MODULE 2 - Networking Fundamentals

Students who complete this module should be able to perform the following tasks:
Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking
Use an analogy to explain bandwidth
Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth
Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput
Calculate data transfer rates
Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication
Explain the development of the OSI model
List the advantages of a layered approach
Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model
Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model
Describe the similarities and differences between the two models
Briefly outline the history of networking
Identify devices used in networking
Understand the role of protocols in networking
Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN
Explain VPNs and their advantages
Describe the differences between intranets and extranets
2.1.1

Data networks

Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written for microcomputers. The
microcomputers were not connected so there was no efficient way to share data among them. It was not efficient or
cost-effective for businesses to use floppy disks to share data. Sneakernet created multiple copies of the data.
One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards. LAN standards provided an open set of
guidelines that companies used to create network hardware and software. As a result, the equipment from different
companies became compatible. This allowed for stability in LAN implementations.
A new technology was necessary to share information efficiently and quickly within a company and between
businesses. The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).
2.1.2

Networking devices

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device. These devices are broken up into two
classifications. The first classification is end-user devices. End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and
other devices that provide services directly to the user. The second classification is network devices. Network devices
include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to communicate.
A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer motherboard. It can also be a
peripheral device. NICs are sometimes called network adapters. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size
of a PCMCIA card. Each NIC is identified by a unique code called a Media Access Control (MAC) address. This
address is used to control data communication for the host on the network.
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals that are
distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater does not make intelligent decision concerning forwarding
packets like a router.
2.1.3

Network topology

A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All the hosts connect directly to this
backbone.
A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates a physical ring of cable.
A star topology connects all cables to a central point.
An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs or switches.
A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. However, instead of linking the hubs or switches together, the
system is linked to a computer that controls the traffic on the topology.
A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from interruption of service. For example,
a nuclear power plant might use a mesh topology in the networked control systems. As seen in the graphic, each host
has its own connections to all other hosts. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt
the full mesh topology.
2.1.11

Benefits of VPNs

The following are the three main types of VPNs:

Access VPNs provide remote access for mobile and small office, home office (SOHO) users to an Intranet or Extranet
over a shared infrastructure. Access VPNs use analog, dialup, ISDN, DSL, mobile IP, and cable technologies to securely
connect mobile users, telecommuters, and branch offices.
Intranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link regional and remote offices to an internal network over a shared
infrastructure. Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in that they allow access only to the employees of the
enterprise.
Extranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link business partners to an internal network over a shared infrastructure.
Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs in that they allow access to users outside the enterprise.
2.2

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of
time. It is important to understand the concept of bandwidth for the following reasons.
andwidth is finite. Regardless of the media used to build a network, there are limits on the network capacity to carry
information. Bandwidth is limited by the laws of physics and by the technologies used to place information on the
media. For example, the bandwidth of a conventional modem is limited to about 56 kbps by both the physical properties
of twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technology.
Bandwidth is an important factor that is used to analyze network performance, design new networks, and understand
the Internet. A networking professional must understand the tremendous impact of bandwidth and throughput on
network performance and design.
2.2.5
Throughput
Bandwidth is the measure of the amount of information that can move through the network in a given period of time.
Therefore, the amount of available bandwidth is a critical part of the specification of the network. A typical LAN might
be built to provide 100 Mbps to every desktop workstation, but this does not mean that each user is actually able to

move 100 megabits of data through the network for every second of use. This would be true only under the most ideal
circumstances
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a
specific set of data is transmitted on the network. Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far less than the
maximum possible digital bandwidth of the medium that is being used.
2.2.6

Data transfer calculation

Network designers and administrators are often called upon to make decisions regarding bandwidth. One decision
might be whether to increase the size of the WAN connection to accommodate a new database. Another decision might
be whether the current LAN backbone is of sufficient bandwidth for a streaming-video training program. The answers to
problems like these are not always easy to find, but one place to start is with a simple data transfer calculation.
Using the formula transfer time = size of file / bandwidth (T=S/BW) allows a network administrator to estimate
several of the important components of network performance. If the typical file size for a given application is known,
dividing the file size by the network bandwidth yields an estimate of the fastest time that the file can be transferred.
2.2.7

Digital versus analog

Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. The basic
unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. Typically, multiples of this basic unit of analog bandwidth
are used, just as with digital bandwidth. Units of measurement that are commonly seen are kilohertz (KHz), megahertz
(MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). These are the units used to describe the frequency of cordless telephones, which usually
operate at either 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz. These are also the units used to describe the frequencies of 802.11a and 802.11b
wireless networks, which operate at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz
In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is. Voice, video, and data all
become streams of bits when they are prepared for transmission over digital media. This type of transmission gives
digital bandwidth an important advantage over analog bandwidth. Unlimited amounts of information can be sent over
the smallest or lowest bandwidth digital channel. Regardless of how long it takes for the digital information to arrive at
its destination and be reassembled, it can be viewed, listened to, read, or processed in its original form.
2.3.3

OSI model

The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications. Although there are other
models in existence, most network vendors relate their products to the OSI reference model. This is especially true when
they want to educate users on the use of their products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about
sending and receiving data on a network.

2.3.6

TCP/IP model

Similarities include:
Both have layers.
Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
Both have comparable transport and network layers.
Both models need to be known by networking professionals.
Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take different paths to reach the same
destination. This is contrasted with circuit-switched networks where all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model gains credibility just
because of its protocols. In contrast, networks are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is
used as a guide.