CIT722 SUMMARY FROM NOUNGEEKS.

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DEFINITION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network may be defined as the coordination or

interconnection of a number of individual computers. A

computer network is basically established by the network layer

in the Open Systems Infrastructure model, popularly known as

the OSI model.

Computer networks exist on various scales, from links between

machines in the same room up through wiring connecting the

machines in a building or campus to regional, national and

global networks. Various media are used to carry the

communications signals: copper wire, fibre-optic cables and

wireless or radio transmissions etc.

NETWORKING CONCEPT

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A

network of computers is a group of interconnected systems

sharing resources and interacting using a shared

communications link. A network, therefore, is a set of

interconnected systems with something to share. The shared

resource can be data, a printer, a fax modem, or a service such as

a database or an email system. The individual systems must be

connected through a pathway (called the transmission medium)

that is used to transmit the resource or service between the

computers.

All systems on the pathway must follow a set of common

communication rules for data to arrive at its intended

destination and for the sending and receiving systems to

understand each other. The rules governing computer

communication are called protocols. In summary, all networks

must have the following:

 A resource to share (resource)

 A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)

 A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share

files directly. Instead of using a disk or USB key to carry files

from one computer or office to another, you can share files

directly using a network.

Security: Specific directories can be password protected to

limit access to authorized users. Also, files and programs on a

network can be designated as "copy inhibit" so you don’t have to

worry about the illegal copying of programs.

Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share

resources such as printers, fax machines, modems, and

scanners.

Communication: Even outside of the internet, those on the

network can communicate with each other via electronic mail

over the network system. When connected to the internet,

network users can communicate with people around the world

via the network.

Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files

from computers throughout the network. This means that a user

can begin work on a project on one computer and finish up on

another. Multiple users can also collaborate on the same project

through the network.

Workgroup Computing: Workgroup software like Microsoft

BackOffice enables many users to contribute to a document

concurrently. This allows for interactive teamwork.

KEY ISSUES TO COMPUTER NETWORK

The following are the major key issues to be trashed out very

carefully before we go for a computer network:

 Nature of Nodes -Whether participating nodes are

homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature?

 Topology - Which of the computer topology has to be

followed? Computer topology accounts for the physical

arrangement of participating computers in the network.

 Interconnection Type - Whether interconnection type is

point-to-point, multi-point, or broadcast type.

 Reliability - How reliable our network is? Reliability aspect

includes error rate, redundancy and recovery procedures.

 Channel Capacity Allocation - Whether allocation of channel

capacity is time-division or frequency division?

NETWORKING HARDWARE

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals,

interface cards and other equipment needed to perform

data-processing and communications within the network.

File Servers

A file server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast

computer with a large amount of RAM and storage space, along

with a fast network interface card. The network operating

system software resides on this computer, along with any

software applications and data files that need to be shared.

The file server controls the communication of information between

the nodes on a network. For example, it may be asked to send a

word processor program to one workstation, receive a database file

from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the

same time period.

Ethernet Cards

Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a

computer, although many computers (such as the Macintosh)

now include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet card.

Ethernet cards contain connections for either coaxial or twisted

pair cables (or both) (See fig. 1.3.2). If it is designed for coaxial

cable, the connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted

pair, it will have a RJ- 45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also

contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial,

twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this

method is used there is always an external transceiver attached

to the workstation.

Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network

into two smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an

older wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-date,

a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the

network so that it can pass packets of information to the correct

location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and

automatically figure out the address of each computer on both

sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each message and, if

necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.

Routers

A router translates information from one network to another; it

is similar to a super-intelligent bridge. Routers select the best

path to route a message, based on the destination address and

origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions,

and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back

roads and shortcuts.

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system

that is designed primarily to support workstation, personal

computer, and, in some instances, older terminal that are

connected on a local area network (LAN). Artisoft's LANtastic,

Banyan VINES, Novell's Netware, and Microsoft's LAN Manager

are examples of network operating systems. In addition, some

multi-purpose operating systems, such as Windows NT and

Digital's OpenVMS come with capabilities that enable them to be

described as a network operating system.

The two major types of network operating systems are:

1. Peer-to-Peer

Peer-to- peer network operating systems allow users to share

resources and files located on their computers and to access shared

resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a

file server or a centralized management source.

2. Client/Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to

centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated file

servers (See fig. 1.4.2). The file servers become the heart of the

system, providing access to resources and providing security.

Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources

available on the file servers.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either

physically or logically. The physical topology of a network refers

to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals

while the logical topology is the method used to pass

information between workstations. Two or more devices connect

to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a

network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all

the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to each other.

There are five basic topologies possible: mesh, star, tree, bus,

and ring.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

 A. Bus Topology

Bus topology uses a common backbone to connect all the

network devices in a network in a linear shape. A single cable

functions as the shared communication medium for all the

devices attached with this cable with an interface connector. The

device, which wants to communicate send the broadcast

message to all the devices attached with the shared cable but

only the intended recipient actually accepts and process that

message.

B. Star Topology

In the computer networking world the most commonly used

topology in LAN is the star topology. Star topologies can be

implemented in home, offices or even in a building. All the

computers in the star topologies are connected to central devices

like hub, switch or router. The functionality of all these devices is

different. As compared to the bus topology, a star network requires

more devices & cables to complete a network.

C. Tree Topology
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a

bus. Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together

onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the tree

bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network

devices. This bus/star/hybrid combination supports future

expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus or

star.

Rule

A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet

protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect of the Ethernet protocol

requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every

part of the network within a specified length of time. Each

concentrator or repeater that a signal goes through adds a small

amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any two nodes

on the network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments,

connected through repeaters/concentrators

Mesh topology
In the topologies shown above, there is only one possible path

from one node to another node. If any cable in that path is

broken, the nodes cannot communicate.

Mesh topology uses lots of cables to connect every node with every

other node. It is very expensive to wire up, but if any cable fails,

there are many other ways for two nodes to communicate. Some

WANs, like the Internet, employ mesh routing.

IP ADDRESSING

An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on

an IP network. It designates the specific location of a device on the

network. An IP address is a software address, not a hardware

address- the latter is hard- coded on a Network Interface Card

(NIC) and used for finding hosts on a local network.

There are two IP addressing schemes:

1. Hierarchical IP addressing
An IP address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are

divided into four sections, referred to as octets or bytes, each

containing 1 byte (8 bits).You can depict an IP address using one

of three methods:

 Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56

 Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000

 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38

2. Private IP Addresses

These addresses can be used on a private network, but they are not

routable through the Internet. This is designed for the purpose of

creating a measure of well-needed security, but it also conveniently

saves valuable IP address space.

ISDN

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is an international

standard, originally established by the ITU in 1984, for

transmitting digital data over the PSTN. ISDN specifies

protocols at the Physical, Data Link and Transport layers of the

OSI Model. These protocols handle signaling, framing,

connection setup and termination, routing, flow control, and

error detection and correction. ISDN relies on the PSTN for its

transmission medium.

PSTN

PSTN, which standard for Public Switched Telephone Network,

refers to the network of typical telephone lines and carrier

equipment that service most homes. PSTN may also be called

plain old telephone service (POTS). The PSTN comprises the

entire telephone system, from the lines that connect homes and

businesses to the network centers that connect different regions

of a country. A dial-up connection is one in which a user

connects, via a modem, to a distant network from a computer

and stays connected for a finite period of time. Most of the time,

the term dial-up refers to a connection that uses a PSTN line.

Mesh

A mesh topology WAN incorporates many directly

interconnected sites. Because every site is interconnected, data

can travel directly from its origin to its destination. The type of
mesh topology in which every WAN site is directly connected to

every other site is called a full mesh WAN. One drawback to a

full mesh WAN is the cost. To reduce costs, a network

administrator might choose to implement a partial mesh WAN,

in which only critical WAN sites are directly interconnected and

secondary sites are connected through star or ring topologies.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK AND MAN

PROTOCOLS

Metropolitan Area Network(MAN) is a computer networks

usually spanning a campus or a city, which typically connect a

few local area networks using high speed backbone technologies.

A MAN often provides efficient connections to a wide area

network (WAN) . There are three important features which

discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs:

 The network size falls intermediate between LANs and

WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50

km range. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city,

although in some cases MANs may be as small as a group of

buildings.
 A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single

organisation. The MAN, its communications links and

equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of

users or by a network service provider who sells the service to

the users.

 A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing

of regional resources. It is also frequently used to provide a

shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

The Local Area Network (LAN) is by far the most common type of

data network. As the name suggests, a LAN serves a local area

(typically the area of a floor of a building, but in some cases

spanning a distance of several kilometers).

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF LANs

Major characteristics of LANs are:

 The network operates within a building or floor of a building.

The geographic scope for ever more powerful LAN desktop

devices running more powerful applications is for less area per

LAN.

 LANs provide multiple connected desktop devices (usually

PCs) with access to high-bandwidth media.

 An enterprise purchases the media and connections used

in the LAN; the enterprise can privately control the LAN

as it chooses.

 LANs rarely shut down or restrict access to connected

workstations; local services are usually always available.

 By definition, the LAN connects physically adjacent devices on

the media.

COMPONENTS OF LAN - NETWORK OPERATING

SYSTEM(NOS)
In order for computers to be able to communicate with each other,

they must first have the networking software that tells them how to

do so. Without the software, the system will function simply as a

“standalone,” unable to utilize any of the resources on the network.

Network operating software may by installed by the factory,

eliminating the need for you to purchase it, (for example

AppleTalk), or you may install it yourself.

Network interface card(NIC)

In addition to network operating software, each network device

must also have a network interface card. These cards today are also

referred to as adapters, as in “Ethernet adapter card” or “Token

Ring adapter card.” The NIC card amplifies electronic signals

which are generally very weak within the computer system itself.

The NIC is also responsible for packaging data for transmission,

and for controlling access to the network cable.

Cables or Transmission Media

The wires connecting thevarious devices together are

referred to as cables.
 Cable prices range from inexpensive to very costly and can

comprise of a significant cost of the network itself.

 Cables are one example of transmission media. Media are

various physical environments through which transmission

signals pass. Common network media include twisted-pair,

coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and the atmosphere

(throughwhich microwave, laser, and infrared transmission

occurs). Another term for this is “physical media.” *Note that

not all wiring hubs support all medium types.

Four layer TCP/IP Models

1. Layer 1. Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP

model. Network Access layer defines details of how data is

physically sent through the network, including how bits are

electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that

interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable,

optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.

The protocols included in Network Access layer are Ethernet,

Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay etc.

2. Layer 2. Internet Layer

Internet Layer is the second layer of the four layer TCP/IP model.

The position of Internet layer is between Network Access Layer

and Transport Layer. Internet layer pack data into data packets

known as IP datagrams, which contain source and destination

address (logical address or IP address) information that is used

to forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks.

The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP

datagrams.

3. Layer 3. Transport Layer

Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP

model.The position of the Transport layer is between

Application layer and Internet layer. The purpose of Transport

layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to

carry on a conversation. Transport layer defines the level of

service and status of the connection used when transporting

data.

The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP

(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram

Protoco).

4. Layer 4. Application Layer

Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP

model. Application layer is present on the top of the Transport

layer. Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols

and how host programs interface with transport layer services to

use the network.

Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS

(Domain Naming System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),

Telnet, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer

Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol),

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop

Protocol) etc.

OSI MODEL

This model is based on a proposal developed by the

International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step

toward international standardization of the protocols used in the

various layers. The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems

Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with

connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for

communication with other systems. We will usually just call it

the OSI model for short.

The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a

communication channel. The design issues have to do with making

sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side

as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are how many volts

should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many

microseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed

simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is

established and how it is torn down when both sides are finished,

and how many pins the network connector has and what each pin

is used for.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission

facility and transform it into a line that appears free of undetected

transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes this task

by having the sender break the input data up into data frames

(typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes), transmit the

frames sequentially, and process the acknowledgement frames sent

back by the receiver.

The Network Layer

The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of

the subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets are

routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static

tables that are "wired into" the network and rarely changed. They
can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for

example a terminal session.

The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the

session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to

the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at

the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently, and

in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes

in the hardware technology.

Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the

connection used when transporting data.

The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP

(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram

Protoco).

NETWORK PROTOCOL

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications

between computers on a network. These rules include guidelines

that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access

method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of

data transfer.

Syntax

Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the

order in which they are presented. For example, a simple

protocol might expect the first eight bits of data to be the

address of the sender, the second eight bits to be the address of

the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

Semantics

Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a

particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be

taken based on that interpretation. For example, does an

address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of

the message?

Timing
Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent

and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces

data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1

Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and data will

be largely lost.