Aluminum Alloys

The American Foundry Society Technical Dept., Schaumburg, Illiniois

ast aluminum components are used

for many varied functions, from
decorative home-owner components, such as lighting fixtures, to
highly engineered, safety-critical
components for aerospace and automotive applications. There are many
different methods and alloys that can be
used to produce this wide variety of cast
aluminum components. The choice of alloy and casting process will play a major
role in the procurement process, affecting
both component properties and cost. The
procurement process for
cast aluminum parts always should begin by the
design engineers defining the three major factors that drive the quality
and cost on a cast aluminum
componentfunctionality (service requirements), design (shape and size) and
production quantity. Each of these factors
will have a large bearing on the choice of
casting method, alloy selection and cost as
well as final component quality.

Functionality &
Service Requirements
When determining how a component
will function, the first question to ask is:
what purpose will the component serve?
Choosing the alloy, casting process and
thermal treatment requires knowledge
of the service conditions of the proposed
part, so defining the end-use functions
and requirements is always the starting
place in the procurement of an aluminum
casting. If high-strength, safety-critical
components are required, the number of
potential casting processes is narrowed,
and a high-integrity casting process, such
as permanent molding, premium sand

This rear lower control arm for the automotive industry was
cast hollow with A356 aluminum alloy through a low-pressure
permanent mold casting process.

casting or a semisolid casting

process, will be chosen. The alloy selection also cannot be determined until the
components application and end-use
requirements are defined. The range of
possible mechanical properties varies
widely because there are many alloy and
thermal treatment combinations. For
example, many commercial castings often
do not have critical service requirements,
therefore a more economical alloy and
production method can be utilized.

Design
Once the function of the desired
component is determined, engineers and
purchasers must ask questions relating to
design issues, such as size, weight and the
complexity of the part. The size and design
features of the casting and available alloys
can drive the choice of casting process and
cost of the component. Sand casting often
is used to produce parts with hollow cavi-

ties and a complex arrangement of

ribs and pockets that make them
less suitable for casting in permanent molds.
Figure 1 demonstrates the effect of
these various design complexities on component cost. It might be advantageous to
redesign a casting for a lower cost process,
such as permanent mold or diecasting.
In some cases, the finished component cost can be reduced by including features in the design
that will produce a near
net-shape cast part and
eliminate or minimize
additional costs found with
post-casting processes, such as machining.
However, features like complexity and
surface finish or special properties can
increase the cost of the casting.
Regardless of cost, the process choice
might be limited because of the components size. For example, sand casting may
be the only process option for large or heavy
castings. Although this process typically
requires lower tooling cost, the unit price
of the castings and the finished part can be
high (Fig 2). Permanent mold casting has
higher tooling cost, but the unit price is
lower, particularly for higher quantities.
Diecasting has the highest tooling
cost but also the lowest piece price on
large quantities.
Changes from the initial design can
improve design efficiency and/or decrease production costs. Still, even if a
casting has a sound design for a specific
process, it may have a shape that is conducive to distortion
during heat treating.
Such errors can be
minimized through
design changes.

Production
Quantity

Fig. 1. This chart displays the effects certain design features and service requirements have on casting cost.

30

ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS

Another critical factor in determining casting process selection

and cost is how many
parts will be purchased.
Permanent mold, diecasting or automated
sand casting processes
can be used to produce
high quantities if the

2006 CASTING SOURCE DIRECTORY

This strut fan cowl support beam for Boeing was

cast in nobake molds with D357 aluminum alloy.
The conversion from an 11-piece assembly allowed
for a 50% cost savings.

size and design features of the

casting and available alloys
are suitable. However, the
tooling for permanent mold
and diecasting can be costly,
so a large quantity would be
required to justify the tooling
costs. If low-quantity parts
and ultra-large castings are
required, the best option is
sand casting, which offers the
lowest tooling cost with the
capabilities to cast large components multiple times.

Aluminum Casting
Metallurgy
The specification of an
aluminum alloy for a cast
component is based upon
the mechanical properties it
can achieve. Aluminum casting properties
result from three primary factors: casting
alloy, melting and casting operations, and
thermal treatment.
The properties obtained from one particular combination of these factors may not
be identical to those achieved with the same
alloy in a different metalcasting facility or
with a different thermal treating source.

ments, but this sensitivity can be used as

an advantage by adding trace amounts
of materials to create beneficial changes
in the casting microstructure. Both grain
refining and silicon modification can improve mechanical properties in the final
component. They also can act as useful
tools to optimize properties and heat treatment response to meet specific component
service requirements and aid the developAluminum Processing
ment of certain casting properties.
During solidification, aluminum
Molten aluminum has several characfreezes in long columnar grain structures.
teristics that can be controlled to maximize
These grains will grow until they impinge
casting properties. It is prone to picking
on another grain or the mold wall. Grain
up hydrogen gas and oxides in the molten
refining is a treatment process
state as well as being sensiin which nucleating sites (in
tive to minor trace elements.
the form of titanium and boAlthough some decorative or
ron master alloys) are added
commercial castings may have
to the molten metal to aid the
quality requirements that can
growth of additional grains.
be met without additional
This leads to the creation of
processing, tight melt control
more grains, which causes the
and specialized molten metal
grains to remain smaller.
processing techniques can help
With modification, a soprovide enhanced mechanical
dium or strontium addition is
properties when needed.
made to the molten aluminum
Alloy ChemistryDuring
to change the morphology
molten aluminum processing,
(shape) of the silicon crystal.
the percentages of alloying
Molten Metal Handling
elements and impurities must
Molten aluminum is prone to
be controlled carefully. If
absorb hydrogen from moisthey are not, characteristics,
such as soundness, machin- Fig. 2. The cost of aluminum casting varies with the casting process, as ture in the atmosphere and
other sources, which can lead
ability, corrosion resistance, can be seen in the chart above.
2006 CASTING SOURCE DIRECTORY

mechanical properties and conductivity,

are affected adversely.
Molten aluminum alloys are prone to
chemistry changes that can be controlled
during melting and holding. The most
significant of these changes is the potential to lose magnesium and pick up iron,
which can alter the mechanical properties
significantly. If the service requirements
of the cast component demand high material properties, these reactions must be
controlled through facility melting and
holding practices.
Grain Refining & ModificationMolten aluminum is sensitive to trace ele-

ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS

31

to defects. Hydrogen gas can form pores

in the solid castings, and aluminum
oxide and other intermetallic
impurities can solidify in the
castings as inclusions. Both
gas porosity and inclusions
have a negative impact
on casting quality and will
prevent castings from meeting high service requirements.
Melting practices typically include
degassing with an inert purge gas to
remove hydrogen and fluxing to clean
the molten aluminum of oxides and other
inclusions prior to pouring.

Alloy Selection
There are a number of available alloys to choose from to satisfy individual
Alloy
201.0 / A201.0

A206.0

319.0 / A319.0

355.0

356.0

A356.0

535.0

Casting Process
& Temper
Sand & PMT42
Sand & PMT6
Sand & PMT7
SandT4
PMT4
PMT7
SandF
SandT5
SandT6
PMF
PMT6
SandF
SandT51
SandT6
SandT7
PMF
PMT51
PMT6
PMT62
PMT7
PMT7
SandF
SandT51
SandT6
SandT71
PMF
PMT51
PMT6
PMT7
SandF
SandT51
SandT-6
SandT71
PMF
PMT51
PMT6
PMT61
SandF

This laser housing for the industrial and scientific industries was
cast in A356 aluminum alloy
with T51 heat treatment. The
conversion from a sheet
metal fabrication allowed the customer to
augment the appearance of its product.

requirements. Once the casting

method is determined, the alloy choice is
limited because not all alloys can be used
with all casting methods. Sometimes, the
alloy that shows the best properties on
paper may have production characteristics
that make it less desirable on an overall
basis than other eligible alloys. Therefore,

Ultimate
Strength (ksi)
60
65
68
51
62
63
27
30
36
34
40
23
28
35
38
27
30
42
45
40
36
24
25
33
28
26
27
38
32
23
26
40
30
27
29
41
41
40

Yield Strength
(set .02%-ksi)
37
55
60
36
38
50
18
26
24
19
27
12
23
25
36
15
24
27
40
30
31
18
20
24
21
18
20
27
24
12
18
30
20
13
20
30
30
20

Elongation
(% in 2in.)
17.0
8.0
5.5
7.0
17.0
12.0
2.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
1.5
3.0
0.5
4.0
2.0
4.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
6.0
2.0
3.5
3.5
5.0
2.0
5.0
6.0
6.0
3.0
6.0
3.0
8.0
5.0
12.0
10.0
13.0

it is best to consult with

a metalcasting facility, which can
advise on such factors as availability and
relative cost of ingot, production costs and
reproducibility of results.
Service requirements also are a key
consideration in alloy selection. If high
strength is required, heat-treatable alloys
must be used. The alloy options can be
narrowed further when considering the
remaining requirements, such as pres-

Shear
Strength (ksi)

42
40
40
42
37
22
24
29
24
27

22
28
28

24
34
36
30
27

20
26
20

30
25

27

Brinell Hardness (500 kg

load on 10 mm ball)

130
146

70
80
80
85
95

65
80
85

75
90
105
85
85

60
70
60

80
70

75

80
90
70

The table above portrays the typical mechanical properties of common cast aluminum alloys and tempers based on heat treatment cycles
and casting processes.

32

ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS

2006 CASTING SOURCE DIRECTORY

sure tightness, corrosion resistance

and machinability.
Alloy Designation SystemThe U.S. Aluminum
Assn. (AA) monitors industry standard specifications
for designating aluminum
alloys through a numbering
system known as the AA Pink
Sheets. The system designates
individual aluminum metalcasting alloys using a three-digit
number plus a decimal, which is
included on casting blueprints to specify
the casting alloy to be used. The standard
specifies the chemical composition limits
of aluminum alloys and the percentage
of each alloying element or an allowable
chemistry range. The first digit of the
three-digit number system categorizes
the casting alloys by groups (or series) according to their major alloying elements
as seen in Table 1.
The balance of the three-digit number identifies the various individual
alloys within each alloy series. For example, the 300 series of alloys includes
more than 50 individual alloys (319, 356,
357, 380, etc). Some of these individual
alloys have multiple variations, all using
the same three-digit number. These alloy designations include a letter before
the three-digit alloy designation. For instance, variations of 356 are A356, B356,
C356 and F356. This letter distinguishes
between alloys that fall within the alloy

This electric valve housing for Hamilton

Sundstrand is cast in C355 aluminum via
semi-permanent mold casting.

chemistry ranges, but differ slightly

in percentages of alloying elements or
impuritiessuch as F357.0, which has a
lower minimum level and tighter range
for magnesium than 356.0 (Table 2).
These variations can determine special
casting properties.
The Pink Sheet standard designations
apply to aluminum alloys in the form of
both castings and ingot, and the single
digit following the decimal indicates
how the alloy will be used. These designations include:
XXX.0 = casting;
XXX.1 = ingot used to make the
casting;

Table 1. Aluminum Alloy Pink Sheet Classification System

Alloy Series
100 series alloys
200 series alloys
300 series alloys
400 series alloys
500 series alloys
700 series alloys

Principal Alloy Element

99% minimum aluminum
Copper
Silicon + Magnesium, Silicon + Copper, or Silicon + Magnesium + Copper
Silicon
Magnesium
Zinc

800 series alloys

Tin

(600 series and 900 series are not currently in use.)

XXX.2 = ingot used to make the casting

(having typically tighter chemical limits than the XXX.1 ingot designation).
If AA alloys 356.1 or 356.2, for
example, are listed as the alloy specification on casting blueprints, they
should define the chemistry of the
ingot used to make the cast components, not the final castings.
The number XXX.0 for castings
includes a chemistry different
from the ingot specifications.
This leaves room for chemistry
changes that can occur during
remelting. The addition of casting returns, such as scrap castings,
to the charge material also can alter
the casting chemistry. The primary difference is that the XXX.0 specifications
allow for some magnesium loss (due to
burn out) and iron or zinc pickup that
may be experienced during processing.
The alloy chemistry of the final 356 cast
component should fall within the limits
of the 356.0 specifications but may not
meet the chemical specification for the
356.1 ingot.
Final cast components also should be
properly designated. If a blueprint designates 356.1 as the casting alloy, it would
be improper to designate the final castings
as 356.1. Components should be shipped
designated as 356.0 castings.
Metal Matrix CompositesAluminum metal matrix composites (AlMMCs) consist of nonmetallic reinforcements incorporated into an aluminum matrix. Reinforcements can be
continuous or discontinuous, the most
common being silicon carbide. Other
reinforcements include boron, alumina
and graphite fibers as well as various
particles, short fibers and whiskers.
Al-MMCs have better stiffness, wear resistance and thermal conductivity than
base aluminum alloys. The American
National Standards Institute specifies
that Al-MMCs be identified as follows:
Matrix/reinforcement/volume%/form.

Table 2. Aluminum Assn. Standard Chemical Composition Limits for 356 Aluminum Alloy

AA #
356.0
356.1
356.2
A356.0
A356.1
A356.2
B356.0
B356.2
C356.0
C356.2
F356.0
F356.2

Product

Si

Fe

Cu

Mn

Mg

Zn

Ti

S&P
Ingot
Ingot
S&P
Ingot
Ingot
S&P
Ingot
S&P
Ingot
S&P
Ingot

6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5

0.6
0.50
0.13-0.25
0.20
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.04
0.20
0.12

0.25
0.25
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.20
0.10

0.35
0.35
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.10
0.05

0.20-0.45
0.25-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.25-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.25-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.25-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.17-0.25
0.17-0.25

0.35
0.35
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.10
0.05

0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.04-0.20
0.04-0.20
0.04-0.20
0.04-0.20
0.04-0.20
0.04-0.20

2006 CASTING SOURCE DIRECTORY

Others
Each
Total
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15
0.03
0.10
0.05
0.15
0.03
0.10
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.15

Aluminum
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder
remainder

ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS

33

Cast with A356 aluminum alloy using the lost foam process, this
verado L6 four-stroke cylinder head for a boat engine coupled
an automotive-style cylinder head with a double-water
jacketed exhaust manifold.

Us i n g t h i s
formula, a 356
aluminum alloy
reinforced with
20% SiC particulate would be designated as 356/SiC/20p.

Heat Treatment
Many aluminum castings meet property requirements in the as-cast condition
and do not require further processing.
However, to improve properties and enhance strength and ductility, aluminum
castings often are thermally processed
by a series of heating and cooling cycles
called heat treatment. This thermal processing involves three basic operations:
solution, quench and age. Solution treatment involves heating the casting to near
the eutectic temperature to dissolve the
eutectic constituent and form a solid
homogeneous solution.
Following this solution treatment,
castings can be quenched or rapidly
cooled, often in boiling water, which
helps retain the homogeneous solution
at room temperature. A third step used
in heat treatment of aluminum castings is natural or artificial aging, which
increases strength and hardness. Age
hardening principles also can be used to
tailor heat treatments to each application. Combinations of these three heat

treatments are called tempers (Table 3).

The principal purpose for heat treating
aluminum castings is to develop the best
combination of mechanical properties
that will meet the critical needs of the
component application.
The three basic thermal operations
often are combined into heat treatment
cycles that provide various properties.
Although aluminum casting-related
books offer typical or recommended solutions, quench and age times
and temperatures for each alloy and
temper, these heat treatment cycles
often are varied and manipulated to
change the mechanical properties of
the casting to meet specific component requirements for strength and
ductility. Recent research includes the

Table 3. Common Aluminum Heat Treatment Tempers

Temper
T4

T6
T61
T7
T71

T5

Annealing

34

Thermal Processing
Solution treat and age naturally to a substantially stable condition. Natural aging may continue slowly, particularly at elevated service temperatures, so structural stability may not be
satisfactory.
Solution treat and age artificially. In castings, T6 commonly describes optimum strength
and ductility.
Solution treat, quench and age artificially for maximum hardness and strength. This variant
of T6 yields additional strength and stability but at reduced ductility.
Solution treat, quench and artificially overage or stabilize. This temper improves ductility,
thermal stability and resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Solution treat, quench and artificially overage to a substantially stable condition. This
temper further increases thermal stability and resistance to stress corrosion cracking and
reduces strength.
Age only. Stress relief or stabilization treatment. Cool from casting temperature and
artificially age or stabilize (without prior solution treatment). Frequently, the as-cast condition provides acceptable mechanical properties but is accompanied by microstructural
instability or undesirable residual stresses. Perhaps the possibility of in-service growth is
the only constraint against using a casting in the as-cast state. In each case, the T5 temper
is appropriate.
Castings that have low strength requirements but require high dimensional stability are
annealed. Annealing also substantially reduces residual stress, a need in die castings.
Annealing is a severe stabilization treatment and an elevated temperature variant of the
T5 temper. Softening occurs because annealing depletes the matrix of solutes, and the
precipitates formed are too large to provide hardening.

ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS

use of fluidized beds to reach solution

temperature rapidly and provide for
quicker heat treatment cycles.
The benefits of heat treatment include:
homogenization of alloying elementsthis is desirable to distribute
elements evenly throughout the
matrix, so properties in the casting
will be uniform;
stress reliefresidual stresses are
created during cooling from elevated
casting and solution temperatures.
Heating the casting to an intermediate temperature can relieve these
residual stresses;
improved dimensional stability
and machinabilitychanges in the
microstructure can cause castings to
grow over time. To maintain tight
dimensional tolerances during and
after machining, castings should be
heat treated to form stable precipitate phases;
mechanical property improvement
the greatest use of heat treatment is
to enhance mechanical and corrosion
properties through spheroidizing
constituent phase particles and by
precipitation hardening.
Rarely are all of the desired properties optimized in a single casting. More
often, heat treatment is a compromise,
maximizing some properties at the expense of others. For example, tensile and
yield strengths can be increased, but this
results in lower elongation. Contrarily,
higher elongations result in lower tensile
ECS
and yield strengths
For more information, consult: Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for
Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings
and Ingot, (Pink Sheets), Aluminum Assn.,
Washington, D.C., www.aluminum.org;
Aluminum Casting Technology, American
Foundry Society, Schaumburg, Ill.; and
Design and Procurement of High-Strength
Structural Aluminum Castings, American
Foundry Society, Schaumburg, Ill.

2006 CASTING SOURCE DIRECTORY