1970s to about 1980, wa~tewater treatment objectives were based
primarily on aesthetic and environmental concerns. The earlier objectives involving the
reduction of biological oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS). and pathogenic organisms continued but at higher levels. Removal of nufriencs, such as nitrogen
and phosphorus, also began lt) be addre~sed, particularly in some of the inland streams
and lakes, and estuaries and hays such a<: Chesapeake Bay and Long Lc;land Sound.
Major programs were undcnak.t:n h)' both Mate and federal agencies to achieve more
effective and widespread treatment of wastewater to improve the quality of the surface
waters. These programs were b(lbC::d, in part, on (I) an increased understanding of the
environmental effects caused by wastewater discharges; (2) a greater appreciation of the
adverse Jong-tenn effects caused by Lhe (.li:-;charge of some of the specific constituents

I Chapter I

Wastewater Engineering: An Overview

Table 1-1

Terminology commonly used in the field of wastewater engineering0

Tenn

Definition

Biosolids

P~imar.ily an organic: semisolid wast~~'Oter ptoduct that remains ofter solids ore stabilized
b.ol091cally or chemcolly ond ere sutoble for bene~cial use

Cla~s A biosolid~h

B1osolids in which t~e pathogen~ (induding entefic virv~~, pathogenic bacteria, ond viable
helminth ova) ore reduced below current detectable levels

Closs B bio)()lids11

Biosolids in which the pathogens are reduced to levels that are unlikely to pore o threat to
public health and the environment under specific use conditions. Closs 8 biosolids cannot be
sold or given away in bags or oth~ container$ or applied on lawns or home gardens

Chorocteri$tic!.
(wastewater)

General classes of wastewater constituents such os physical, chemical, biological,

Composition
Constituentsc

The makeup o{ wa5tewater, including the physical, chemical, and biological constituents

Contaminants

Constituents added to the water supply through use

Disinfection

Reduction of disease-causing microorganisms by phys;col or chemical means

EfRuent

The liquid discharged from o processing step

Impurities

Constituenis added to the water supply through use

Nonpoint source~

Sources of pollution thot originate from multiple sources over o relatively large areo
An element that is essential for the growth of plants and animals. Nutrients in wastewater,
usually nitrogen and phosphorus, may cause unwanted algol and plant growths in lakes and

Nutrient

and biochemical

Individual component~, elements, or biological ~ntities such as suspended solids or ammonia

nitrogen

streams
Po,.orne~r

A meosuroble foetor such os temperature

Point sources

Pollvtional loads discharged at o speci~c kx:ohon from pi~$1 ot,~tfolls, and conveyance methods
from either municipal wastewater treatment plants or industrial WO$te treatment facilities

Pollutants

Consti!uenls added to the wote supply through t.~se

Reclamation

Treatment of waslewoter for subsequent reuse application or the od of reusing treated

wastewater

Rccyding

T~e reuse of treated wmtewater and biosolids for bene~cial purposes

Repurificotion

Treatment of wastewater to a level suitable for a variety of appl~cafions includ~ng indirect or

direct potable reuse

Revse

Beneficial use of reclaimed or repurified wastewater or stabaized biosolids

Sludge

Solids removed from wastewater during treo~nt. Solids 1hot are treated Further ore termed
biosolids

Solids

Material removed from wmtewater by 9ravity sepora~on !by darifiers, thickeners, and
lagoons) and ;s the solid residue from dewatering operations

Adopted, in port, from Crites ond Tchobonoglous 11 998]

b U.S. EPA {1997b).
' To avoid confusion, the term ''consf1tuents" is used in th 1 ~ tcx 1n place of c;ontommants, impurities, and pollutants .
0

1- 2 Impact of Reguloti011s on Wastewater Engineering

t"ound in wastewater: and (.~ l th~ devdoprnent of national concern for the protection of

the environment. As a re~ult of these programs. significant improvements have been

made in the quality of the 'iurfa~.:~ water~ .
Since 1980, the water-quality improvement objectives of the 1970s have continued,
but the emphasis ha..; shift~d to th~ dt:tinition and removal of constituents th:1t may
cause long-term health effcl't~ and em ironmema.l impact\. Health and environmental
concern~ are discu~~l'd in nlOrt" dctatl in rhe following section. Consequently, while the
earl)' treatment

o~jectives

rt?mam Yaltd today, the required degree of treatment has

increased ~ignificantl)'. and <ldd1,ional trt'a\mem ohjecti'ves and goals have heen added.

Therefore, treatment ohjectiH~~ 111u~t go hand in hand with the water quality objectives
or standards estahl ish~d by rh~ f~dcral. ~:t:.tLe, and regional regulatory authorities. Impor-

tant federal regulations that ha\c brought about changes in the planning and design of
wastewater trcatmt..nt taci liti-:" in Lhe l fnircd State~ are :-.ummari.led in Tuble 1- 2. It is

interesting to note that the. d ean :mace-. of I<no and 1990 have had a ~ignificant impact
on industrial and municipal \vao.,tt:wah:r programs, primarily through the implementation of treatment facilitie~ for rlh' control of ern1~~ion!>.

Table J-2
Summary of
significant U.S.

federal regulations
that affect
wastewater
management

Regulation

Description

deon Water Act ICWA)

(Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of
1972/

Establishes the Notional Pollution Discharge Elimination System

INPDES), o permittin9 progrom bosed on uniform
technological minimum standards for each discharger

Water Quality Act of 1987

IWQA) (Amendment of the
CWA)

Strnngthens federal water quality regulations by providing

chonges in permitting and odds substantial penalties for permit
v1o'ations. Amends solids control program by emphasizing
rdentifiw tion ond regulation of toxic pollutants in sewage
sludge

40 CFR Part 503 ( 1993)

R~Julates the use and disposal of biosolids from wastewater

treatment plants. Limitations ore established for items such as
contaminants (mainly melolsl, pathogen content, ond vector

(Sewage Sludge
Regulations)

attraction

Notional Combined Sewer

Overflow ICSO) Policy

11994)

Coordinates planning, .selection, design, end implementotion of

CSO management prodices and controls to meet requiremenn
of CWA. Nine minimum conko!s and development o~ longterm CSO control plans are required to be implemented
imrnediately

dean Air Act of 1970 and

199{) Amendments

E!>tnblishes lrmitotions for specific air pollutonts and institutes

pr('venlion of significant deterioration in air quality. Maximum
ochievable control technology is required for ony of 189 listed
chEJmicah. from "mo1or sources," i.e., plants emitting at least
60 kg/ d

40 CFRf>ort 60

Establishes air emission limits for sludge incir1erators with

capac1ties lorger than 1000 kg/ d {2200 lb/dl dry basis

Toto! maximum dai~ load

ITDMll (2000)
Section 303\d} of the CWA

R~1uires states to develop prioritized lists of polluted or

thmatened water bodi~s and to establish the maximum amount
of polll.rtont (TMDLI thot a water body can re<eive and still

meet water quality standards

Chapter 1 Wastewater Engineenng: Afl Overvu~w

Pur-;uant lu Section 304{d) of Publir Law 92-500 {see Table 1 -2). 1he U ~
ronmental Prott:clioo Agency (l:.s . EPA) publi~hed its detioinon o1 minunum '.
for secondary trcatmenl. Thi.~ ddinitiun, originally issued in 1973. wa~ ameno~ ..
t9R5 to allow additional flexihilJty rn applytng the percem removal requirement" of pdhuants to treatment facilities ~en ing ...cpara(\! sewer system~. The definition of sel:onJ- '
at) treatment is reported in Tabk l-3 and includes three major ~ftluem parameter~ . .)day HOD_ TSS. and pH. Tht: ~uh!:-litution of 5~day carbonaceous BOD <CROD..J fnr
BOD~ may be made at the option of the permitting authority. The.\e standurd<; pro\ ided
the b~si~ for the design and operation of most Lre.atment plants. Special interpretation~
of the detinifion of ~econuary treatment are pcrmttted for publicly owned treatm~nr
work~ ( 1) served hy combined sewer ~ystem\. (2) using waste stabilizuLion pond~ and
trickling tilter~. <3l receiving indu~trial flow!., or (4) receiving Jess concentrated mfluem wa-.tl!water frotn ":>eparatc ~ewer~. The ~econdary lreaunent regulalion\ ~ eH'
amended further in 1989 to darify the percent removal requirement!. during dry period~
for treatmcrtt facilitk~ sef\ed b) combined ~ewer~ .
In 1987, Congres~ enacted the Water Quality Act of ICJ87 <WQA). the fi r.,t maJm
revi..,ion of the Clean Water Act. Important provi~1on~ of the WQA were. {I l '>trcn~lll
erung federal 'Water qualit) regulations by providing change.-; in permining and adtling.
.<mbsrantial penallies for ~rmiT violat ion ~. {2) significantly amenrling thr CWA\ formal
sludge control program b) empha\17.i ng 1hc identification and regulation of toxic polllllant" in sludge. (3) providing funding for '>tate and U.S. EPA ~ludic~ for dc~fining nrmpoint and toxic source~) o: polluti<>n, (4) cslablishing ne'Y\ deadlines for compliantf'
including priorities and permit requircmenh for ~tormwater, and (51 a pha.;e-out of the
conc;rructiOil grants program as a mcrhod ot fmaoc.:ing publicly owned treatment worb
(POTW).

Table 1..-3

Minimum national standards for secondary treotment 0

Unit of

Average 30-cfay

~nt

con~'

BOD5

mg/l

3Qd

Totol suspended solids

mg/ L

300

Charact8rillic of chchorge

Hydrogenion concentration
C80DsF
o

pH untts
mg/1

Awrote 7-doy
conceftlrafionC

45
45

Within the range of 6.0 to 9 0 at all time!.e

25

40

Federaf Rttgister (1988, 1989).

b Pre$ent stondords allow

stabilization ponds and tnc:kling hhers to hove higher 30-doy average concentrahons {45 mg/ l) and ? .
day overage concentrolions 165 mg/ l) of BOD/suspended solids perfofmance levels as long os the wafer quality of the

rece1vng water is not adversely affected. Exceptions are oiso permitted for combined sewer!>, certain mdustrial categorie!., ond

less concentrated wastewater from separate sewers. for precise requHemenl~ of exreplio1'1s, F&derof Register !1988) should br!
consulted.

lo be exceeded
d Averoge removal shall not be less than 85 percent.

t Not

-'Only enforced if cou$ed by industrial wostewoter or by in-plant inorganic chemical addition.

1
Moy.be sub~tiMed for 8005 of the option of rile permiHing authority.

1-3 Health r:;nd Environmental

Concern~ in Wastewater Monogeme.,l

Recent regulations thar affecT wastewater facilities design include those for the
treatment, di<.>posal. and beneficial use of biosolids (40 CFR Part 503). In the biosolids
regulation promulgated in \9<n _ natjonnl standards were set for pathogen and heav-y
metal coment and for the ~arc handling and use ofbiosohds. The standards are designed
to pmtect human health and the cnvironme11t where biosolids are applied beneficially
to land. The rule also promot~s the development of a ''clean sludge" (U.S. EPA, 1999).
The total maximum da il~ load {TMDL) program was promuJgated in 2000 but is
not scheduled to be in effect unti l 2.002. The TMDL rule is designed to protect ambient water quality. A TMDL represents the maximum amount of a pollutant thal a water
body can receive and sti ll meet water quality ~tandards. A TMDL is the sum of (I ) the
individual waste-load allocauon'i for point ~ources, (2) load allocations fur nonpoint
sources, (3) natural background levels, and (4) a margin of safety (U.S. EPA, 2000). To
implement the rule, a c;omprehcnsive watershcd-basc:d waLcr 4uaJity management program must be un<ienakcn to tind and control nonpoint sources in addition to conventional point source discharge-.... With implcmenlalioll of tht: TMDL rule, 1he focus on
water quality shifts from technology-based conrrols 10 preservatio11 of ambiem water
quality. The end rc~ulc it-; an inte~rated planning approa~h that transcends jurisdiclional
boundarie!-. and force~ different ~~ctors. .such as agriculture, water and wastewater utilities, and urhan runoff managl:'r~ to cooperate. lmplememalion of the TMOL rule will
vary depending on the -.pccilic v.ater quality objectives establh,hed for each watershed
and, in some cases. will require rhe installalton of advanced le\'els of treatment

l-3 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

IN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
As research into the c::hara cteri~tJc<; of wastewater has become more extensive, and as
the techniques for amtlyzing 'ipecific constituents and their potential health and environmental etfccts have becom~: more comprehefl~ive, th~ body of scientific knowledge
ha~ expanded signifieamly. \1any of the new treatment methods being developed are
designed to dcaJ with health and environmental concerns associated with findings of
rece11t re~earch. However. the <l(lvancem~nt in treatment technology effectiveness has
not kept pace wtth the ~nhanced constituent detection capability. Pollutants can be
detected at lower con<:entratinn~ than can be attained by available. treatment technology.
Therefore, careful as~essment or health and environment effectc; and community concern~ about these effect~ bec:umc'i increasingly important in wastewater management.
The need to establish a dialogue with the communiry is important to assure that heaJth
and environmental issues arc being addressed.
Water quality is~ues ans~ when increasing amounts of treated wastewater are discharged to water hodies thar an.: eventually used as water supplies. The waters of the
Missjssippi River and many n \'Cr\ in the ea.<;tern United States are used for municipal and
industrial water supplies and a ~ repositories for the resulting treated wastewater. In
southern California, a semi and region, increa~ing amounts of reclaimed wastewater are

being used or are planned

H} he

used for groundwater recharge to augment existing

potable water supplies. Significanl questions remain about the testing and levels of treatment necessary to protec[ human health where the corruningling of highly treaten waste
wa!.er with drinking water source~ result!. in indirect potable reuse. Some professionals

t Chc""'r 1

Wa~tvwater Engineering: An Overview

object in principle to the indirect reuse of treated wastewater for potable purposes; others exprc~s concern that cunent techniques are inadequate for detecting aU microbial
and chemical contaminants of health significance (Crook et al., 1999). Among the latter concern.~ are (I) the lad, of sufficient infonnation regarding the health risks posed
by some microbial pathogens and chemical constiruencs in wastewater, (2) the nature of
unknown or unidentified chemical constituents and potential pathogens, and (3) the
effectiveness of treatment processes for their removal. Defining risks to public health
ba.,ed on sound science is an ongoing challenge.
Because new and more sensitive methods for detecting chemicals are available and
methods have been developed that better detennine biological effects, constituents that
were undetected previously are oow of concern (see Fig. 1-2). Examples of such chemical constituents found in both .surface and groundwaters include: n-nitrosodimethylamine
(NDMA), n principal inbrreuient in rocket fuel, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). a
highly soluble gasoline additive, medically active substances including endocrine disruptors, pesticides, industriul chemicals, and phenolic compounds commonly found in
nonionic surfactants. Endoc1ine-disrupting chemicals are a special health concern as they
can mimic honnoncs produc~d in vertebrate animals by causing an exaggerated response,
or they can block the effects of a hormone on the body (Trussell, 2000). These chemicals
cal\ cause problems with development, behavior, and reproduction in a variety of species.
Increases in testicular, pronate. and brea~t cancers have been blamed on endocrinedisruptive chemicals (Rocfcr et al., 2000). Although treatment of these chemicals is not
currently a rnission of mun icipal wastewaer treatment, wastewater treatment facilities
may have tube designed to dcuJ with these chemicals in the future.
Other health concern~ relate lo: ( I) the release of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and toxic air (;OJJtaminants (TACs) from collection and treatment facilities,
(2) cblorine disinfection. and (3) disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Odors are one of the
most serious environmental ~.:uncems to the public. New techniques for odor measurement are used to quantify the development and movement of odors that may emanate
from wastewater fatiliric.s, and special efforts are being made to design facilities that
minimize che development uf odors, contain them effectively, and provide proper treat
ment for their destruction (see Fig. 1-3).

Figure 1-2
Atomic ad~tion

spectrometer used for

the detection of melols.
Pholo was taken in
wastewater treotmtnl

plant lobototory. The

use of such analytical

in$trumenb is nCi'N
commonplace at

wastewa,.r treatment
plan~.

1-4 Wastewater Charuct&ri$ti~s

Covered treatment plant

fa<:ilities for the control
of odor emissions.

Many ind11.strial wastes contain VOCs that may be flammable, toxic, and odorous.
and may be contributors to photochemical smog and tropospheric ozone. Provisions of
the Clean Air Act and local air quality management regulations are directed toward
(1) minimizing VOC releases at the source, (2) containing wastewater and their VOC
emissions (i.e., by adding enclosures). treating wastewater for VOC removal, and collecting and treating vapor emissions from wastewater. Many VOCs, classified as TACs,
are discharged to the ambient atmosphere and transported to downwind receptors.
Some air management districts are enforcing regulations based on excess cancer risks
for lifetime exposures 10 chemicals such as benzene, trichloroethylene, chloroform, and
methylene chloride (Card and Co~i, 1992). Strategies for controlling VOCs at wastewater treatment plants are reviewed in Chap. 5.
Effluents containing chlorine residuals are toxic to aquatic life, and, increasingly,
provisions to eliminate chlorine residuals are being instituted. Other important heaJth
issues relate to the reduction of disinfection byproducts (DBPs} that are potencial carcinogens and are formed when chlorine reacts with organic matter. To achieve higher
and more consistent microorganism inactivation Levels, improved performance of disinfection systems must be addressed. In many communities, the issues of safety in the
transporting, storing, and handling of chlorine are also being examined.

1-4 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Prior to about 1940, most municipal wa<;tewater was generated from domestic sources.
After 1940, as industrial development in the United States grew sjgnificantly. increasing
amounts of industrial wastewater have been and continue to be discharged to municipal
collection systems. The amounts of heavy metals and synthesized organic compounds
generated by industrial activities have increased, and some 10~000 new organic compounds are added each year. Many of these compounds are now found in the wastewater
from most municipalities and communities.
As technological changes take place in manufacturing, changes also occur in the
compounds discharged and the resulting wastewater characteristics. Numerous compoW1ds generated from indu->triai processes are difficult and costly to treat by conventional wastewater treatment processes. Therefore, effective industrial pretreatment

10

Chapter l

Wastewater E~ineering: An Overview

becomes an essential pan of tn overall water quality management program. Enforcement of an industrial pretreatment program is a daunting task, and some of lhe regulated pollutants still escape to the municipal wastewater collecLion ~}'sltill and must be
treated. In the future with the nbjecti\e of pollution prevention. every effon ~hould be
made by industrial Llischargn s to assess the cnvironmemaJ impacts of any new compounds that may enter the wastewater ~cream before being approved for us.e. If a compound cannot be treated effenively with existing technology, it should nut be u~ed.

lmpro..,ed Analyticol Techniques

Great strides in analyticul techniques have been made with the development of new <md
more sophisticated instrumentation. While most constituent concentrations are reported
in milligrams per liter (mg/L), measurement~ in micrograms per filer (J.lg/L) and
nanograms per liter (ng/LJ an now ~ommon . As detection methods become more sensitiv~ and a broader range of compounds are monitored in water supplies, more contami~
nant~ that affect human-; and the em ironment will be found. Many trace compound~ and
microorganisms, !'UCh a!-. Giwdin lamMia and Cf}1Jiosporidium pan 1um. have been identified that potentially may cau~e adverse health effects. Increased analytical sophistication also allows the scientist ,md engineer to gain greater knowledge of the behavior of
wastewater constituents and how lhey affect process perfonnunce and effluent quality.

Importance oF Improved Wastewater Charamnzation

Becau!te of changing wastewater characteri~tics and the imposilion of stricter limits
on wastewater dil\chargel> and biusolids rhat are used beneficially, greater emphasis
is being placed on wastewater charac terization. Because process modeling is widely
used in the de~ign and oplilllization uf biological treatment processes (e.g. activated
sludge), thorough characterialtion of wastewater, particularly wastewaters containing industrial wastl'. is increasingly important. Process modeling for activated sludge
as il is current ly conceived requires experimental assessment of kinetic and stoichiometric c omaant.~ . Fracrjonit:arion of organic nitrogen, chemkal oxygen demand
(COD), and total organic ca.rbon into soluble and particulate constituents is now used
to optimize the performance of both ex i ~ti ng and proposed new biol ogicaltr~tment
p lan~ designed to achlt'V~ nutrient removal. Techniques from the microbiological
sciences, such a~ RNA and DNA typing. are being used to idemify rhe active mass
in biological treatment pn.x:es<;es. Because an unde~landing of the nature of wastewater is fundamental tu lhe de~ ign and operation of wastewater collection, treatment,
and reuse facilities, a dcta]led di-;cussion of wastewater comtituents is provided in
Chap. 2.

1-5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Wastewater collected from mutlidpalitics and communities must ultimately be returned
to receiving water~ or to the land or reused. The complex question faci ng lhe de~ign ~ngi
neer and public health officials is: What levels of treatment must be achieved in a given
application~beyond those prescribed by discharge permits- to ensure protection of
public health and the environment? The answer to this question requires detailed anaJy-

1-5 Wastewater Treatment

111

ses or local conditions and need~. application of rscientific knowledge and engineering
judgment based on past experience, and consideration of federal, state, and local regulations. ln some ca~s. a detailed ri~k a~~e-;'iment may be required. An overview of wastewater treatment is pro\lided in llti~ se<.:tion. me rcu~e and disposal of biosolids, vexing
problems for some communities, are discussed in rhe following section.
Treatment Methods

Methods of treatment in which the application of physical forces predominate arc known
as unil operations. Mt:thud~ of lr~atment in whk:h the removal of cont~m1inants i ~ brought
about by chemical or biological reactions arc known a.'> unit processes. At the present
time, unit operations and processes are grouped togerner to provide various levels of
treatment known as preliminary. primary, advanced primary>secondary (without or with
nutriem removal). and advanced (or terriar)) (reatment (see Table 1-4). In preliminary
treatment, gross solids . ;uch a~; large obje<.:t~. mgs. and grit arc removed that may damage eqmpment. In primary rrcatm<:nt. a phy~ica l operation, usually sedimentation, is
used to remove the floating and .!.ettleahlc materials found in wastewater (see Fig. 1-4) .
.For advanced primal)' rreatmt:nt. chemical!> arc added ro enhance the removal of sus-

])fnded solids and. to a le!>~er ~>-.lent. di~;solved solid~. In secondary tre.aiment, bi!)log\
cal and chemica] pmcesse!- are used to remove most of the organic maHer. 1n advanced
treatment, additional comb ination~ of unit operations and processes are used w remove
residual suspended "iolids and or.her con"itituents that are not reduced significantly by
conventional secondary treatment. A li~ci ng of unit operations and processes used for

Table 1-4
Levels of wastewater

treatment level

Description

treatment0

Preliminary

Removal of woslewoter constihJents such as rags, sticks, Rootable~.

grit, and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problem~
with the lreolmenl operations, proce$ses, and ancil1ary systems

Primary

Removal of a portioo of the su$pended solids and organic matter from

the wastewater

Advonced primary

Enhanced removal of su~pended solids and organic molter from the

wastewater. Typically accomplished by chemical addition or filtra~on

Secondary

Removal of biodegradable organic matter [in :.elution or suspension}

end suspended solids. DisinfeCtion is also typically induded in the
definition of conventional secondary treatment

Secondory with
nutrient removal

Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids, ond

nutrients {nitrogen. phosphorus, or both nitrogen and phosphorus)

Terliory

Removal of residuol suspended solids (after secondary treotment),

usually by granular medium filtration or microscreens. Disinfection is
also typiwlly a part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is often
included in this definition

Advanced

Removal of dissolved and suspended materials remaining cher normcl

biologicol treatment when required for various water reuse

applications
"Adapted, in part, from Crites and

Tchobaooglous (l 9Q8).

12

Chapter I Wastewater Engineerit~g : An Overview

Figure 1-4
Typical primary
sedimentation tanks
used to remove Rooting

ond settleable material

from wastewater.

the removal of major consticuents found in wastewater and addressed in this text is pre~
sented in Table 1 ~5.
About 20 years ago, biolugJca1 nutrient removal (BNR)-for the removal of nitrogen and phosphoru5.-wa' viewed as an innovative process for advanced wastewater
treatment Because of the extensive research mto the mechaoisms of BNR, the advantages of il~ u.~. and the number of BNR systems that have been placed into operation.
nutrient removal, for all practical purposes, has become a part of conventional wastewater treatment. When compared to chemical treatment methods, BNR uses less chemical, reduces the production of waste solids, and has lower energy consumption.
Because of the importance of BNR in wastewater treatment, BNR is integrated into the
discussion of theoty, application, and de~ign of biological treatment systems.
Land treatment processes, commonly termed "natural systems." combine physical,
chemical, and biological treatment mechanisms and produce water with quality similar
to or bener than that from advanced wastewater treatment. Natural systems are not covered in this text as they are used mainly with small treatment systems; descriptions may
be found in the predec~~or edition of this text (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991) and in Crites
and Tchobanoglous (1998) and Crites et al. (2000).

Current Statu$
Up until the late 1980r.;, conventional secondary ttearment was the most COllUllon method
of treatment for the removal of BOD and TSS. In the United States, nutrient removal
was used in special circumstances, such as in the Great Lakes area, Aorida, and the
Chesapeake Bay, where semitive nutriem-reJated water quality conditions were identified. Because of nutrient enrichment that has led to eutrophication and water quality
degradation (due in part to point source discharges), nutrient removal proce.~;ses have
evolved and now arc used extensively in other areas as well.
As a result of implementation of the Federal Wacer Pollution ControJ Act Amendments, significant data havl' been obtained on the numbers and types of wa~tewater
facHities used and needed in accomplishing me goals of the program. Surveys are conducted by U.S. EPA ro track these data, and the results of me 1996 Needs Assessment
Survey (U.S. EPA, 1997a) are reported in Tables 1-6 and 1-7. The number and types of

1-5 Wastewater Treatment

113

Table 1-5
Unit operations and processes used to remove constitvents found in wastewater

Constituent

Unit operation or process

Suspended solids

Screening
Grit removal
Sedimentation
High-rate clarification
Flotation
Chemical precipitation

5
5
5
6

Depth filtration

II

Surface filtration

lI

Biodegradable organics

Aerobic suspended growth variations

Aerobic attached grov.1h variations
Anaerobic suspended growth variations
Anaerobic attached growth variations
Lagoon variations
Physicalchemical systems
Chemical oxidation
Advanced oxidation
Membrane filtration

See Chop.
5
5

8, 14
9

10, 14
10

8
6, 11
6
I1

8, 11

Nutrients
Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Chemical oxidation !breakpoint chlorination!

Suspend.dgrowth nitrification and denitrification vcriations
f ixedfilm nitrification and denitrification variations
Air stripping

11

lon exchange

11

6
8
9

Chemical treatment
Biologicol phosphorus removal

8, 9

Biological nutrient removal variations

8, 9

Pathogens

Chlor-ine compounds
Chlorine diol(ide
Ozone
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

12
12
12
12

Colloidal end dissolved solids

Membranes

l1
11

Nitrogen and phosphorus

Chemical treatment
Carbon adsorption
lon exchon9e

11

Volatile organic compounds

Air stripping
Carbon adsorption
Advanced oxidation

5, 11
11
11

Odors

Chemical scrubbers
Carbon adsorption
Biofilters
Compost filters

ll

15

11, l5
15
15

14

Chopter 1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview

facilities needed in the future ( ~20 yr) arc also shown in Table 1-7. These data are useful in forming an overall view of th~ current status of wastewater treatment in the
Uniced State!!.
The municipal wasrewater rreatmcnt enterprise is composed of over 16~000 plants
that are used to treat a total tluw (l [ ab1)Ut 1400 cubic meter~ per second {m1Js) [32,000
million gallon<; per day (Mgal/d)J. Approximacely 92 percent of the total exj~ting flow
is handled by plants having a capacity of 0.044 ru 3/s f1 million gallons per day
(Mgal/d)] and larger. Ncurl) one-half of the present de!-.ign capacity is situated in plants

Table 1.-6
Number of U.S.
wastewater treatment
focilitie~ by Row
range (1996) 0

Flow ranges

Number of

faciliti..

0.000-{).100
0.101 -l.OOO
1.001- 10.000
10.001- 100.00

0.ooo-Q.00438
0.0044-0.0438
0.044--().438

>1 00.00

TOMI existing
ftowrate
Mgal/d
m'/J

6,4.44

287

12.57

6,476
2,573

2}323

7,780

0.44-4.38

446

11 ,666

101.78
340.87
511.12

>4. :38

47
38

10,119

443.34

16,204

32,175

1,409.68

Othef-1>
Total

Adapled from U.S. EPA (1997o)

bflow data unknown.
0

Table 1-7
Number of U.S. wastewater treatment facilities

by design capacity in 1996 and in the future when needs

ore met<J

FYtun focitr
(wt.a,....cnmet)

Existing facilitiM
Number of

facilitfes

Mgal/d

ms/s

Secondary

176
9,388

Greater than secondaryb

4,428

3,054
17,734
20,016

133.80
776.98
876.96
62.26
1,850.00

I.-vel of treatment
less than secondary

No dischorgec
Total

2,032
16,024

1;421
42,225

Adopted From U.S. EPA (1997a).

bTreatment plants that meet efAoent standard~ higher than lno5e g1ven in Table l-3.

Plants that do not discharge to a water

..

NumMrof
fadlti

body ond use ~ome Form of land application.

lfteiiJ/d

,..,,,.:;.

61

601

26.33

9,738
6,135
2,369

17,795

779.65

28,588

l,252.53

1,803

18,303

48,787

78.99
2,137.50

1- 5 Wastewo1er Treatment

lu

providing greater than secondary treatment. Thus, the basic material presented in thls
text is directed toward the design of plants larger than 0.044 m3/s ( l MgaVd) with the
consideration that many new designs will provide treatment greater lhan secondary.
In the last I0 years. many plant" have been designed using BNR Effluent filtration
has also been installed where lhe removal of residual suspended solids is required. Filtra~
tion is especially effective in improving the effectiveness of disinfection, especially for
ultraviolet (UV) disinfection systems. bt:<.:ause (1) the removal of larger particles of suspended solids that harbor bacteria enhances the reduction in coliform bacteria and (2) the
reduction of turbidity improves the transmittance of UV light Effluent reuse systems,
except for many that are used for agricultural irrigation. almost always employ filtration.

New Directions and Concerns

New directions and concerns in wastewater treatment are evidenl in various specific
areas of wastewater treatment. The changing nature of the wastewater to be treated.
emerging health and environmental concern~. the problem of industrial wastes. and the
impact of new regulations, all of which have been discussed previously, are among the
most important. Further. other important concerns include: ( l} aging infrastructure,
(2) new methods of process analysis and control, (3) treatment plant performance and
reliability, (4) wastewater disinfection, (5) combined sewer overflows, (6) impacts of
stormwater and sanitary overfl ows and nonpoint sources of pollution, (7) separate treatment of return flows, (8) odor control (see Fig. 1- 5) and the control ofVOC emission~
and (9) retrofitting and upgrading wastewaler treatment plants.

Aging Infrastructure. Some of the problems that have to be addressed in the

United States deal with renewal of the aging wa!!rewater collection infrastructure and
upgrading of trearment plants. Issues include repair and replacement of leaking and
un<Jersized sewers, control und treatment of overflows from sanitary and combined collectjon systems, control of nonpoint discharges, and upgrading treatment systems to
achieve higher removal levels of specitic constituents. Upgrading and retrofitting treatment plants is addressed later in this section.
Figure 1-5
Facilities u~ for
chemical treotm~nt of
odors from treatment
facilities.

16

O.aple< 1 Wa:.fewater Engineering: An Overview

Portions of the collection ~y:;tcm~. pm1k ulnrly those in the older cities in the eastern and midwe~tern United Srates, are older than the treatment plums. Sewers con~tructcd of brick and vitrified day "'" itt-. mortar joints, tor example, are still used to carry
sanitary wastewater and stornl\~ater. Became of rhe age of the pipes and ancillary structure~. the types of matcnals and methods of construction. and lack of repair. leakage is
common. Leakage i:; in Lhe form of both infiltration and intlow where warer enters the
collection sy~tem, and C)'.. tiltr;ation where w"ter leave~ the pipe. In Lhe former case,
extraneou') water has to he collected and treated, and oftentimes may overflow before
treatmem. especially during wet weather. ln the latter case, exfiltration cau~es untreated
wastewater to enter the groundwater and/or mig.rate to nearby surface water bodies. It
is intere~ti ng lu note th;.H wllile the standards for treatment have increased significantly,
comparatively little or no attf ntion has been focused on the disr.:harge of untreated
wastewater from sewer<; through cxfi ltration. In the future, however, leaking sewer) are
ex.pected to become a major concern and will require correction.

Process Analysis and Control. Because of the changing characteristics of the

wastewater (dis\:ussed abo\c), studic!> of v.astewater treatability are increasing: especially with reference to the treatment of specific constituents. Such studies are especially
important where new treatment proces~e..<; are being considered. Therefore, the engineer
must understand the general approach and methodology involved in: (I) as~cssing the
treatability of a wastewater {domestic or indu'\trial), (2) conducting laboratory and pilot
p1ant studies, and (J) trandating expen mental data into design parameters.
Compuational fluid U} munics (CPD). computer-based computational methods tor
solving the fundamental equations of fluid dynamics (i.e., continuity, momentum, and
energy), is now being u!.rd t > improve and optimi ~e the hydraulic perfonnance of
wastewater treatment facihtie<>.. Applications of CFD include the design of new systems
or the optiminltion of~) ~tt>m:c. such as vonex separators, mixing tanks, sedimentation
tanks, dissolved-air tlotauon lmits, and chlorine contact tanks to reduce or eliminate
dead zones and short circuiting. Improved UV disinfection systems are being designed
using CfD. One of the main ad\antages of CFD is simulating a range of operating conditions to evaluate perfonnan~L' before de~ign~ and operating changes are finalized.
Another advamnge is that dynam1c models can be integrated with the process control
!-.ystem to optimiLe ongoing operation.

Treotment Process Performance and Reliability. Important factors in

process selection and design are (reatment plant performance and reliability in meeting
permit requirements. In mo~;r discharge pennits, effluent constituent requirements,
based on 7-day and -~0-day average concentrations. are specified (see Table 1-3}.
Becauoe wastewater treatmt.!nl eft1uent quality is variable because of varying organic
loads, changing environmental conditions, and new industrial discharges. it is necessary
to design the treatment ~ystem to produce effluent concentrations equal to or less than
the limits prescribed by the discharge pennit. Reliability is especially important where
critical water quahty paramett~r~ have to be maintained such as in reuse applicacions.
On-line monitoring of critical parameters SllCh as total organic carbon (TOC), transmissivity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen is necessary for building a database and for
improving process control. Chlorine residual monjtoring is useful for do!>age control,
and pH monitoring as.'ii!-.ts in controlling nitrification systems.

1-5 Wo-.tewoter Treofment

I 17

Treatment plant reliahilit} c.m be definl!d a:\ the probabihty that a system can meet
escablished performance criteria consiscemly over extended periods of time. Two component." of reliahihty. the mhercnt reliability of the process and mechanical reliubility,
are discussed in Chap. I5. As improved microbiological technique~ are developed, it
will be po~'ible to optimize th e disinfection process.
The need to conserve t>nergy and re!.ources i ~ fundamental to all aspects of
wa!'.>tewacer collection, treatment. 11nd reuse. Opcracion and maintenance co~l~ arc
extremely important to operating agencies becau!\e these cost~ arc funded totall} with
local money~. Detailed energ) analy...cs and audits are impon:ant part!> of trcalment
plant design and operation a') signi ticant savings can be realized by selecting e-nergyefficient pruces~es and c4uipmenl. Large amount~ of electricity are used for aeration
that is needed for biological treatmem. TyptcaJiy, about one-half of the entire plant
electricity usagr is for aerati( m. In the de'>ign of wa!'ttewater tn:atmelll plants power
use can he minim iled by paying more careful auention to plant siting, ~ekcting
energy-efficient e4uipmcnr. and d~-. igning fac ilities to recove1 t=m:rgy for in-pla11l
usc. Energy man agement in treatment plant design and operation i~ also con ~ idered
in Chap. 15.

Wastewater Disinfection.

Change!. in regulations and the development of new

technologi~s have affected tht design of disintection sy~tems. Gene probes are now
being used to identi fy where spec1fic groups of organisms are found m treated second-

ary eftluem (i.t:., in suspen1,ion or parti cle-a~sociated). Hi~lorically, chlorine ha!-t been
the disinfecwnt of chorce lor ~a--tewall.:r. Wirh the 1ncreasrng numher of pcnni t~ requiring low or nondetectablc amo unt~ of chlorine residual in treated effluents. dechlorination facilities have had ro b~ added. or chlonnation systems have been replaced by
alternative disinfection ~)'"tem'i such a..; u)traviolet (CV) radiation (see Fig. 1-6). Concerns about chemi~.:al :)afely hav~ also aftecteo design considerations of chlorination
and dechlorination .~ystem~. Improvements that have been made in UV lamp and ballast design within lhe p<l~t 10 }ears have tmproved sign1tic~ntly the performance and
reliabiJity of UV disi nfcciion )y:-.tems. Effecti-.e guidelines have aho been developed
for the application and de1:1ign of UV system ~ tNWRl, 2000). Capital and operating
costs have also been lowered. It is anticipated that the appJkation of UV for treated
drinking water and for !'ttorrnwalr r will continue to increase in the future. Bec.lu\e t :v
produces ec;sentially no rroublnome byproduct~ and is also effective in the reduction of
NOMA and other related r01 npound!>. it~!- u~c for disinfeclion 1s further ~nham:eJ a.~
compared to chlorine compound~.

Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs), Sanitary Sewer Overflows

(SSOs), and Nonpoint Sources. Ovl:rflows from combined sewer and ' anilacy sewer collection sy~tc m ., have been recognized as di:fficuit problem" reqmring
solution. especially for m an) l lf the older cities in the United States. The prohlem has
become more critical as greater development change!\ the amount and characleri ~ti cs of
stormwaler runoff and i n~rta...,~s tbc ~h.nmdizution of runu1T tnto storm, combined. and
sanitary w llect1on sy~ tem~. Combined systems carry a mixture of wa.<;tew~ter and
stormwater runoff and, when the capacity of the interceptors is reached, overflows
occur to the receiving waren._ Large overflows can impact receiving water quality and
can prevent attainment of mandated standards. Recreational beach closings and shellfish

18

I Chapter 1

Wasiewoter Engineering: An Overview

figure 1-6
UV lamps used k>r
the disinfec~ on of
wosfe'NOter.

bed closures have been attributed to CSOs (Lape and Dwyer. 1994). Federal regulations
for CSOs are still under drvl"lopment and have not been issued at the time of writing
this text (200 1).
A combination of factor-; has resulted io the release of untreated wastewater from
partS of sanitary collection ~ystems. These releases are termed sanitary system overflows (SSOs). The SSOs may be caused by (1) the entrance of excessive amounts of
stonnwater, (2) blockages, or (3) structural, mechanical, or electrical failures. Many
overflows result from aging coUection systems that have not received adequate
upgrades, maintenance, and repair. The U.S.. EPA has estimated that at least 40,000
overflows per year occur from sanitary collection systems. The untreated wastewater
from these overflows represents threats to public health and the environment. The U.S.
EPA is proposing to clarify and expand permit requirements fur municipal sanitary collection systems under the Clean Water Act that will result in reducing the frequency and
occurrence of SSOs (U.S. EPA 2001 ). At the time of writing this text (2001) the pro-

posed regulations are under review. The U.S. EPA estimates that nearly $45 billion is
required for constru<.:ting facilities for controlling CSOs and SSOs in the United States
(U.S. EPA. 1997a).

The effecrs of pollution from nonpoint sources are growing concerns as evidenced
by the outbreak of gasrroime~tinal iHness in Milwaukee traced to the oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum, and the occurrence of Pfiesteria piscicida in the waters of Maryland and North Carolina. Pfiesteria is a form of aJgae that is very toxic to fish life.
Runoff from pastures and feedlots has been attributed as a potential factor that biggers
the effects of these microorganisms.

1- 5 Wastewater Treatment

19

The extent (Jf lhe measure!\ that will be needed co control nonpoint sources is not
known at this time of writing this te>..t (200 I). When studies for assessing TMDLs arc
complet~...d (estimated ro be in 2008), the remedial measures for controlling nonpoint
sources may require tinancinl resource~ rivaling those for CSO and SSO correction.

Treatment of Return Flows. Perhaps one of the signiticant future de'Velop

ment!> in wa.;tewater treatment will be the provision of separate faci lities for trcaring
return flows from biosolid~ and other processing facilities. Treatmem of return flows
will be especialJy imp<mant where low levels of nitrogen are to be achieved in the
treated effluent. Separate treatment faci lities may include (I ) steam stripping for
removal of ammonia from bio.'\olid~ return flows, n{)w typically routed to lhe p!ant
headworks; (2) high-rate sedimentation for removing fine and difficulHo-seule colloidal material that also <;hields bacreria from disinfection; (3) flotation and high-rate
sedimentation for treating tiller backwash woter to reduce solids loading on the liquid
treatment process; and (4) ~olublc heavy metals removal by chemical precipitation to
meet more stringent discharge requiremems. The specific treatmem system used will
depend on the constituents tha.t will impact the wastewater treatment process.

Control of Odou and VOC Emissions. The control of odors and in paJticular the control of hydrogen o.; ullide generation is of concern in collection systems and at
treatment facilitie~. The release of hydrogen ~ulfide to the atmosphere above <;ewers and
at treatment plant headworks ha.!\ occurred in a number of location.'\, The release of
excess hydrogen sulfide ha!> led to the accelerated corrosion of concrete sewer~. head
works structures, and equipment, and to the release of odor!;. The control of odors ic; of
increasing environmental concern u.."i residential and commercial development con.tin~
ues to approach existing treatment plant locali ons. Odor control facilities mel uding covers tor process units, spec1<1l ventilation equipment, and treatment of odorous gases
need to be integrated Vl'ith treatment plant de~ign. Control of hydrogen suitide is also
fundamental to maintaining ~y~>tem reliability.
The presence of VOC ~ and VTOCs in wastewater has also nC(essitated the covering of trea(ment plant head works and primary treatment facilities and the installation of
special facilitie~ to treat me compounds before they arc released. In some cases,
improved industrial pretrt atment has been employed to eliminate these compounds.

Retrofitting and Upgrading Wastewater Treatment Plants. Large

numbers of wastewater treatment plants were constructed in the United States. during the
19708 and 1980s when large sums of federal money were available for implementation
of the CWA. Much of the equipment, now over 20 years old, is reaching the end of its
useful life and will need to be replaced. Process changes to improve performance, meet
stricter permit requirements, and increase capacity will also be needed. For these rea
son~. significant future efforts in the planning and design of wastewater treatment plants
in the United States will be directed to modifying, improving, and expanding existing
treatment facilities. Fewer completely new treatment plants will be constructed. In
developing countries, opportunities for designing and building completely new facili
ties may be somewhat greacec Upgrading and retrofitting treatment plants is addressed
in Chap. 15.

20

Chapter 1 Wo$tewoter Engineering: An Overview

future Trends in Wastewoter Treatment

In the U.S. EPA Needs As~es~ment Survey, the total treatment plant design capacity is
projected to increase by about IS percent over the next 20 to 30 years (see Table 1- 7).
During this period, the U.S. EPA estimate.~ that approximately 2,300 new plants may
have to be built, must of which will be providing a level of treatment greater than secondary. The design capacity of plants providing greater than secondary treatment is
expected to increase by 40 pen.:ent in the future (U.S. EPA, I997). Thus. it is clear that
the future trends in wastewater treatment plant design will be for facilities providing
higher levels of rreatmem.
Some of the innovative treatment methods being utilized in new and upgraded
treatment facilities include vortt:x separators, high rate cJarification, membrane bioreactors, pressure-driven membrane filtration (ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis-see
Fig. 1-7), and ultraviolet ra.diarion (low-pressure, low- and high-intensity UV lamps,
and medium-pressure, high-intensity UV lamps). Some of the new technologies, especially those developed in europe, are more compact and are partkularly welJ suited for
plants where available space for expansion is limited.
In recent years, numerou!-1 propnetary wastewacer treannent proces~e~ have been
developed that offer porential savings in construction and operation. This trend will
likely continue. particularly where alternative treatment systems arc: ev-d.Juated or facilities are privati7.ed. Privatization is generally defined as a public-private partnership in
which the private partner arrange.o; the financing, design, building, and opentcion of dl<:
treatment facili6es. In some cases, the private partner may own the facilities. The reasons for privatization, howevl'r, go well beyond the possibility of installing proprietary
processes. In the United States, the need for private financing appears to be the principal rationale for privatization; the need to preserve local control appears to be the leading pragmatic rationale against privatization (Dreese and Beecher, 1997).

1-6 WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE

In many locations where the available supply of fresh water has become inadequate to
meet water needs, it is clear that tne once-used water collected from communities and
municipalities must be \'tewed not as a wa.&te to be disposed of but as a resource that

Figure 1-7
Reverse OM"Oosis

membrane system
used for the removo I
of residuol suspended
solids remaining after
conventional secondory
treatment.

1-6 Wostewoter

Redorno~on a!ld Reuse

21

must be reu~ed. The concept of rem,e is becoming accepted more widely as other pttrts
of the country experience watt'r ~hortagcs. The us~ of dual water systems, such as now
used in St. Petersburg in Florida and Rancho Viejo i.n California , is expected to increa-se
io the future. In both locauon~. treated e1fluent i~ used for land!.cape watering and other
nonpotahle uses. Satellite redamarion systems ~uch a<;, those used in the Los Angeles
basin, Where wastewat~r 11ow~ are mined (Withdrawn from collection .'>y)tems) l"or local
treatment and reuse, are examples where tran:iporlation and treatment costs of redaio1ed
water can be reduced significanlly. Because water reuse i~ expected to hecome of even
greater importance in the future. reuse applications are considered in Chap. 13.

Current Status
Most of the reuse of wastewaTer occur.-. in the arid and .~miarid western and souihwe~t
ern Slales of the United States; however. the number of reuse projects i<> incrca~ing in
the south especially in florida and South Carolina. Because of health and safety concerns, water reuse applications <lre moslly restricted to nonpotable u~c~ sul:h a~ landscape and agricultural irrigation. ln a report by the National Research Council ( 1998). it
was concluded that indirect potable reu~e of reclaimed water (mtroducing reclaimed
water to augment a potable water source before treatment) is viable. The report also
stated that direct potable reuse ~introducing reclaim~d wat~r directly into a water distlil>ution sy~tem) was not practtC<i.ble. Because of the concerns about potential health
effects associate with the rtdctimed water reuse, plans are proceeding sluwl)' about
expanding reu~e beyond agricultural and landscape irrigation, groundwater recharge for
repelling salrwater intrusjon. and nonpotable industrial uses (e.g., boiler water and cooling water).

New Directions and Concern$

Many of the concerns mentioned in the National Research Council (:--JRC,

ll)l)~)

report
regarding potential microbial und chemical contamination of water supplies also apply
to water sources that receive mcidenral or unplanned wastewatl:r discharges. A number
of communities use water sour(;cs that contain a significant wastewater component
Even though the<>e source~. after treatment, meet current drinking water standards. the
growing knowledge of the porential impacts of new trace contaminants raises concern.
Conventional technologies for both water and wastewater treatment may be incapable
of reducing the levels of trace contaminants below \\.'here they are not considered as a
potential threal to public health. Therefore, new technologies that offer sjgoificaocly
improved levels of treatment or constituent reduction need to be tested and evaJuated.
Where indirect potable reuse is considered, risk assessmenc also becomes an impoflam
component of a water reuse investigation. Risk assessment is addressed in Chap. I3.

future Trends in Technology

Technologies that are suitable for water reuse applications indude membrane~ (pressuredriven, electrically driven, and membrane bioreactors). carbon adsorption, advanced
oxidation, ion exchange, and ait stripping. Membranes are most significant developments as new producfs are now available for a number of (reatment applications. Membranes had been limited previously to desalination, but they are being tested increasingly for wastewater applications to produce h1gh-quality treated effluent suitable for
reclamation. Increased levels of l:Ontaminant removal not only enhance the product for

22

Chapter 1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview

reuse but also lc~~cn health n\ks. A~ indirect potable reuse intensifies to augment existing water supplie~. mclllbran~~ are expected to be one of the predominanl lreatment
technologies. Ad\lanced wa~tcwater treatment technologies are discussed in Chap. t 1,
and water reuse i~ con~idered in Chap. 13.

1- 7 BIOSOLIDS AND RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT

The managemenr of rhe ~ol rd.., and concentrated contaminants removed by treannent
has been and continue!. to hf one of the most difficult and expensive problems in the
field of wastewater englntA:nng. W~hte\\.atcr solids ure organic products that can be
used beneficially after ~tabili;ation by processes such as <maerobic digcsrion and cornposting. With the advent of rtgulations that encourage biosolids usc. -.ignificam efforts
have been directed to prod~K, ng a ''dean sludge'' {Class A biosolid">- !,ee definition in
Table l~ l ) that meets hea\')' metab and pathogen requiremenrs and is ~uitable fur land
application. Rcgulationo.. for Cla~s H biosol i d~ call for reduced density in pathogenic
bacteria and enteric viru,e.:,, hut not to the level~ of Class A biosolids. Further. the applicaliun of Clas~ B biosolill" l<' land 1s ~trktly regulated. and distrihulion for home use is
prohibited (see. Tuble 1- 1l.
Other treatment plant rt:' idual!. such a'> w it and <>creenings hav~ to be rendered ~uil
able for dispo~a1, customaril y in land!illl-1. Landtilb u:-.ually require ~ome form of dewatering to limit moisture comf>nt. With the increased use of membranes, especially in
wastewater reuse applicmitm:-,, a new type ()[ residual, brine concentrate, requires further pro<.:essing and Jispo,al. Solar evaporarion pond-.. and dlscharBC to a saltwater environment are only viabk in communities where suitable and environmental geographic
~onditions pre\'ail; brin~ <.onccnlnuion and re!.iduals ~olidif}cation are genemlly too
complex. and co~tl y to implc"ment.

Current Statu.s
Treatment technologie~ for 'olld) proce"c;ing buve focused on traditional merhods such
as thickening, st<lbililation. dewatering. and drying. Evolution in the technologies has
not occurred a~ rapidly a~ in liqmd treatment proce')c;es, but some ~igniticant improvements have occurred. Centrifuge~ that produce a sludge cake with higher solids content,
egg-shaped digester~ rhat improve operation. and dryers that minimi7e water content
are just a few example~ uf product:-, that have come into use in recent years. These
development~ are largely driven b}' the nc:t:d to produce biosolid!> that arc clean, have
less volume, and can be ustd beneficially.
Landfills still continue to be used extensively for the disposal ot' treatment p\ant
solids, either in ~ludge -only monofills or with municipal solid waste. The number and
capacity of landfills. huwc\cr. have be~n reduced, and new landfill location~ that meet
public and regulatory ac~eptance and economic requirements are increasingly difficult
to find. Incineration of ~olid~ b> large municipa!Hies cominues to be practiced, but
incineration operation and tmission control are subject to greater regulatory restriccions
and adverse puhlit: s~.:ruti ny. Alternatives to landfills and im:ineration include tand
application of liquid or dri~..--d biosolids and composting for distribution and marketing.
Land applicatiotl of bio~o l i ds is used extensively to reclaim marginal land for productive uses and to utilize nutrient con lent in the biosolids. Composting, although a more

1-7 Bioso,id$ ond Residuals Monogement

23

expensive alternative, is a means of stabilizing and distributing biosolids for use as a

soil amendment. Alkaline stabiliL.ation of biosolids for land application is also used but
to a lesser extent

New Directions and Concerns

Over the last 30 years, the principal focus in wastewater engineering has been on
improving the quaiity of treated eft1ucnt through the construction of secondary and
advanced wastewater lreatment plants. With improved treatment methods, higher levels
of treatment must be provided not only for conventional wastewater constiruents but also
for the removal of specjfic compounds such as nutrients and heavy metal!\. A byproduct
of these efforts has been the increased generation of solids and biosolids per person
served by a munidpal wastewater syc;tem. In many cases, the increase in solids production clearly taxes the capacily of existing solids processing and d1sposal methods.
In addition to the shear volume of solid~ that has to be handled and processed, management options continue to be reduced through stricter reg11lations. Limitations that
affect options are: (I) land till !>ires are becoming more difficult to find and have permitted, (2) air emi~sions from mdnerator.'\ are more closely regulated, and {3) new
requirement"> for the land application of biosolids have been instituted. In large urbao
areas, haul distances to landfill or land application sites have ~ignificantly affected the
cost of solids processing and disposal. Few new incinerators are being planned because
of difficultie~ in tlnding suitable sites and obtaining permits. Emission control regulations of che Clean Air Act also require the installation of complex and expensive pollution control equipment.
More communities are look1ng toward (I) producing Class A biosolids to improve
beneficial reuse opportunit1e' Of (2) impkrnenting a form of volume reduction, thus
lessening the requirement~ for disposal. The issue- "are Class A biosolids clean
enough?"- will be of ongoing. concem to the public. The continuing s~an.: h for better
methods of solids processing, di!-posal. and reuse will remain as one of the highest priorities in the future. Additionally. ctevdoping m~aningful dialogue with lht: public about
health and environmental effect~ will continue to be very imponam.

Future 1rentls in Biosolicls Processing

New solid!. processing systems have not been developed as rapidly as liquid unit operations and processes. Anaerobic dig~stion remains rhe principal process for the stabilitation of solids. Egg-shaped digesters, developed in Europe for anaerobic digestion,
are being used more extensively in the United States because of advantages of easier
operation, lower operation and maintenance costs, and, in some cases. increased
volatile solids destruction (which also increa.;es the production of reusable methane
gas) (see Fig. 1- 8). Other development~ in anaerobic and aerobic digestion include
temperature-phased anaerobic digestion and autothennal aerobic digestion (ATAD),
another process developed in Europe. These processes offer advan1ages of improved
volatile solids destruction and the production of stabilized biosolids that meet Oass A
requirements.
High solids centrifuge..-. and heat dryers are expected to be used more extensively.
High solids centrifuges extract a greater percentage of the water in liquid sludge, thus
providing a dryer cake. Improved dewacering not only reduces the volume of solids

24

Chaptef 1 Wo51eworer Engineering: An Overview

Figure 1-8
Egg-shaped digesturs
U$ed

for the onQerobic

treatment of biosolids.

requiring further processing and disposal. but allows composting or subsequent drying
to be performed more efficiently. Heat drying provides further volume reduction and
improves the quality of the product for potential commercial marketing. Each of the
newer methods of biosolids processing is described in Chap. l4.

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Crites, R., and G. Tchobanoglous (1998) Small and Decentralized Wasrewater Management
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