Porosity in Al Castings

Porosity in Al castings
Fernando Morales
José Talamantes-Silva
April 22nd, 2015

Porosity in Al castings
The main objective of this document is to help to identified the different types of porosity usually
present in Al castings. With a special focus on gas porosity and shrinkage porosity
Porosity in Al castings is due to different causes. The most common are:

= Shrinkage porosity. Interconnected, usually large and commonly due to inefficient part filling and
feeding
= Oxides. Inclusions due to metal handling and pouring practices
= Bubbles. Large voids due to interactions of air and/or large amounts of sand core gas (core blows)
generated during the casting process
= Dispersed isolated porosity. Known as gas porosity or “salt and pepper” is mainly due to hydrogen
content in the alloy.
= Localized isolated porosity due to liquid Al-sand core interactions. Sub-surface porosity constrained
to surrounding areas of a cavity formed by a sand core
NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS
2
Porosity in Al Castings – Overview
Shrinkage Oxide
Bubble
Sub-Surface
porosity
Gas porosity
3
Porosity in Al castings – Oxide inclusions
TYPES OF OXIDES
Although oxides in fact are classified as inclusions, these could also be manifested as porosity
There are two types of oxides:
= Oxides due to turbulence. Aluminium is highly reactive with Oxygen. It forms Al2O3 when it gets in contact
with air in the shape of spherical cavities of irregular foldings. These take place during liquid metal handling
and during the casting process
= Oxides (spinel) formed at the holding furnaces These are the result of the reaction between furnace
refractory and liquid metal (rather infrequent oxides). In contrast to oxides due to turbulence these are solid
inclusions and rather infrequent found in castings
Turbulence oxide Spinel oxide
4
Porosity in Al castings – Oxides due to turbulence
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Morphology. Typically they are found in castings in the form of spherical or convoluted irregular
films (foldings). Both are isolated cavities visible to the naked eye after machining
Size. Oxides due to turbulence typically can go from fractions of millimetre up to centimetres in
the worst cases. Based on experience, most of visible oxides lie within 0.1 and 5 mm.
RISKS
Depending on its location and size, the presence of an oxide potentially could lead to a leak.
Usually these types of oxides are detected during casting leak test.
When oxides are visible after part machining (pan rail, deck face…) the main concerns are:
= Sealing. If the oxide is not located at a zone covered by a gasket this can considered as
“functional”. Otherwise, since these types of metallurgical defects are isolated these can be
repaired by the use of a filling material.
5
How to identify a visible oxide due to turbulence after machining
1. IT IS TYPICALLY ISOLATED
Note that no other defects are present at the
surrounding areas
6
2. LOOK FOR FOLDINGS

With the help of a magnifying glass look
for folding or “wrinkles” at the surface
of the defect
7
3. AN OXIDE HAS DIFFERENT SHAPES

Irregular
Since oxides are generated during part

pouring and liquid metal handing, their
shape goes form spherical to irregular
Rounded Spherical
8
Typical turbulence oxides morphology - Irregular
9
Typical turbulence oxides morphology - Rounded
10
Typical turbulence oxides morphology - Spherical
11
Oxides due to turbulence – Case study 1
A cavity was found in a cylinder head
after engine plant machining
Defect visible size is about 4 mm
12
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Isolated cavity - ~4mm
Irregular morphology
Foldings visible at defect surface
13
During product development

stage a cylinder head
presented recurrent oxide
inclusions due to turbulence
These were exposed after
machining
Defects size rage from 0.5 up to
5 mm
14
Closer look at
defect
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Polished defect
15
Closer look at
KEY CHARACTERISTICS defect

Polished defect
16
Closer look at
KEY CHARACTERISTICS defect

Rounded / Irregular morphology
Polished defect
17
Oxides due to turbulence – Case study 2 Closer look at
defect
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Rounded morphology
Polished defect
18
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Polished defect
19
Porosity in Al castings – Oxides due furnace reactions with liquid Al
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Morphology. Typically they are found in castings in the form of solid hard inclusions (spinel)
formed at the holding furnaces
Size. These types of oxides rarely go beyond a couple of millimetres
RISKS
Since these oxides are actually spinel they are hard, but because of their small size present little or
no risk for part functionality
20
How to identify a visible spinel oxide
SOLID INCLUSION
Since this is a material result of the reaction
between Al and furnace refractory no cavities
are observed. This is easily observed with the
help of a magnifying glass
21
Porosity in Al castings – Dispersed isolated porosity
TYPES OF DISPERSED ISOLATED POROSITY

Although there are different root causes for this type of porosity, morphology and size is virtually
the same
Porosity due to hydrogen pick up

= This is also know as “gas porosity” or “salt and pepper”
= It is not interconnected and it is evenly distributed all over the part
= During the melting process Al is exposed to the atmosphere. Hydrogen is picked up by liquid Al form
humidity present in the air
= Hydrogen is highly soluble in liquid Aluminium at high temperatures, however for temperatures
below ~620 °C H2 solubility drops significantly
= Hydrogen-related porosity is small (no larger than 1 mm). Maximum pore size depends on the
solidification rate of every particular casting area
= Usually it is desirable to have a minimum content of hydrogen in the melt to reduce the amount of
shrinkage porosity in the final casting
Porosity due to sand core-liquid metal interactions
= Other common source of small porosity is the sand core (not core blows!).
= Sand core binder or humidity on the surface interacts with the liquid metal resulting in porosity
surrounding the sand core.
22
Porosity in Al castings – Dispersed isolated porosity
TYPES OF DISPERSED ISOLATED POROSITY (CONTINUED)

Porosity due to micro-oxides in the molten alloy
= This type of porosity can be classified also “salt and pepper”
= It is not interconnected and it is evenly distributed all over the part
= Micro oxides generated during liquid metal treatment act as nucleation sites for porosity
= Its morphology is mostly irregular
= It is Nemak’s experience that these pores are similar in size and distribution to Hydrogen porosity
Porosity due to iron morphology and content

= Fe is the most common impurity in aluminium alloys
= Two main types of Fe-Si bearing intermetallic phases occurring in Al-Si foundry alloys are Al5FeSi (b
phase) and Al15(Mn,Fe)3Si2 (a phase).
= It is well known that iron content is responsible for inferior mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys.
And this is mainly due to the precipitation of b-phase Fe.
= Fe-b morphology appear to be needles but in fact are brittle plates, that hinder alloy self-feeding
during the solidification process, leading to porosity and consequently affecting part features such
as mechanical properties.
= Mn is added to the melt to promote the formation of Fe-a. Mn:Fe ratio has to be at least 0.5 in
order to eliminate Fe plates formation. Thus Mn is added to minimize porosity and keep high
mechanical properties.
23
Porosity in Al castings – Salt and Pepper porosity
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Morphology. Pores are commonly spherical. However depending on several factors such as
solidification rate, Si modification and chemistry their shape might become irregular
Size. Maximum pore size for this type of porosity is not larger of 1 mm when observed in a
machined casting
Dependence on solidification rate. Although by volume the amount of Hydrogen is the same,
porosity appear to be larger in slow solidification areas. Thus for critical areas the use of chills
during the casting process is desirable to minimize maximum pore size
RISKS
This type of porosity is not interconnected. It presents a low risk of leakages
When salt and pepper porosity is visible after part machining the main concerns are:
= Sealing. If porosity is not located at a zone covered by a gasket this can considered as “functional”.
Otherwise, maximum pore size and mean porosity must be evaluated.
= Machining. Because the isolated nature of this type of porosity a robust solution to eliminate its
effects is to smear milling the affected area of the casting
24
How to identify Salt and Pepper porosity after machining
1. IT IS PRESENT IN A LARGE AREA

Large amount of pores, no larger than 1 mm,
are found all over the casting.
25

are found all over the casting preferentially in
machined zones.
26

machined zones.
Polished sample
Dye penetrant. Every

red dot is a pore
27
2. PORES ARE SMALLER THAN 1 MM

machined zones.
28
2. PORES ARE SMALLER THAN 1 MM

machined zones.
29
3. PORES CAN BE IRREGULAR

Because several metallurgical aspects pores
morphology vary from spherical to irregular.
The key is to confirm the same distribution all
over the casting and that they are isolated
30

31

32
Dispersed porosity – Case study 1
Cylinder head presents salt and pepper porosity all

over the deck face
Melt practices and degasification practices were
optimized, porosity was reduced but not eliminated
Solidification rate was too slow at the deck face
Solution: smear milling. Porosity was not eliminated
but covered avoiding any sealing issues in the engine
33
Dispersed porosity – Case study 1
Polished area exposing real pores size

Note sharp edges in every pore
Morphology confirms hydrogen porosity
34
Dispersed porosity – Case study 1 Polished area exposing real pores size
Note sharp edges in every pore
Morphology confirms hydrogen porosity
35
Dispersed porosity – Case study 1 Pores with different surface finishing
Porosity is not observed after cubing (rough
machining)
Cubing
Smear milling significantly helps to cover pores
Polished at Lab
Smear milling
36
Porosity in Al castings – Sand core-liquid metal interaction porosity
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Morphology. Pores are commonly spherical. However depending on several factors such as
solidification rate, Si modification and chemistry their shape might become irregular
Size. Maximum pore size for this type of porosity is not larger of 1 mm when observed in a
machined casting
Location. This type of porosity is very well defined in surrounding areas to sand cores
RISKS
This type of porosity is not interconnected. It presents a low risk of leakages
When sand core-liquid metal interaction porosity is visible after part machining the main concerns
are:
= Sealing. If porosity is not located at a zone covered by a gasket this can considered as “functional”.
Otherwise, maximum pore size and mean porosity must be evaluated.
37
How to identify Sand core-liquid metal interaction porosity after machining
1. PORES ARE LOCATED AT THE INTERFACE

BETWEEN CORE AND ALUMINIUM
Because the source of gas that leads to
subsurface porosity is located at the sand
cores, pores are preferentially positioned at
the surrounding areas of the sand core
38
How to identify Sand core-liquid metal interaction porosity after machining
2. PORES ARE PREFERENTIALLY SPHERICAL

Since the source of gas are the sand cores,
reactions are relatively late. Resulting in
spherical pores.
39
BACKGROUND
It is well known that Strontium (Sr) is added to the Al-Si alloys (3xx series in Nemak
case) to improve soundness- by eliminating shrinkages and changing the solidification
mode of the alloy. Thus characteristics such as mechanical properties and thermal
conductivity can be increased.
Sr modifies the silicon present in the 3xx series alloys. It changes Si morphology from
lamellar to fibrous if enough Sr is added.
A typical range for product cast at Nemak goes from 120 up to 180 ppm. Sr content
depends on:
= the level of silicon modification (AFS) specified in accordance with the client
= solidification rate at the area of interest
= alloy either primary or secondary (Sr effectiveness is affected by elements such as P)
40
The AFS eutectic modification rating system
• Issues surrounding use of Sr

include:
– Dissolution rate (how fast does

Sr enter alloy?)
1 4 – Sr recovery (how much Sr
enters alloy?)
– Retention / fade of Sr (how
long does Sr last?)
– Eutectic modification (how
does measured Sr level relate
to modification effects)
• Effect of melt temperature, master

alloy type & Sr content, base alloy
2 5 and target Sr level
3 6
41
3-D SEM image of Sr-modified silicon. Small Si
particles improve mechanical properties and
facilitate thermal and electrical conductivity.

Typical microstructure of a Al-Sr master alloy
(rod presentation). Sr particle size is critical for
mater alloy performance.

Porosity due to micro-oxides in the molten alloy – Case study
POROSITY AND SR ADDITIONS

Some researches had reported that microporosity increases in castings after Sr
additions into the melt. According to Nemak experience this is a misconception:
= Sr master alloy additions to the melt do not make the molten alloy more prone to hydrogen
pick-up.
= Instead, any increase in microporosity is due to “how” the master alloy is added to the melt.
Actually this is true for any master alloy added to the molten aluminium (e.g. grain refiners).
If these are added to the melt without the proper furnace cleaning practices, the resulting
micro-oxides (induced by the skin of the rods, waffles, bricks or any of the available
presentations) nucleate porosity at the time the casting is produced and solidifies.
= If not removed, these micro-oxides accumulate in the furnace(s) and canals; and little by little
get into every casting that is produced. This could lead to an increase of porosity and
eventually to potential leaks and drop on mechanical properties.
= In other words: any alloying element (including Sr master alloys) added into the melt,
combined with deficient cleaning practices (or lack of filters) could lead to micro oxides which
eventually lead to higher levels of microporosity.
= Since Sr effectiveness fades (once added to the melt) it is important to find the right location
in the casting line that helps to achieve the desired Si modification level but minimizing the
amount of micro-oxides into the part during the casting process.
44
Porosity due to micro-oxides in the molten alloy – Case study
POROSITY AND SR ADDITIONS

Nemak experience with microporosity apparently induced by Sr (or Ti) master alloys has
always been solved by improving molten metal cleaning practices (and filters installed in
the casting line). Sr is necessary to both comply with clients requirements (machining,
thermal conductivity, mechanical properties) and guarantee part soundness (eliminate
shrinkages).
Next slides (8 and 9) are shown as examples of this situation: micro-oxides nucleating
microporosity.
It is very important to note that the porosity inducing micro-oxides are due to the
molten metal preparation practices and are not the big oxides provoked by turbulent
filling
45
Blue arrows indicate oxide location.
This analysis was performed after microporosity

increased in one of Nemak products (block). Parts
rejected because of leaks increased from 2% to 25%
(test performed at Nemak). Leak was due to an
increment of microporosity (amount and size). Analyses
showed that porosity increased due to a lack of furnace
cleaning. After more frequent cleaning practices were
implemented rejection rate went down to the previous
level (2%), this was achieved despite the fact that Sr
and Ti are added right before casting is poured. Sr
range for this product: 140-180 ppm.
XRD Element mapping

Al location O location
EDX shows the chemical elements present in the analysed area. Oxygen in red and Aluminium in grey. An Oxygen and
Aluminium rich phase is present inside
NEMAKthe pores. In
RESEARCH ANDother words: micro-oxides are observed.
DEVELOPMENT
JTS
46
It is clear that micro-oxides nucleate porosity. Blue
arrows indicate these micro-oxides (microns in size).
XRD Element mapping
Al location O location
EDX shows the chemical elements present in the analysed area. Oxygen in red and Aluminium in grey.
47
Porosity due to Fe content in the alloy – Case study
Low static mechanical properties were observed in a particular casting

Metallographic sample preparation showed a large amount of micro-porosity
SEM analysis clearly shows the presence of Al5FeSi (b phase) intermetallics
It is well known that iron content is responsible for inferior mechanical properties of Al-Si
alloys. And this is mainly due to the precipitation of b-phase Fe.
Fe-b morphology appear to be needles but in fact are brittle plates, that hinder alloy self-
feeding during the solidification process, leading to porosity and consequently affecting part
features such as mechanical properties.
Issue was solved by Mn additions to the melt to promote the formation of Fe-a. Mn:Fe ratio
has to be at least 0.5 in order to eliminate Fe plates formation. Thus Mn is added to minimize
porosity and keep high mechanical properties.
Tensile test sample fracture after testing.

Red arrows indicate the presence of Fe-b.
These intermetallics hinder liquid metal
inter-dendritic feeding leading to porosity.
Resulting in low mechanical properties.
48
Tensile sample fracture after testing. Red
arrows indicate the presence of Fe-beta.
Note the large porosity associated to Fe-
beta plates.
49
Tensile test sample fracture after testing.
Red arrows indicate the presence of Fe-
beta. Again this results in low mechanical
properties.
50
Fe-a Chinese script morphology
Fe-b plates morphology
51
Fe-b platelets morphology
52
Fe-a Chineese script morphology. Predendritic
nucleation, helping to nucleate Al-a.
Formation of Fe-a is achieved by Mn additions
53
Porosity in Al castings – Shrinkages
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Morphology. Shrinkage porosity is form during part solidification. They are due to liquid metal
contraction during the solidification process. Suboptimal conditions during the casting process can
lead to this defect. It is in fact interconnected dendritic porosity. When observed they look as a
dense porosity cloud.
Size. Shrinkages size can go from milometers up to various centimetres.
RISKS
Depending on its location and size, the presence of shrinkages potentially could lead to a leaks.
Usually these are detected during casting leak test.
54
How to identify shrinkage porosity after machining
1. SHRINKAGES ARE CONCENTRATED

Shrinkage porosity is concentrated in
particular areas forming a cloud-like defect.
55
How to identify shrinkage porosity after machining
2. SHRINKAGES ARE INTERCONNECTED

Intercommunicated dendritic cavities. Typical sizes
go from few millimeters up to centimeters.
56
Shrinkage porosity – Case study 1
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Dense concentration of interconnected
porosity found at the pan rail of a
cylinder head
57
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
After polishing it is confirmed the
presence of shrinkage porosity
58
59
Comparing gas porosity vs shrinkage porosity
Polished samples
Gas porosity is isolated while shrinkage porosity is all interconnected
60
Comparing gas porosity vs shrinkage porosity – SEM imaging
Intentionally opened area
Gas porosity Shrinkage
Gas porosity is isolated while shrinkage porosity is all interconnected
61
Porosity in Al castings – Shrinkage
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Other type of shrinkage also takes place. In some
instances, when interactions with sand core gas or
air occurs a variant of shrinkage takes place known
as “worm-like”
They usually take place in corners and have a
morphology of pin holes.
They can be mistaken for oxides inclusions
62
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
When polished the defect has depth and it is
interconnected.
Difficult to assess at the naked eye
63
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Smooth surface, few dendrites are
observed.
Intermetallics such as Fe are observed
No presence of foldings, meaning that
no sign of turbulence is observed
64
ASTM E-155 standard
Standard for shrinkage interconnected “worm-like” cavities (“feathery” as called in standard)
65
ASTM E-155 standard
Standard for shrinkage interconnected “worm-like” cavities (“feathery” as called in standard)
This is used to characterize defects such as the one shown in image shown on the right
66
ASTM E-155 standard
Standard for shrinkage interconnected cavities (“sponge” as called in standard)
10mm 10mm 10mm 10mm
10mm 10mm 10mm 10mm
67
ASTM E-155 standard
Standard for shrinkage interconnected cavities (“sponge” as called in standard)
This is used to characterize defects such as the one shown in image shown on the right
68
Porosity in Al castings – Other defects: Bubbles
Mechanism Trapped air bubble
 During the casting process trapped air or sand
core gas (core blows) is not able to escape out
of the casting
Common root causes

 Trapped air
‒ Unbalanced mould filling
‒ “Blind” cavities
 Core blows
‒ Excessive resin in sand cores
‒ Inadequate ventilation to allow fumes
release to atmosphere
Core blow bubble
Key characteristics
 Usually large voids larger than 1 cm
 Visible trail path
 Bubble surface stained (when associated to
sand core blow)
69
Case study 1: Bubbles
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Bubbles are frequently mistaken by
cracks, since only bubble trail is
observed in the casting
In this case close to a valve guide in a
cylinder head
70
Case study 1: Bubbles
Bubble trail
Bubble trail
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
After sectioning the presence of a
bubble is clear
71
Porosity in Al castings – Other defects: Inverse segregation
Combustion chamber
Dendritic segregation
The superficial material is mainly composed by

Cu and Al. It is easily observed that dendritic
segregation it is still part of the core alloy and
does not represent a risk of detachment.
72
Porosity in Al castings – Other defects: Inverse segregation
This phenomenon has been previously observed. It is called dendritic (or

inverse) segregation. This is observed at some faces of castings where
heat is rapidly extracted, in this case combustion chambers. Some time
this is misidentify as porosity or oxides inclusions.
73
Porosity in Al castings – Summary
Defect Origin Morphology Typical size Key characteristic

Hydrogen pick up in the liquid
alloy
Salt and Pepper porosity Isolated pores 1 mm maximum Porosity present all over the casting
Micro-oxides
Fe-b intermetallics
Gas or humidity evolution from

Sand core interactions with Al Porosity concentrated around cavities formed by sand
sand cores interact with liquid Isolated pores 1 mm maximum
porosity cores
aluminium
Liquid metal handling and casting Cavities

Oxides - Turbulence 0.1 mm - 5 mm Commonly isolated, folding on defect surface
process Spherical/Rounded/Irregular
Oxides - furnace refractory Liquid Al interact with furnace

Solid inclusion less than 2 mm Small protuberances
reaction with liquid Al refractory material
Porosity caused by casting

Shrinkage Interconnected dendritic porosity 1 mm - centimeters Cloud like porosity concentrated over a particular area
contraction during solidification
In fact these defects are long cavities that usually

Porosity caused by casting remain few millimeters from surface. Difficult to assess
Shrinkages - "worm like" Pin hole 1 mm - centimeters
contraction during solidification at naked eye. Usually mistaken as oxide inclusions. Take
place in corners.
Typical bubble morphology. Commonly misidentifies as

Trapped air. Sand core gas Bubble trail is commonly only
Bubbles Larger than 1 cm a crack or cold shut. Smooth defect surface (few
evolution observed.
"wrinkles").
74

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April 22nd, 2015

Porosity in Al castings is due to different causes. The most common are:

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

Turbulence oxide Spinel oxide

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

2. LOOK FOR FOLDINGS

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

3. AN OXIDE HAS DIFFERENT SHAPES

Since oxides are generated during part

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

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During product development

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

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Isolated cavity - ~5mm

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Isolated cavity - ~2mm

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TYPES OF DISPERSED ISOLATED POROSITY

Porosity due to hydrogen pick up

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

TYPES OF DISPERSED ISOLATED POROSITY (CONTINUED)

Porosity due to iron morphology and content

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

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1. IT IS PRESENT IN A LARGE AREA

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

1. IT IS PRESENT IN A LARGE AREA

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

1. IT IS PRESENT IN A LARGE AREA

Dye penetrant. Every

2. PORES ARE SMALLER THAN 1 MM

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

2. PORES ARE SMALLER THAN 1 MM

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

3. PORES CAN BE IRREGULAR

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

3. PORES CAN BE IRREGULAR

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

3. PORES CAN BE IRREGULAR

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

Cylinder head presents salt and pepper porosity all

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

Polished area exposing real pores size

NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS

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NEMAK RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT JTS