Ce 213

Torque Diagram and Torsional Stress of Circular Section
Torsional or twisting moment is caused by forces whose resultant does not pass through the axis of
rotation (called the shear center) of the structural member. Typically, significant torsions are induced in
shafts of rotating motors, structural members subjected to eccentric loading (e.g., edge beams) or
structural members curved in the horizontal plane (e.g., curved bridges, helical stairs).
Torque Diagram
5k
3
3
10 k
5 k
10 k
15 k
5
6
Case 1: T1 (k)
15
10 k
Case 2: T2 (k)
Case 3: T3 (k)
20
5
10
15 k
1 k/
10 k
5k
4
15 k
15
10
15
Torsion of Circular and Tubular Section

Unlike other sections (e.g., rectangular, thin-walled), the behavior of circular or tubular sections due to
torsional moment is well represented by some familiar simplifying assumptions; i.e., plane sections
remain plane due to torsional moment (i.e., no warping deformations), shear strains (as well as stresses if
Hookes law is valid) are small and vary linearly from the center of the section.
Using these assumptions, the shear stress at any distance from the center
T
of the circle is = max /c
..(i)
Shear force acting on a small differential area dA is
c
dF = dA = (max /c) dA
..(ii)
Corresponding torsional moment, dT = dF = (max 2/c) dA ..(iii)

Total torsional moment integrated over the entire circular area is
T = (max 2/c) dA = max J/c max = Tc/J

..(iv)
max
where J = Polar moment of inertia of the section.
For a solid circular section of diameter d, J = d4/32
Eq. (iv) can be simplified as max = T(d/2)/(d4/32) = 16T/d3 ...(v)
Example: Considering the torque diagram T1 corresponding to Case 1 shown above, calculate the
maximum torsional shear stress for (a) a solid circular section of 4 diameter, (b) a tubular section of 4
outside diameter and 3 inside diameter.
(c) Calculate the required diameter of a solid circular section if the allowable shear stress is 10 ksi.
(a) Since T max = 15 k = 180 k, max = 16 180/(4)3 = 14.32 ksi
(b) max = 180(4/2)/({(4)4(3)4}/32) = 20.95 ksi
(c) max = 16 180/d3 = 10 ksi d = 4.51
Torsional Rotation of Circular Section

Calculation of torsional rotation is necessary to
1. design structures not only to be strong enough (to withstand torsional stress), but also stiff enough (i.e.,
they should not deform too much due to torsional moments),
2. design machineries for torsional vibrations,
3. analyze statically indeterminate structures.
Torsional Rotation of Circular and Tubular Section
The assumptions used to derive the equation for torsional shear stress of circular sections are valid here
also; i.e., plane sections remain plane due to torsional moment, shear strains (as well as stresses if
Hookes law is valid) are small and vary linearly from the center of the section.
For a cylindrical segment of differential length dx, the length of the arc MN
is given by ds = max dx
..(i)
It can also be expressed in terms of the differential angular rotation d, i.e.,
ds = c d
..(ii)
where c = radius of the circular area.
Combining Eq. (i) and (ii) c d = max dx = (max/G) dx
Using max = Tc/J c d = (Tc/JG) dx d = (T/JG) dx ..(iii)
where J = Polar moment of inertia of the section.
Integrating between sections A and B B A = (T/JG) dx .(iv)
where is integration between sections A and B.
If T, J and G are uniform between A and B, then B A = (TL/JG) .(v)
dx
max
M
d
N
Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the torsional rotations for
(a) a tubular section of 4 outside diameter and 3 inside diameter.
(b) Calculate the required diameter of a solid circular section if the allowable torsional rotation is 1
[Given: G = 12000 ksi].
B
A
10 k
5 k
4
10 k
5
15 k
10
T (k)
5
15
(a) The polar moment of inertia of the tubular section is J = {(4)4(3)4}/32 = 17.18 in4
D C = (TL/JG)CD = (15 12) (6 12)/(17.1812000) = 0.0629 rad C = 0.0629 rad = 3.60
C B = (TL/JG)BC = (5 12) (5 12)/(17.1812000) = 0.0175 rad B = 0.0803 rad = 4.60
B A = (TL/JG)AB = (10 12) (4 12)/(17.1812000) = 0.0279 rad A = 0.1083 rad = 6.21
(b) Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is
A = [(TL/JG)CD + (TL/JG)BC + (TL/JG)AB]
/180 = [(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) + (10 12) (4 12)]/(J12000) = 1.86/J
J = d4/32 = 106.57 in4 d = 5.74
Torsion of Closed Thin-Walled Sections

Thin-walled sections have wall thickness much smaller than its other dimensions. Closed thin-walled
sections are widely used in structures subjected to torsional moments because compared to other sections,
they can resist torsional stress and deformations more efficiently.
Torsional Stress and Rotation of Thin-Walled Section
Thin-walled sections can be analyzed for torsion using somewhat similar assumptions as for circular
sections; i.e., plane sections remain plane, shear strains are small. However, since the thickness of the
section is very small, the shear stresses remain almost constant across the thickness instead of varying
linearly from the center of rotation.
dx
But the shear stress does not remain constant throughout the perimeter of the
section. Instead the shear flow q, which is the shear force per unit length
(given by shear stress times the wall thickness t; i.e., q = t) is
constant.
Shear force on a small element of length ds is dF = q ds .....(i)
and the corresponding torque dT = r dF = q r ds
.(ii)
Since the area of the small triangular area subtended at the center of rotation
is = rds, integrating rds over the perimeter of the area will give twice the
entire area enclosed by the section [i.e., 2 A ].
Total torque T = dT = q r ds = q 2 A = q/t = T/(2 A t) ..(iii)
r
ds
dF
Also, the external energy required by a torque T to cause a twisting rotation d is = T d/2 .(iv)
while the corresponding internal energy is = 2/2G dV = (T2/8 A 2t2G) (dx t ds)
= (T2 dx /8 A 2G)(ds/t)
.....(v)
2
2
Eq. (iv) and (v) d/dx = (T/4 A G)(ds/t); i.e., Jeq = 4 A /(ds/t)
.....(vi)
Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the maximum shear stress and torsional
rotation for a 4 4 hollow square section with 0.5 wall thickness [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
B
A
10 k
5 k
4
10 k
5
15 k
T (k)
10
15
0.5 thick wall

4
The enclosed area A = 3.5 3.5 = 12.25 in2

max = T/(2 A t) = (15 12)/(2 12.25 0.5) = 14.69 ksi
Also Jeq = 4 A 2/ds/t = 4(12.25)2/(4 3.5/0.5) = 21.44 in4
D C = (TL/JG)CD = (15 12) (6 12)/(21.4412000) = 0.0503 rad C = 0.0503 rad = 2.89
C B = (TL/JG)BC = (5 12) (5 12)/(21.4412000) = 0.0140 rad B = 0.0644 rad = 3.69
B A = (TL/JG)AB = (10 12) (4 12)/(21.4412000) = 0.0224 rad A = 0.0868 rad = 4.97
Torsion of Rectangular Sections

Since a majority of civil engineering structures consist of rectangular or assembly of rectangular sections,
the study of torsional behavior of such sections is important. However, when subjected to torsional
moment, rectangular sections do not behave like circular or thin-walled sections, due to the warping
deformations accompanying their response.
Torsional Stress and Rotation of Rectangular Section
The torsional response of these sections cannot be derived using the simple methods of Strength of
Materials, and requires concepts of Theory of Elasticity instead, which is beyond the scope of this course.
Therefore, only the final expressions for torsional stress and rotation are shown here.
For a (bt) rectangular section (with b t) subjected to torsional moment T,
max
2
the maximum shear stress max = T/(bt )
......(i)
and the equivalent polar moment of inertia for torsional rotation is
Jeq = bt3
.....(ii)
b
Torsional rotation for a uniform section of length L is
= TL/(bt3)G
....(iii)
The constants and in Eqs. (i) and (ii) are non-dimensional parameters
and depend on the ratio b/t, as shown in the following table.
t
6.0
10.0
b/t 1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
0.208 0.231 0.246 0.267 0.299 0.312
0.141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.299 0.312
0.333
0.333
Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the maximum shear stress and torsional
rotation for a (a) 4 4 solid section (b) 4 0.5 channel section [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
B
A
10 k
5 k
4
10 k
5
15 k
T (k)
10
5
15
4
0.5 thick wall
4
(a) For the 4 4 solid section, = 0.208, = 0.141

max = T/(bt2) = (15 12)/(0.208 4 42) = 13.52 ksi
Also Jeq = bt3 = 0.141 4 43 = 36.10 in4
D A = {(1512)(612) + (512)(512) + (1012)(412)}/(36.1012000) = 0.0515 rad
A = 0.0515 rad = 2.95
(b) The 4 0.5 channel section is torsionally equivalent to a rectangular section of size 12 0.5
b/t = 24 Both and can be assumed to be 0.333
max = T/(bt2) = (15 12)/(0.333 12 0.52) = 180 ksi
Jeq = bt3 = 0.333 12 0.53 = 0.5 in4
D A = {(1512)(612) + (512)(512) + (1012)(412)}/(0.512000) = 3.72 rad
A = 3.72 rad = 213
Obviously, normal structural materials cannot survive such a large shear stress and angular rotation.
Distributed Torsion and Torsional Rotation

Since the loads on civil engineering (or other) structures are often distributed over a length or over an
area, torsional moments on such structures seldom work as concentrated at one section. The torque
diagram and calculation of torsional rotation in such cases require special attention.
Distributed Torsion
C
A
10 k
4
10 k
15 k
1 k/
5
D
15 k
2 k/
4
Case 1: T1 (k)
Case 2: T2 (k)
15
15
10
10
Example: Considering the torque diagrams shown above, calculate the maximum torsional rotation for a
solid circular section of 4-diameter [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
The polar moment of inertia of the circular section is J = (4)4/32 = 25.13 in4
Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is
(a) A = [(TL/JG)CD + BC(T/JG) dx + (TL/JG)AB]
= [(15 12) (6 12) + {(10 +15)/2 12} (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.1312000)
= 0.0919 rad = 5.27
(b) A = [(TL/JG)CD + BC(T/JG) dx + (TL/JG)AB]
= [(15 12) (6 12) + {(10 +5/3) 12} (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.1312000)
= 0.0900 rad = 5.15
Composite and Variable Cross-sections

Composite Sections
Instead of the simple sections (i.e., circular, thin-walled and rectangular), structures subjected to torsion
may be sections of arbitrary shape or composite sections made up of two or more simple
sections. While arbitrary shaped sections can only be dealt numerically, composites of two or
more simple sections can be solved more conveniently. The basic assumption for solving this
type of problems is that when subjected to torsion, the section rotates as a rigid body; i.e., =
TL/JG is valid for each part of the section so that = T1L/J1G1 = T2L/J2G2, etc. Therefore, if G is
constant, T1/J1 = T2/J2 = ..etc; i.e., the torque taken by different parts of the section is
proportional to their J values.
Example: Calculate the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress in the compound section
shown below when subjected to a torque of 10 k-ft.
The composite section consists of a thin-walled, a rectangular and a
t = 0.10
4
circular section. If the torques taken by them are T 1, T2 and T3
throughout
respectively, then T1/J1 = T2/J2 = T3/J3 = T/(J1 + J2 + J3)
Here, area enclosed by section1, A = {(2 + 4)/2} 2 = 6.0 in2
2
J1 = 4 A 2/ds/t = 4 (6.0)2/[{(4 + 2 + (22 + 12)}/0.10] = 1.75 in4
J2 = bt3 = 0.141 2 (2)3 = 2.26 in4
2
J3 = d4/32 = 24/32 = 1.57 in4
T1/1.75 = T2/2.26 = T3/1.57 = 10/(1.75 + 2.26 + 1.57) = 10/5.58
T1 = 3.14 k-ft, T2 = 4.05 k-ft, T3 = 2.82 k-ft
2
A
max(1) = T1/(2 t) = 3.14 12/(2 6.0 0.1) = 31.36 ksi
max(2) = T2/(bt2) = 4.05 12/(0.208 2 22) = 29.18 ksi
max(3) = 16 T3/(d3) = 16 2.82 12/( 23) = 21.52 ksi
2
The maximum shear stress = 31.36 ksi throughout the thin section
Variable Sections
The shape and/or size of the cross-sectional area of a structure subjected to torsional moment may vary
over its length. The problem is easier to handle if it varies at particular locations only, although
the possibility of stress concentration needs special attention and requires the variations in
sections to be smooth or well rounded-off. However, if the variation is gradual over a
considerable length, torsional rotation can only be calculated by integration.
Example: Considering the torque diagram shown below, calculate the torsional rotation at A if the crosssection diameter varies from 4 at A to 8 at B [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
C
A
(i)
10 k
90
10 k
10 k
90
10
T (k)
(ii)
10 k
Section A
180
10
Section B
(a) Neglecting the effect of stress concentration

B A = (TL/JG)AC + (TL/JG)BC = {(1012)90/(44/32) + (1012)90/(84/32)}/12000
A = 0.0380 rad = 2.18
(b) The diameter of the circular section at a distance x from end A is d(x) = 4 + 4x/180
Polar moment of inertia J(x) = (4 + 4x/180)4/32
BA=(T/JG)dx = (1012)/(12000)dx/((4+4x/180)4/32) = (0.01) (180/4) {(1/8)3 (1/4)3}/3/(/32)
A = 0.0209 rad = 1.20
Statically Indeterminate Problems on Torsion

A large portion of civil engineering structures is statically indeterminate; i.e., they cannot be analyzed by
statics alone. For purely torsional problems, since there is effectively only one equation of statics (i.e.,
Mx = 0), a statically indeterminate structure has another extra unknown. Determining such unknowns
require knowledge of displacements; i.e., torsional rotation.
Example: Considering the statically indeterminate torsional problem shown below, calculate
(a) the maximum torsional stress and torsional rotation for a solid circular section of 4 diameter
(b) the required diameter of a solid circular section if the maximum allowable torsional stress is 10 ksi
and allowable torsional rotation is 1 [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
C
D
10 k 5 k
4
C
D
=
10 k 5 k
10 k
5
4.67
0.33 5.33
Final Torque Diagram (k)
TA
10 k
5
15 k
10 k
5 k
Case 1
TA
Case 2
(a) The polar moment of inertia of the circular section is J = (4)4/32 = 25.13 in4
The problem is statically indeterminate because the torsional moments at joints A and D are both
unknown. This problem is divided into two statically determinate problems, namely Case 1 and 2.
Using D = 0, the maximum torsional rotation at point A is
Case1: A1 = [(TL/JG)CD + (TL/JG)BC + (TL/JG)AB]
= [(15 12) (6 12) + (5 12) (5 12) +(10 12) (4 12)]/(25.13 12000)
= 0.0740 rad
Case2: A2 = TAL/JG = (TA 12) (15 12)/(25.13 12000) = 0.00716 TA
Adding Case1 and 2 A1 + A2 = A = 0.0740 0.00716 TA = 0
TA = 10.33 k, from which the final torque diagram can be plotted as shown.
Using the final torque diagram,
The maximum stress, max = BC = (Tc/J)BC = (5.3312) 2/ 25.13 = 5.09 ksi, and
The maximum rotation, max = C = (TL/JG)CD= (4.6712) (6 12)/(25.1312000) = 0.0134 rad
= 0.766
(b) If J is the polar moment of inertia of the circular section, the final torque diagram
The maximum stress, max = BC = (Tc/J)BC = (16T/d3)BC = (165.3312)/d3 = (325.95/d3) ksi, and
The maximum rotation, max = C = (TL/JG)CD= (4.6712) (6 12)/(J12000) = (0.336/J) rad
max = 10 ksi 325.95/d3 = 10 d = 3.19
max = 1 = /180 rad 0.336/J = /180 J = d4/32 = 19.25 in4 d = 3.74
Required diameter, d = 3.74
Practice Problems on Torsion

1. Draw figures showing the stress distributions in a circular, a rectangular and a thin-walled crosssection subjected to torsion. Write down the differences among these distributions.
2. For a thin-walled cross-section subject to torque, justify the following
- The stress is almost uniform across thickness but can be different across the enclosed length.
- The expression r ds is simplified as twice the enclosed cross-sectional area.
- The strain energy per unit volume is 2/2G.
3. Calculate the maximum shearing stress and torsional rotation in the structure shown below (Neglect
stress concentration).
100 k
10k
4 dia
30
2 dia
40
40
60
20
4. Calculate the maximum torsional rotation in the structure shown below (Neglect stress concentration)
[Given: G = 12000 ksi].
10k
D
3square tube (wall thickness = 0.5)
1 square
20
0.5
40
Section between AB
Section between BCD
30
5. For the structure shown below, calculate the maximum torsional shear stress and torsional rotation if
the cross-sectional area is as shown [G = 1000 ksi].
6
4
Fy = 10 k
y
x
10
z
1
6. For the structure shown below, draw the torque diagram of member ACD and calculate the maximum
torsional shear stress and torsional rotation of the member [Given: G = 1000 ksi and the cross-section
is a 12 circle as shown].
y
10
1 k/ft
10
z
5
12
5k
Cross Section
20 k
10
7. Calculate the required diameter d of the circular rod ABC shown in the figure below if the allowable
shear stress in it is 20 ksi. For the diameter d, also calculate the maximum angle of twist in the rod
[G = 12000 ksi].
Torque = 10 k-ft
d
B
30
Cross-section
70
8. Calculate the torsional shear stress at A and the torsional rotation at B for the circular rod (of nonuniform diameter) shown below (Neglect stress concentration) [Given G = 12000 ksi].
100 k
2 dia
4 dia
10
10
9. Calculate the required depth (h) of the channel section shown below if the allowable shear stress in
ABC is 10 ksi and the allowable angle of twist is 1 [Given: G = 12000 ksi].
t = 10 k-in/in
T = 100 k-in
B
h/10
h
h/2
15
10
10. The compound section shown below is to be replaced by a circular section so that the torsional
stiffness (torque/rotation) remains the same. Calculate the required diameter of the circular section.
1
t = 0.1 throughout
0.5
1
11. Calculate the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress in the compound section shown
below when subjected to a torque of 10 k-ft.
Also calculate the diameter (D) of the circular section that has the same maximum shear stress when
subjected to the same torque.
4
t = 0.10 throughout
2
D
2
2
12. Calculate the torsional stiffnesses (i.e., torque required to produce unit rotation per length) of the two
thin-walled sections shown below [t b].
10
Stress Combination and Combined Normal Stress

Stress in general is broadly classified as normal stress and shear stress. Normal stresses act perpendicular
to the plane (e.g., axial stress and flexural or bending stress), while shear stresses act parallel to the plane
(e.g., direct shear, flexural shear and torsional shear stresses). The following table shows the equations for
different types of stresses and their validity.
Normal
Stress
Shear
Stress
Type of Stress
Axial
Flexural
Direct Shear
Flexural Shear
Equation
= P/A
= My/I
= V/A
= VQ/It
= Tc/J
= T/(2 A t)
= T/(bt2)
Torsional Shear
Validity
All sections
All sections
All sections
All sections
Circular sections
Thin-walled sections
Rectangular sections
Practical problems on stress analysis, including those in civil engineering, almost always consist of a
variety of stress conditions. For example, in a typical building structure, beams and slabs are subjected to
significant flexural and shear stresses due to vertical loads, while columns and footings have significant
axial and flexural stresses (and possibly shear stresses mainly due to lateral loads).
Biaxial Bending: Combination of Bending Stresses
Biaxial (involving two axes) bending is the bending of a cross-section about two axes of rotation and
often deals with bending about the centroidal axes. For an area subjected to biaxial moments M z and My
about the centroidal z and y axes, the compressive stress at a point with coordinates (z, y) is given by
x(z, y) = Mz y/Iz + My z/Iy
.(i)
where Iz and Iy are the moments of inertia of the cross-section.
Therefore, the neutral axis is defined by the equation x(z,y) = 0 Mz y/Iz + My z/Iy = 0
y = (My/Mz) (Iz/Iy) z
...(ii)
Also, max at the four corners of a rectangular section is given by max = 6Mz/bh2 6My/hb2 .....(iii)
Example: Calculate the maximum bending stresses at the four corners of the midspan section of a 20
long simply supported rectangular beam of (12) section under a uniformly distributed load of 1 k/ft,
inclined at 30 with vertical.
N
1 k/ft
30 d
z
20
c
With b = 1, h = 2
Iz = 123/12 = 0.667 ft4
Iy = 213/12 = 0.167 ft4
Maximum midspan bending moments
Mz = (1 cos 30) 202/8 = 43.3 k-ft
My = (1 sin 30) 202/8 = 25 k-ft
a = + 43.3 1/(0.667) 25 0.5/(0.167) = 64.95 75 = 10.05 ksf, b = 64.95 75 = 139.95 ksf,

c = 64.95 + 75 = + 10.05 ksf, d = + 64.95 + 75 = + 139.95 ksf
Equation of the neutral axis is, y = (25/43.3) (0.667/0.167) z = 2.31 z, which is a straight line
through origin as indicated by the line NA.
11
Combination of Axial and Biaxial Bending Stress

Among civil engineering structures or structural elements, columns and footings often provide common
examples of situations involving combination of axial stress and uniaxial or biaxial bending stresses.
Combination of Axial and Bending Stresses in Footings
A loading situation with axial and biaxial bending stress can be due to concentric axial force accompanied
by moments about the centroidal axes [Fig. 1(a)] or a biaxially eccentric axial force [Fig. 1(b)].
y
y
(x, y)
Mx
ex
My
(a)
P
(x, y)
ey
(b)
Fig. 1: Footing subjected to (a) Concentric axial load and biaxial bending, (b) Biaxially eccentric axial load
For a cross-sectional area subjected to a concentric compressive force P and biaxial moments M x and My
about the centroidal x and y axes [Fig. 1(a)], the compressive stress at a point with coordinates (x, y) is
z (x,y) = P/A Mx y/Ix My x/Iy
.(i)
where A, Ix and Iy are the area and moments of inertia of the cross-section. For a biaxially eccentric
compressive load P located at a point (e x, ey) in the coordinate axes; i.e., with eccentricities e y and ex about
the x and y axes respectively as shown in Fig. 1(b), the biaxial bending moments are M x = Pey and My =
Pex and the compressive stress at (x, y) is given by
z (x,y) = P/A Pey y/Ix Pex x/Iy
.(ii)
Kern of a Footing Area
Since the soil below foundation can hardly take any tension, it is important that the force P be applied on
the footing in a manner to ensure the stresses below the entire area under the footing remain compressive.
The zone within which the load is to be applied is called the kern of the area. A line of action of the
applied load that ensures compression is given by (x,y) 0
P/A Pey y/Ix Pex x/Iy 0 1/A + ex x/Iy + ey y/Ix 0
(iii)
For a rectangular area (bh), A = bh, Ix = bh3/12, Iy = hb3/12, Eq. (iii)
1 + 12 ex x/b2 + 12 ey y/h2 0
(iv)
To ensure compressive stress at the corner point where (x, y) = (b/2, h/2),
1 + 6 ex/b + 6 ey/h 0 ex/(b/6) + ey/(h/6) 1
.(v)
Similarly, to ensure compressive stress at corner points (b/2,h/2), (b/2, h/2) (b/2,h/2)
1 ex/(b/6) + ey/(h/6) 1; ex/(b/6) + ey/(h/6) 1
..(vi)~(viii)
Plotting the lines defined by Eqs. (v)~(viii) defines a zone (called kern, Fig. 2), a parallelogram with
diagonals b/3 and h/3, within which the load must act in order to ensure compressive stresses at the four
corners of the footing, thereby ensuring an entire area under the footing free of tensile stresses.
y
h/2
h/3
h/2
b/3
b/2
Fig. 2: Kern of a rectangular area
b/2
12
Combination of Shear Stresses for Helical Spring

Helical springs provide an important example of combining shear stresses. These springs are used in
several engineering structures and equipment as load transferring elements or shock absorbers.
Combined Shear Stresses in Helical Springs
Helical springs made of rods or wires of circular cross-section (as shown in Fig. 1) may be analyzed in
the elastic range by the superposition of shearing stresses. One important assumption needed here is that
any one coil of such a spring will be assumed to be in a plane which is nearly perpendicular to the axis of
the spring. This assumption can be made if the adjoining coils are close enough.
P
d = 2r
V=P
(a)
T = PR
(c)
(b)
Fig. 1: Forces acting on a closely coiled Helical Spring
Therefore the forces acting on any section of the spring are (i) Shearing force V = P, (ii) Torque T = PR;
where P = force applied along the axis of the spring, R = distance of the spring axis to the centroid of the
coils cross-section. The maximum shearing stress at an arbitrary section of the spring is found by
superposing the direct and torsional shear stresses, using J = Polar moment of inertia of coil section =
d4/32 = r4/2.
By superposing, one obtains max = direct + torsion = P/A + Tr/J = P/A (1 + 2R/r)
.......(i)
Deflection and Stiffness of Helical Springs
In Fig. 1 (c), sin = BC/BD = EG/DG
(ii)
If EG = d is the differential deflection of the small section AB (of length dx), and using DG = BD (d ),
Eq. (ii) R/BD = (d)/BD (d) d = R (d)
...(iii)
Also, d = T(dx)/JG = PR (dx)/JG; The deflection of a helical spring can be obtained (neglecting the
deflection due to direct shear stress, which is normally small) by using the following relationship
d = PR2 dx/JG = PR2L/JG
.(iv)
where L = length of the springs rod and G = shearing modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of
rigidity). For a closely coiled spring the length L of the wire may be obtained with sufficient accuracy as
2RN, where N is the number of live or active coils of the spring.
= 64 PR3N/Gd4
.(v)
This equation can be used to obtain the deflection of a closely coiled helical spring along its axis when
subjected to either tensile or compressive force P. The stiffness of a spring, often referred to as spring
constant (commonly denoted by k), is defined as the force required to produce unit deflection.
k = P/ = Gd4/(64R3N)
(vi)
13
Practice Problems on Combination of Stress

1. Calculate the maximum normal stress in the beam shown below and show the point/points where it
occurs [The beam area is rectangular and 1 wide].
10 k
45
1.5
10
10
2. In the beam shown below, draw the normal stress-diagram over the sections A-A and B-B if = 60.
9
100 k
B
24 24 cross-section
3. In the beam shown below, calculate the maximum allowable value of in order to avoid tension in (i)
Section A-A, (ii) Section B-B.
6
B
Diameter = 6
4. Calculate the maximum normal stress in the structure shown below (Neglect stress concentration).
10k
30
4 dia
2 dia
40
40
60
20
5. Calculate the maximum compound normal stress in the beam shown in the figures below and show
the point(s) where it occurs [The beam area is a 1 1.5 rectangle].
10k
10k
a
a, d
1.5
20 k
5
b, c
b
7
c
1
Side Elevation
Cross-section
14
6. Calculate the maximum compound normal stress in the beam shown below (subjected to inclined
loading) and show the point/points where it occurs [The beam area is a 0.5 1 rectangle].
12 k
12 k
45
a, d
1 deep
b c
0.5 wide
b, c
5
7
Side Elevation
Cross-section
7. For the structure shown below, draw the axial force and bending moment diagram of member ACD
and calculate the maximum normal stress in the member.
10
1 k/ft
A
x
C
10
z
E
5k
10
20 k
8. Determine the kern of a solid circular cross section of radius R and show the kern on the section.
9. The shaded area shown below represents the kern of the rectangular footing ABCD. For the given
loads calculate the normal stresses at A, B, C, D and locate the neutral axis.
A
10 k
10 k 10 k
x
1
D
y
2
10. Calculate the maximum compound shear stress in the beam described in Problem 5 and show the
point(s) where it occurs.
11. In the structure described in Problem 7, calculate the maximum compound shear stress at A.
15
12. Design the connection bolts for shear, under the loading condition shown in the figure below, if the
allowable shear stress is 12 ksi.
15k
2
6
2
2
13. Calculate the deflection at point C for the timber beam ABCDE loaded as shown below, if the spring
at E has shear modulus = 12000 ksi, coil diameter = 2, inside diameter of spring = 8, number of
coils = 8 [Modulus of elasticity of timber = 1500 ksi].
2k
2k
B
9
6
12
X-Section
14. In the figure shown below, both B1C1D1 and ABCDE are rigid beams. The helical springs at A, B1 and
D1 have coil diameter = 1 in, average spring radius = 3 in, number of coils = 5 and shear modulus =
12000 ksi. Calculate the deflections at B, D, B1, D1 and the combined shear stress for the spring at A.
1k
B1
A
B
1
D1
C1
0.5
C
0.5
16
Transformation of Stresses
The earlier discussions on stress combination dealt only with the superposition of normal stress with
normal stress (e.g., axial stress with flexural stress) and shear stress with shear stress (e.g., direct shear
stress with torsional shear stress). However, many practical situations require the combination of normal
stress with shear stress (e.g., axial and flexural stress with flexural and torsional shear stress).
Besides, the failure of several structural materials (e.g., concrete, steel, timber) due to various types of
loading (e.g., tension, compression, shear, bending, torsion) occur along different surfaces based on
material properties and orientation of maximum stress. The choice of these surfaces require the
knowledge about stress transformation, to know the normal and shear stresses along any surface under
any particular stress condition.
Equations of Transformation of Stresses
Equations for the transformation of normal and
shear stresses on a differential element over any
surface to a plane in another orientation is derived
here. Fig. 1(a) shows the normal stresses xx, yy
along the x- and y-directions on the vertical and xx
horizontal surfaces respectively and the shear
xy
stress xy parallel to both the surfaces.
Fig. 1(b) shows the free-body of a small element
demonstrating stresses xx, xy over a plane of
area dA oriented at an angle to the original
surface (acted upon by stresses xx and xy).
yy
yy
xy
xy
xx
xx
xx
xy
dA
yy
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1: Transformation of Normal and Shear Stresses
Considering the equilibrium of the element shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 1(b),
Fx = 0 xx dA cos + xy dA sin (xx dA) cos + (xy dA) sin = 0
xx cos xy sin = xx cos + xy sin
...(i)
Fy = 0 xy dA cos + yy dA sin (xx dA) sin (xy dA) cos = 0
xx sin + xy cos = xy cos + yy sin
..(ii)
[(i) cos + (ii) sin ] xx (cos2 + sin2 ) = xx cos2 + yy sin2 + 2 xy cos sin
xx = xx (1 + cos 2)/2 + yy (1 cos 2)/2 + xy sin 2
xx = (xx + yy)/2 + {(xx yy)/2} cos 2 + (xy) sin 2 .(iii)
[(i) sin (ii) cos ] xy (sin2 + cos2 ) = xx cos sin yy cos sin + xy (sin2 cos2 )
xy = xx (sin 2)/2 yy (sin 2)/2 xy cos 2
xy = {(xxyy)/2} sin 2 + (xy) cos 2
..(iv)
Example: If the normal and shear stresses on the element shown in Fig. 1(a) are xx = 20 ksi, yy = 10 ksi
and xy = 15 ksi, calculate the normal stress xx and shear stress xy on a plane defined by = 30.
Eq. (iii) xx = (xx + yy)/2 + {(xx yy)/2} cos 2 + (xy) sin 2
= (20 10)/2 + {(20 + 10)/2} cos (60) + (15) sin (60)
= 5 + 15 cos (60) + 15 sin (60) = 0.49 ksi
Eq. (iv) xy = {(xxyy)/2} sin 2 + (xy) cos 2
= {(20 + 10)/2} sin (60) + (15) cos (60) = 20.49 ksi
17
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

The normal and shear stresses on a plane at an angle with a reference plane acted on by normal stresses
(xx, yy) and shear stress xy are given by the following expressions
xx = (xx + yy)/2 + {(xx yy)/2} cos 2 + (xy) sin 2
..(iii)
xy = {(xx yy)/2} sin 2 + (xy) cos 2
..(iv)
These equations can also be written as
xx = (xx + yy)/2 +[{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2] cos (2)
...(v)
xy = [{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2] sin (2)
..(vi)
where tan = 2 xy/(xx yy)
The maximum and minimum values of normal stress are
xx(max) = (xx + yy)/2 +[{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2]; when = /2, /2 + 180
...(vii)
xx(min) = (xx + yy)/2 [{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2]; when = /2 90
The stresses xx(max) and xx(min), also denoted by 1 and 2, are called the principal stresses, while the
mutually perpendicular planes they act on, represented by = /2, /2 + 180 and = /2 90, are
called the principal planes. They represent the maximum tensile and compressive stresses at the
corresponding point. These stresses and planes are extremely important in analyzing the failure criteria of
structural materials, particularly for brittle materials. An important aspect of the principal planes is that
the shear forces on them are zero.
However, for yielding materials or the ones that fail in shear, the maximum values of shear stress and
the corresponding planes are also very important
xy(max) = [{(xxyy)/2}2 + (xy)2]; when = /2 45, /2 + 135
..(viii)
xy(min) = [{(xxyy)/2}2 + (xy)2]; when = /2 + 45, /2 135
Typical Example Problems
The equations (vii) and (viii) can be used to predict the maximum stress and failure surface in several
typical stress conditions.
0
Uniaxial Tension
xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/(0 0) = 180
1 = (0 + 0)/2 + [{(0 0)/2}2 +(0)2] = 0/2 + 0/2 = 0, when = 90, 270
and 2 = 0/2 0/2 = 0, when = 0, 180
xy(max) = 0/2, when = 45, 225; xy(min) = 0/2, when = +135, 45
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Hydrostatic Compression
xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/(0 + 0) is indeterminate
1 = (0 0)/2 + [{(0 + 0)/2}2 +(0)2] = 0 + 0 = 0
and 2 = 0 0 = 0
xy(max) = 0; xy(min) = 0
Therefore, the normal stress is 0 and shear stress is zero on all surfaces
Pure Shear
xx = 0, yy = 0, xy = 0 tan = 2 0/(0 0) = 90
1 = (0 + 0)/2 + [{(0 0)/2}2 + (0)2] = 0 + 0 = 0, when = 45, 225
and 2 = 0 0 = 0, when = 45, 135
xy(max) = 0, when = 0, 180; xy(min) = 0, when = 90
18
Mohrs Circle
The equations for the normal and shear stresses on a plane at angle with a reference plane acted on by
normal stresses (xx, yy) and shear stress xy have been derived to be
xx = (xx + yy)/2 +[{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2] cos (2)
...(v)
2
2
xy = [{(xx yy)/2} + (xy) ] sin (2)
..(vi)
where tan = 2 xy/(xx yy)
These equations can be re-adjusted to the following form
{xx (xx + yy)/2}2 + (xy0)2 = {(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2
..(ix)
2
Eq. (ix), when plotted with xx in x-axis and xy in y-axis, takes the form (Xa) + (Y0)2 = R2, which is
the equation of a circle with center(a, 0) = [(xx + yy)/2, 0] and radius R = [{(xxyy)/2}2 + (xy)2]. This
circle is called Mohrs Circle, after Otto Mohr of Germany, who first suggested it in 1895.
Fig. 1 shows a Mohrs Circle with some of its more
xy
(a, max)
important features. Among them, the
coordinates of the center of the circle = (a,
A (xx, xy)
0) = [(xx + yy)/2, 0] and radius R =
[{(xx yy)/2}2 + (xy)2] have already been
R
mentioned before.
(xx, xy)
B
=
2
However, the figure also shows that the principal

stresses are 1 = a + R, 2 = a R,
while the maximum and minimum shear stresses are (2, 0)
max = R and min = R.
Since the center of the circle is at the midpoint of all
radial lines, (1 + 2)/2 = (xx + yy)/2 = a
Also from figure, tan = (xy0)/(xx(xx + yy)/2) =
2xy /(xxyy) = tan ; = .
(a, 0)
xx
(xx, xy)
Fig. 1: Mohrs Circle
(a, min)
It can also be proved that if the slope of AB with
(1, 0)
Example: For an infinitesimal element, xx = 30 ksi, yy = 10 ksi, and xy = 15 ksi. In Mohrs circle of
stress, show the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane defined by = 15.
The coordinates of the center of the circle = [(xx + yy)/2, 0] = [(30 + 10)/2, 0] = (10, 0) and
radius R = [{(xxyy)/2}2 + (xy)2] = [{(3010)/2}2 + (15)2] = 25
(10, 25)
(19.8, 23.0)
The principal stresses are

1 = a + R = 10 + 25 = 15 ksi,
and 2 = 1025 = 35 ksi.
max = R = 25 ksi, and min = 25 ksi.
19.8
23.0
tan = 2xy/(xxyy) = (30)/(40) = = 216.9

The coordinates of B = (19.8, 23.0) = (xx, xy)
xx = 19.8 ksi, xy = 23.0 ksi
216.9
(35, 0)
(0, 0)
15
(30, 15) A
(10, 0)
(10, 25)
19
(15, 0)
Yield and Fracture Criteria

The studies on transformation of stress are aimed at developing the state of critical normal and shear
stresses and the corresponding surfaces. But no comprehensive theory is available to predict the precise
response of all types of real materials to such stresses, incorporating the multitude effects of static,
dynamic, impact and cyclic loading, as well as temperature. Only the classical idealizations of yielding
criteria for ductile materials and fracture criteria for brittle materials are discussed here, both of which are
greatly affected by the temperature as well as the state of stress itself. All the criteria discussed here are
formulated with respect to the principal stresses 1 and 2 and based on comparison with the yield criteria
for materials under uniaxial tension, assuming identical material properties in tension and compression.
1. Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum normal stress ( 1 or 2) at a point equals
the maximum normal stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since the maximum normal stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y (the yield strength of the
material), the yield criterion becomes
1
Y, or
2
Y.
This can be plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Maximum Normal Strain Theory (St. Venant):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum normal strain ( 1 or 2) at a point equals
the maximum normal strain at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since 1 = (1 2)/E, 2 = (2 1)/E [where E = Youngs modulus, = Possons ratio], and the
maximum normal strain at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y/E,
the yield criterion becomes
1 2
Y, or
2 1
Y.
This is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 2.
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress ( max) at a point equals the
maximum shear stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since max =
1 2 /2 and the maximum shear stress at yield in the uniaxial tension test = Y/2 (the
yield strength of the material), the yield criterion becomes 1 2
Y, and adding the normal stress
criterion
1
Y, or
2
Y, is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis as shown in Fig. 3.
4. Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory (Von Mises):
According to this theory, yielding occurs when the maximum distortion strain energy (U dist) at a point
equals the maximum distortion strain energy at yield in the uniaxial tension test.
Since Udist for 3-dimensional stress is = {(12)2 + (23)2 + (31)2}/12G, i.e., for 2-dimensional
stress is = {(12)2 + (20)2 + (01)2}/12G = {(12)2 + 22 + 12}/12G, and Udist at yield in the
uniaxial tension test = 2Y2/12G, the yield criterion becomes {(12)2 + 22 + 12} = 2Y2; i.e.,
12 + 22 1 2 = Y2, which is plotted with 1 in the x-axis and 2 in the y-axis in Fig. 4.
No Yield
Zone
(Y, Y)
(Y, Y)
No Yield
Zone
(Y, Y)
No Yield
Zone
(Y, Y)
No Yield
Zone
Y = Y/(1)
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
Fig. 2
20
Fig. 4
Practice Problems on Transformation of Stress

1. In the beam shown below, calculate the principal stresses and show the principal planes at A and B.
10 k
10 k
50 k
0.5
50 k
1
1
Cross-section
A
5
2.5
2.5
Side Elevation
2. For the structure shown below, calculate the stresses (x, y, xy) and the principal normal stresses
(1, 2) at points a and b of section A-A.
Fy = 15k
4
A
15
y
Fx = 100k
A
y
x
a
Section A-A
3. For the structure shown below, calculate the principal stresses (and corresponding angle) at point a
of the section D.
10
1 k/ft
A
x
C
10
z
E
5k
10
20 k
12
6
6
Cross Section of D
21
4. In the beam shown below, calculate the principal stress and show the principal planes for the point A.
10
100 k
60
A
24 24 cross-section
5. In the column shown below, use transformation of stress to calculate the maximum shear stress at
Section A-A. Also indicate the point and surface where it occurs in the section.
P = 100 kips
60
5
Area (11)
A
6. For an infinitesimal element, x = 30 ksi, y = 10 ksi, and xy = 15 ksi. In Mohrs circle of stress,
show the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane defined by = 45.
7. The coordinate of the center of a Mohrs circle is (30, 0) and its radius is 12. If the principal plane is
located at an angle = 30 from plane X-X, calculate the normal stresses (x, y) and shear stress
(xy) on that plane [all stresses are in ksi]. Also show these stresses graphically on the Mohrs circle.
8. For the stress condition in the element shown below, find the maximum allowable value of p using
the Von Mises yielding criterion, if the yield strength of the material is 40 ksi.
3p
p
p
p
3p
9. Calculate the shear stress necessary to cause yielding of a material in a pure shear condition. Use the
Von Mises yielding criterion, if the yield strength of the material is 36 ksi.
10. A Mild Steel sample is subjected to the stresses x = 10 ksi, y = 20 ksi, xy = 10 ksi. Check if the
sample satisfies the Von Mises yield criterion [Given: Yield Strength, Y = 36 ksi].
11. For the stress condition described in Problem 7, calculate the required yield strength Y to avoid
yielding of the material using the yield criteria suggested by
(i) Rankine, (ii) St. Venant, (iii) Tresca, (iv) Von Mises [Given: Poissons ratio = 0.25].
22
Qualitative Deflected Shapes

The following figures show qualitative deflected shapes for the beams due to the applied loads.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
23
Moment-Curvature Relationship
O
Assumptions:
1. Plane sections remain plane
and perpendicular to NA
2. Deformations are small
3. Hookes law is valid
N
P
C
P
D
B
If NN = s and PP = s + u
P
N
If s 0, Axial Strain x = u/s du/ds ..(i)
D
P
Also, u = y u/s = y /s
(ii)
C
If s 0, du/ds = y d/ds
(iii)
Also, Curvature = 1/R = d/ds
Eq. (i) x = y
(iv)
Using stress-strain relationship, x = x/E and also x = My/I My/EI = y
Curvature, = M/EI
(v), the moment-curvature relationship
and Radius of Curvature, R = 1/ = EI/M
(vi)
From analytic geometry, = (d2v/dx2)/{1+(dv/dx)2}3/2 d2v/dx2, if dv/dx 0
(v) d2v/dx2 M/EI; i.e., Bending Moment, M EI d2v/dx2
.(vii)
3
3
4
4
Also, Shear Force V = dM/dx EI d v/dx and Load w = dV/dx EI d v/dx (viii)
Example: Calculate the tip deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [Given: EI = const].
EI d4v/dx4 w0
V(x) = w0 x + C1
..(1)
2
M(x) = w0 x /2 + C1 x + C2
..(2)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0 [from (1)], M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)]
EIv(x) w0 x3/6 + C3
..(3)
4
and EIv(x) w0 x /24 + C3 x + C4
..(4)
v(L) = 0 C3 = w0 L3/6 [from (3)]
v(L) = 0 C4 = w0 L4/8 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) v(0) = C4/EI = w0 L4/8EI
24
w0 per unit length
wL2/2
Calculation of Deflection using Singularity Functions

Singularity Functions:
f(x) = xan f(x) = 0, when x a; and f(x) = xan, when x a [where n 0]
f(x) = xa0 f(x) = 0, when x a; and f(x) = 1, when x a
However xan has no physical significance if n 0, and is written only as a notation with an
asterisk (*) as subscript; e.g., f(x) = xa1*
The integration and differentiation of singularity functions follow the rules for ordinary polynomial
functions; i.e., xan dx = xa n+1/(n+1) + C1 and d(xan)/dx = nxan1
e.g., xa2 dx = xa3/3 + C1 and d(xa2)/dx = 2xa1
By definition, xan* dx = xa n+1* + C1 if n 0;
e.g., xa2* dx = xa1* + C1 and xa1* dx = xa0 + C1
Singularity Functions for Common Loadings:
Common loadings are expressed in terms of the following singularity functions
20 k
10 k
2 k/
w(x) = 10x0
10
1
5
1
20x5
100 k
10
w(x) = 2x5
10
w(x) = 100x52*
Example 1: Calculate the tip deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [Given: EI = const].
EI d4v/dx4 w(x) = P0x01*
P0
V(x) = P0x00+ C1
..(1)
M(x) = P0 x01 + C1 x + C2
..(2)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0 [from (1)], M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)]
L
EIv(x) P0 x02/2 + C3
..(3)
3
and EIv(x) P0 x0 /6 + C3 x + C4 ..(4)
v(L) = 0 C3 = P0 L2/2 [from (3)]
v(L) = 0 C4 = P0 L3/3 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) v(0) = C4/EI = P0 L3/3EI
Example 2: Calculate the midspan deflection of the simply supported beam shown below.
P0
EI d4v/dx4 w(x) = P0xL/21*
0
V(x) P0xL/2 + C1
..(1)
M(x) P0 xL/21 + C1 x + C2
..(2)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0 [from (2)], M(L) = 0 C1 = P0 /2 [from (2)]
L/2
L/2
EIv(x) P0 xL/22/2 + (P/2) x2/2 + C3
..(3)
and EIv(x) P0 xL/23/6 + (P/2) x3/6 + C3 x + C4
..(4)
v(0) = 0 C4 = 0 [from (4)]
v(L) = 0 C3 = P0 L2/16 [from (4)]
Eq. (4) EI v(L/2) = (P/2) (L/2)3/6 + (P0 L2/16) L/2 v(L/2) = P0 L3/48EI
Example 3: Derive equation of the deflected shape of the beam shown below.
w(x) = 10x01*+ R1x51* 1x50 +1x150 + 0.15x301
BCs: V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, M(40) = 0,
1 k/
10k
v(5) = 0, v(40) = 0
5
25
10
1.5 k/
15
10
10k
B
A
15
Beam1
C
5
10k
B
A
15
Beam2
10k
B
10
C
5
Beam3
1. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang

EIviv(x) w(x) = RBx151* 10x201*
EIv(x) V(x) = RBx150 10x200 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = RBx151 10x201 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) RB/2x152 5x202 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) RB/6x153 5/3x203 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1 = 0
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 = 0
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 15 C3 = 0
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1= 3.33, C3 = 125, RB = 13.33
EIv(x) = D(x) 2.222x153 1.667x203 0.555 x3 + 125 x
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
2. Statically Indeterminate Beam with Overhang

EIviv(x) w(x) = RBx151* 10x201*
EIv(x) V(x) = RBx150 10x200 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = RBx151 10x201 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) RB/2x152 5x202 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) RB/6x153 5/3x203 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1= 0
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 + C2 = 0
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 112.5 C2 = 0
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1= 5, C2 = 25, RB = 15
EIv(x) D(x) = 2.5x153 1.667x203 0.833 x3 + 12.5 x2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
3. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang & Internal Hinge

EIviv(x) w(x) = Cx103* +RBx151* 10x201*
EIv(x) V(x) = Cx102* +RBx150 10x200 + C1
(1)
1
1
1
EIv(x) M(x) = Cx10 * +RBx15 10x20 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) Cx100 +RB/2x152 5x202 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) Cx101+RB/6x1535/3x203 +C1x3/6 +C2x2/2 +C3 x +C4
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
V(20) = 0 RB 10 + C1 = 0
M(10) = 0 10 C1 + C2 = 0
M(20) = 0 5RB + 20 C1 + C2 = 0
D(15) = 0 562.5 C1 + 112.5 C2 + 5 C = 0
Solving (7), (8), (9) C1 = 10, C2 = 100, RB = 20; (10) C = 1125
EIv(x) = D(x) 1125x101 +3.333x153 1.667x203 1.667 x3 + 50 x2
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
26
Practice Problems on Beam Deflection

1. For the beams shown below, draw qualitative deflected shapes due to the loads applied.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI= constant].

A
B
L
M0
3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI= 40,000 k-ft 2].
100k
D
A
5
B
5
C
10
27
4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI= constant].

P/2
A
P/2
C
L/3
L/3
E
L/3
L/2
5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI= 40,000 k-ft 2].
2k
1k
6. Calculate the deflection at A [EIAB = 40,000 k-ft2, EIBC = 20,000 k-ft2].

2k/
A
7. Calculate the deflection at C [EIAB = EIDE = EI, EIBCD = 2EI].

P
A
B
L/3
C
L/3
E
L/3
L/2
8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].
P
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
D
L/2
9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI= 40,000 k-ft 2].
2k
C
1 k/ft
B
A
10
28
10. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = 40,000 k-ft 2].
2k
A
D
5
11. Calculate the deflection at C [EI = constant].

P
A
L/2
L/2
12. Calculate the deflection at B and rotations at the left and right of B [EI = constant].
w/unit length
B
A
L
13. Calculate the reaction at support B [EI = constant].

10k
A
15
14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].

P
A
B
L/2
L/2
15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI= 40,000 k-ft 2].
1.5 k/ft
C
B
10
10
29
Beam Deflection Solutions using Singularity Functions

2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI = constant].
A
B
L
M0
EIviv(x) w(x) = M0xL2*

EIv(x) V(x) = M0xL1* + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = M0xL0 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) M0xL1 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) M0xL2/2 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(L) = 0 C1 = 0
M(L) = 0 M0 + C1 L + C2 = 0 C2 = M0
EIv(x) = D(x) M0xL2/2 M0 x2/2
EIv(x) = S(x) M0xL1 M0 x
v(L) M0 L2/2EI; v(L) M0 L/EI
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11~12)
[Instead of V(L) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

one can use Fy = 0 RA = C1 = 0; MA = 0 C2 + M0 = 0 C2 = M0]
3. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point C [EI = 40,000 k-ft 2].
100k
A
D
5
B
5
C
10
EIviv(x) w(x) = 100x51* + RBx101*

EIv(x) V(x) = 100x50 + RBx100 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = 100x51 + RBx101 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) 50x52 + RBx102/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) 50x53/3 + RBx103/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(20) = 100 + RB + C1 = 0
M(20) = 0 1500 + 10 RB + 20 C1 = 0
D(10) = 0 2083.33 + 166.67 C1 + 10 C3 = 0
Solving (7), (8) C1 = 50, RB = 50
(9) C3 = 625
EIv(x) = D(x) 16.67x53 + 8.33x103 + 8.33 x3 625 x
EIv(x) = S(x) 50x52 + 25x102 + 25 x2 625
v(20) 6250/40,000 = 0.156 ft, v(20) 625/40,000 = 0.0156 rad
[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(20) = 0 and M(20) = 0,
one can use MA = 0 100 5 10 RB = 0 RB = 50; A is hinged end C2 = 0;
Fy = 0 C1 + RB = 100 C1 = 100 50 = 50]
30
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14~15)
4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].

P/2
A
B
L/3
P/2
C
L/3
E
L/3
L/2
EIviv(x) w(x) = P/2xL/31* P/2x2L/31*
EIv(x) V(x) = P/2xL/30 P/2x2L/30 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = P/2xL/31 P/2x2L/31 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) P/2xL/32/2 P/2x2L/32/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) P/2xL/33/6 P/2x2L/33/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = 0 C1 = P/2
(5~7)
D(L) = 8 PL3/324 PL3/324 + PL3/12 + C3 L = 0 C3 = PL2/18
EIv(x) = D(x) P/2xL/33/6 P/2x2L/33/6 + Px3/12 PL2x/18
D(L/2) P/2 (L3/216)/6 + PL3/96 PL3/36 v(L/2) 23PL3/1296EI
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(8)
(9)
[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

one can use ME = 0 C1 L (P/2) 2L/3 (P/2) L/3 = 0 C1 = P/2; A is hinged end C2 = 0]
5. Calculate the deflection at A and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft 2].
2k
1k
B
2
C
6
D
4
EIviv(x) w(x) = 2x01* + RBx21* + RCx81* 1x121*

EIv(x) V(x) = 2x00 + RBx20 + RCx80 1x120 + C1
(1)
EIv(x) M(x) = 2x01 + RBx21 + RCx81 1x121 + C1 x + C2
(2)
2
2
2
2
2
EIv(x)= S(x) x0 +RBx2 /2 +RCx8 /2 1x12 /2 +C1x /2 +C2 x +C3
(3)
EIv(x)=D(x) x03/3 +RB x23/6 + RCx83/6 1x123/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0; M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; V(12) = 2 + RB + RC 1= 0 RB + RC = 3
(5~7)
M(12) = 24 + 10 RB + 4 RC = 0 10 RB + 4 RC = 24
(8)
Solving (7), (8) RB = 2, RC = 1
(9)
D(2) = 8/3 + 2C3 + C4 = 0; D(8) = 512/3 + 36RB + 8C3 + C4 = 0 8C3 + C4 = 296/3
(10~11)
Solving (10), (11) C3 = 16, C4 = 88/3
(12)
2
2
2
2
EIv(x) = S(x) x0 +x2 +1x8 /2 1x12 /2 +16
(13)
-4
v(0) C4/40000 = 7.33 10 ft
(14)
v(2) ( 4 +16)/40000 = 3 10-4 rad
(15)
[Instead of V(0) = 0, M(0) = 0, one can use A is free end VA = C1 = 0 and MA = C2 = 0.
Also MC = 0 2 8 + RB 6 + 1 4 = 0 RB = 2; Fy = 0 RB + RC = 3 RC = 3 2 = 1]
31

P
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
D
L/2
EIviv(x) w(x) = PxL/21* + RCxL1* Px3L/21*

EIv(x) V(x) = PxL/20 + RCxL0 Px3L/20 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = PxL/21 + RCxL1 Px3L/21 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) PxL/22/2 + RCxL2/2 Px3L/22/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + RCxL3/6 Px3L/23/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(3L/2) = 0 RC + C1 = 2 P
(5~7)
M(3L/2) = 0 P L + RC L/2 + (3L/2) C1 = 0
Solving (7), (8) RC = 2P, C1 = 0
D(L) = PL3/48 + C3 L = 0 C3 = PL2/48
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + PxL3/3 Px3L/23/6 + PL2x/48

v(3L/2) ( PL3/6 + PL3/24 + PL3/32)/EI = 3 PL3/32 EI
(11)
(12)
(8)
(9)
(10)
[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(3L/2) = 0 and M(3L/2) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; MC = 0 C1 L + (P) L/2 (P) L/2 = 0 C1 = 0;
Fy = 0 C1 + RC = 2P RC = 2P]
9. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at B [EI = 40,000 k-ft 2].
1 k/ft
B
A
10
2k
C
EIviv(x) w(x) = 1x00 + 1x100 + RBx101* + 2x151*

EIv(x) V(x) = 1x01 + 1x101 + RBx100 + 2x150 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = x02/2 + x102/2 + RB x101 + 2x151 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) x03/6 + x103/6 + RBx102/2 + x152 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x)=D(x) x04/24+x104/24+RBx103/6+x153/3+C1x3/6+C2x2/2+C3 x+ C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; V(15) = 15 + 5 + RB + C1 + 2 = 0 RB + C1 = 8
M(15) = 112.5 + 12.5 + 5 RB + 15 C1 = 0 5 RB + 15 C1 = 100
Solving (7), (8) RB = 2, C1 = 6
D(10) = 104/24 + 6 103/6 + 10 C3 = 0 C3 = 58.33
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
EIv(x) = S(x) x3/6 + x103/6 + x102 + x152 + 3 x2 58.33

EIv(x) = D(x) x4/24 +x104/24 + x103/3 + x153/3 + x3 58.33 x
v(10) (1000/6 + 300 58.33)/40000 = 1.87510-3 rad
v(15) (50625/24 + 625/24 + 125/3 + 3375 875)/40000 = 11.4610-3 ft
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(15) = 0 and M(15) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; MB = 0 10 C1 (110) 5 2 5 = 0 C1 = 6;
Fy = 0 C1 + RB 10 + 2 = 0 RB = 2]
32
2k
A
D
5
EIviv(x) w(x) = 2x51* + Cx53* + RCx101*

EIv(x) V(x) = 2x50 + Cx52* + RCx100 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = 2x51 + Cx51* + RCx101 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) x52 + Cx50 + RCx102/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) x53/3 + Cx51 + RCx103/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4 (4)
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(5) = 0 + 5 C1 = 0 C1 = 0
M(15) = 20 + 5 RC = 0 RC = 4
D(10) = 41.67 + 5 C + 10 C3 = 0; D(15) = 333.33 + 10 C + 83.33 + 15 C3 = 0
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 33.33, C = 75
EIv(x) = S(x) x52 + 75x50 + 2x102 33.33
EIv(x) = D(x) x53/3 + 75x51 + 2x103/3 33.33 x
v(5) (33.33)/40000 = 8.3310-4 rad; v(5+) (33.33 + 75)/40000 = 1.0410-3 rad
v(5) (166.67)/40000 = 4.1710-3 ft
(1)
(2)
(3)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
[Instead of M(0) = 0, M(5) = 0 and M(15) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMB = 0 C1 5 = 0 C1 = 0;
MD = 0 RC 5 2 10 C1 15 = 0 RC = 4]
11. Calculate the deflection at C [EI = constant].
P
A
B
L/2
L/2
EIviv(x) w(x) = PxL/21* + CxL3*

EIv(x) V(x) = PxL/20 + CxL2* + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = PxL/21 + CxL1* + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) PxL/22/2 + CxL0 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + CxL1 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = PL/2 + C1 L = 0 C1 = P/2
S(2L) = 9PL2/8 + C + PL2 + C3 = 0 C + C3 = PL2/8
D(2L) = 9PL3/16 + C L +2 PL3/3 + 2C3L = 0 C +2 C3 = 5PL2/48
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 11 PL2/48, C =17 PL2/48
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + 17 PL2xL1/48 + Px3/12 11 PL2x/48
v(L) ( PL3/48 + PL3/12 11 PL3/48)/EI = PL3/6EI
[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0, one can use
A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMC = 0 C1 L P L/2 = 0 C1 = P/2]
33
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
w/unit length
A
EIviv(x) w(x) = wx00 + wxL0 + CxL3*

EIv(x) V(x) = wx01 + wxL1 + CxL2* + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = wx02/2 + wxL2/2 + CxL1* + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) wx03/6 + wxL3/6 + CxL0 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) wx04/24 + wxL4/24 + CxL1 + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0; M(L) = wL2/2 + C1 L = 0 C1 = wL/2
S(2L) = 8 wL3/6 + wL3/6 + C + wL3 + C3 = 0 C + C3 = wL3/6
D(2L) = 16 wL4/24 + wL4/24 + C L + 8 wL4/12 + 2C3L = 0 C +2 C3 = wL3/24
Solving (8), (9) C3 = 5 wL3/24, C = 3 wL3/8
EIv(x) = S(x) wx3/6 + wxL3/6 + 3 wL3xL0/8 + wL x2/4 5wL3/24
(11)
EIv(x) = D(x) wx4/24 + wxL4/24 + 3 wL3xL1/8 + wL x3/12 5wL3x/24
v(L) ( wL3/6 + wL3/4 5wL3/24)/EI = wL3/8EI
v(L+) ( wL3/8 + 3 wL3/8)/EI = wL3/4EI
v(L) ( wL4/24 + wL4/12 5wL4/24)/EI = wL4/6 EI
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0, one can use

A is hinged end C2 = 0; BMB = 0 C1 L wL L/2 = 0 C1 = wL/2]
10k
A
B
5
C
15
EIviv(x) w(x) = 10x01* + RBx51*

EIv(x) V(x) = 10x00 + RBx50 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = 10x01 + RBx51 + C1 x + C2
(2)
EIv(x) = S(x) 5x02 + RBx52/2 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) 5x03/3 + RBx53/6 + C1 x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
V(0) = 0 C1 = 0; M(0) = 0 C2 = 0
D(5) = 208.33 + 5 C3 + C4 = 0 5C3 + C4 = 208.33
S(20) = 2000 + 112.5 RB + C3 = 0 C3 + 112.5 RB = 2000
D(20) = 40000/3 + 562.5 RB + 20 C3 + C4 = 0 20 C3 + C4 + 562.5 RB = 13333.33
Solving (7~9) C3 = 312.5, C4 = 1354.17, RB = 15
[Statically Indeterminate Structure]
34
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5~6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)

P
A
B
L/2
L/2
EIviv(x) w(x) = PxL/21* + RCxL1*

EIv(x) V(x) = PxL/20 + RCxL0* + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = PxL/21 + RCxL1 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) PxL/22/2 + RCxL2/2 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + RCxL3/6 + C1x3/6 + C2x2/2 + C3 x + C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
M(2L) = 3PL/2 + RC L + 2C1 L = 0 RC + 2C1 = 3P/2
D(L) = PL3/48 + C1 L3/6 + C3 L = 0 C1 L2/6 + C3 = PL2/48
(8)
D(2L) = 9PL3/16 + RC L3/6 + 8C1 L3/6 + 2C3 L = 0 RC L2/6 + 4C1 L2/3 +2C3 = 9PL2/16
Solving (7~9) RC = 11 P/16; C1 = 13 P/32; C3 = 3PL2/64
EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + 11 PxL3/96 + 13 Px3/192 3PL2 x/64
v(L/2) (13 PL3/1536 3 PL3/128)/EI = 23 PL3/1536 EI
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~6)
(7)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)

15. Calculate the deflection at B and the rotation at C [EI = 40,000 k-ft 2].
A
1.5 k/ft
C
B
10
10
EIviv(x) w(x) = 1.5x100

EIv(x) V(x) = 1.5x101 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = 1.5x102/2 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) 1.5x103/6 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) 1.5x104/24 + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4
S(0) = 0 C3 = 0; D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
M(20) = 75 + 20 C1 + C2 = 0 20 C1 + C2 = 75
D(20) = 625 + 1333.33 C1 + 200 C2 = 0 1333.33 C1 + 200 C2 = 625
Solving (7), (8) C1 = 5.39, C2 = 32.81
EIv(x) = S(x) 1.5x103/6 + 5.39 x2/2 32.81 x
EIv(x) = D(x) 1.5x104/24 + 5.39 x3/6 32.81 x2/2
v(20) (250 + 1078 656.2)/40000 = 4.29710-3 rad
v(10) (898.44 1640.62)/40000 = 18.5510-3 ft
35
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5~6)
(7)
(8)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)

1. BM = 0 at points A
(i) Free End
(ii) Hinge/Roller Supported End
(iii) Internal Hinge
2. BM 0 at points B (in general, but can be = 0 only for special loading cases)
(i) Fixed End
(ii) Internal Roller/Hinge support
B
B
3. Verify and memorize the following BMDs
(i) Cantilever Beams
M0
P
w/
M0
(ii) Simply Supported Beams
M0
Pd
wL2/2
w/
M0
L
wL2/8
Pab/(a+b)
(= PL/4, if a = b = L/2)
(iii) Beams with Overhang

P
w/
M0
a
M0
Pa
(iv) Beams with Internal Hinge

P
L
wa2/2
P
w/
Pab/(a+b)
Pab/(a+b)
wL2/8
Pac/(a+b)
36
waL/2
4. Qualitative BMDs
[ implies that the ordinate can be positive or negative depending on the loads and spans]
37
Moment-Area Theorems
The moment-curvature relationship Curvature = M/EI
For small deflection and slope, Curvature d2v/dx2 = d/dx
d/dx = M/EI d = (M/EI) dx
.(i)
Integrating Eq. (i) between A and B d = (M/EI) dx
B A = (M/EI) dx, where is integration between A and B ....(ii)
Eq. (ii) The area under (M/EI) diagram between the points A and B is equal to the change of slope
between two points. This is the 1st Moment-Area Theorem.
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (i) by x x d = x (M/EI) dx
(iii)
Integrating Eq. (iii) between A and B x d = x (M/EI) dx
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = x (M/EI) dx, where is integration between A and B ...(iv)
B
The figure at right shows the geometric
significance of various terms in Eq. (iv).
(vBvA)
Eq. (iv) The moment of the area under
(M/EI) diagram between the points A and B
(xBxA)B
A
(i.e., x (M/EI) dx) equals to the deflection
of A with respect to the tangent at B; i.e.,
tA/B
B
tA/B. This is the 2nd Moment-Area Theorem.
(xBxA)
Example 1: Calculate the tip rotation and deflection of the cantilever beam shown below [Given: EI =
const].
B A = Area of M/EI diagram between A an B
= ( P0L/EI) L/2 = P0L2/2EI
A = P0L2/2EI
..(1)
P0
B
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = ( P0L/EI) L/2 2L/3

L 0 0 + vA P0L3/3EI
vA = P0L3/3EI
..(2)
L
P0L/EI
Example 2: Calculate the end rotation and midspan deflection of the simply supported beam shown
below.
B A = (P0L/4EI) L/2 = P0L2/8EI
..(1)
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = (P0L/4EI) L/2 L/2
L B 0 + 0 = P0L3/16EI
B = P0L2/16EI; Eq. (1) A = P0L2/16EI ..(2)
(xC xA) C (vC vA) = (P0L/4EI) L/4 L/3
L/2 0 vC + 0 = P0L3/48EI
vC = P0L3/48EI
....(3)
38
P0
C
A
L/2
B
L/2
P0L/4EI
1. Calculate vA using the moment-area theorems [EIAB = 40,000 k-ft2, EIBC = 20,000 k-ft2].
2k/
(xC xB) C (vC vB) = (4.50) 10 6/2 6/3

A
6 C 0 + 0 = 27 10-4
C = 4.50 10-4 rad
.(1)
-4
C B = (4.50) 10 6/2
B = 9.00 10-4 rad
-4
.(2)
M/EI
(10-4 rad/ft)
(xB xA) B (vB vA) = (2.25) 10-4 3/3 2.25

3 9.00 10-4 0 + vA = 5.06 10-4
vA = 3.21 10-3 ft = 0.0385 in ....(3)
2.25
4.50
2. Calculate C(), C(+) and vC using the moment-area theorems [EI = constant].
(xD xC) D (vD vC) = (PL/2EI) L/2 2L/3
L 0 0 + vC = PL3/6EI
vC = PL3/6EI
.(1)
D C(+) = (PL/2EI) L/2
C(+) = PL2/4EI
P
A
L/2
.(2)
L/2
PL/4EI
(xC xA) C() (vC vA) = (PL/4EI) L/2 L/2

L C() (PL3/6EI) + 0 = PL3/16EI
C() = 5PL2/48EI
.(3)
PL/2EI
3. Calculate RB and vA using the moment-area theorems [EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft 2].
10k
(xC xB) C (vC vB)
B
A
= {(15 RB 200) 15/2 10 50 15/2 5}/EI
15 0 0 + 0 = {(15 RB 200) 25} 75/EI
RB = 15 kips
5
15
(xC xA) C (vC vA)
= {225 15/2 (10 + 5) 200 20/2 40/3}/EI
20 0 0 + vA = {(15 RB 200) 25} 75/EI
vA = 0.0339 ft = 0.406 in
15RB/EI
50/EI
200/EI
39
Beam Deflection Solutions using Moment-Area Theorems

A
B
L
M0/EI
M0
Between A and B, A = 0, vA = 0
1st theorem B A = L (M0/EI) = M0L/EI B = M0L/EI
and 2nd theorem LB vB + vA = (M0 L/EI) L/2 = M0L2/2EI vB = M0L2/2EI
.(1)
(2)
100k
A
6.25 103 rad/ft
10
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 0
1st theorem B A = 10/2 6.25 103 = 31.25 103
and 2nd theorem 10 B vB + vA = 31.25103 10/2 B = 15.63 103 rad
.(1)
.(2)
Between B and C, B = 15.63 103 rad, vB = 0

1st theorem C B = 0 C = 0.0156 rad
and 2nd theorem 10 C vC + vB = 0 vC = 0.156 ft
.(3)
.(4)

P/2
A
B
L/3
PL/6EI
P/2
C
L/3
PL/6EI
E
L/3
L/2
Using symmetry between A and C, vA = 0, C = 0
1st theorem C A = L/6 PL/6EI + L/6 PL/6EI = PL2/18EI A = PL2/18EI
.....(1)
nd
2
2
and 2 theorem (L/2) C vC + vA= PL /36 EI (2L/9) + PL /36 EI (L/3+L/12) = 23 PL3/1296 EI
vC = 23 PL3/1296 EI
.(2)
40
2k
1k
A
104 rad/ft
104 rad/ft
Between B and C, vB = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C B = 6 (104) = 6 104
and 2nd theorem 6 C vC + vB = (6 104) 6/2 C = 3 104 rad
(1) B = 3 104 rad
.(1)
.(2)
....(1)
Between A and B, B = 3 104 rad, vB = 0

1st theorem B A = 2/2 (104) = 104 A = 4 104 rad
and 2nd theorem 2 B vB + vA = 104 4/3 vA = 7.33 104 ft
.(3)
.(4)
6. Solution in Class Note.

PL/6EI
P
A
B
L/3
C
L/3
PL/12EI
PL/8EI
L/3
L/2
Using symmetry between A and C, vA = 0, C = 0
1st theorem C A= L/4PL/8EI + L/6PL/12EI = PL2/32EI + PL2/72EI
A = 13PL2/288EI
.(1)
nd
2
2
3
and 2 theorem (L/2) C vC + vA= PL /32 EI (L/3) + PL /72 EI (2L/9) = 35 PL /2592 EI
vC = 35PL3/2592 EI
.(2)
P
P
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
D
L/2
PL/2EI
Between A and C, vA = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C A = L/4 (PL/2EI) = PL2/8EI
and 2nd theorem LC vC + vA = (PL2/8EI) (L/2 + L/3) C = 5PL2/48EI
Between C and D, C = 5PL2/48EI, vC = 0
1st theorem D C = L/4 (PL/2EI) = PL2/8EI D = 11 PL2/48 EI
and 2nd theorem (L/2) D vD + vC = (PL2/8EI) L/6 vD = 3PL3/32 EI
41
.(1)
.(2)
.(3)
.(4)
A
2.5104 rad/ft
3.13104
2k
C
1 k/ft
B
5
10
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 0
1st theorem B A= 10/2 2.5104+20/3 3.13 104= (1.25 +2.08)103 = 3.33 103....(1)
and 2nd theorem 10B vB + vA= 1.25 103 20/3 + 2.08 103 5 B =1.875103 rad ...(2)
Between B and C, B = 1.875103 rad, vB = 0
1st theorem C B = 5/2 2.5104 = 6.25104 C = 2.5 103 rad
and 2nd theorem 5 C vC + vB = 6.25104 5/3 vC = 11.46 103 ft
.(3)
.(4)
2k
C
B
A
D
5
5
5
Between C and D, vC = 0, vD = 0
1st theorem D C = 5/2 (2.5104) = 6.25 104
and 2nd theorem 5D vD + vC = 6.25 104 5/3 D = 2.08 104 rad
(1) C = 4.17 104 rad
2.5104 rad/ft
....(1)
....(2)
....(1)
Between B and C, C = 4.17104 rad, vC = 0

1st theorem C B(+) = 5/2 (2.5104) = 6.25104 B(+) = 1.04 103 rad
and 2nd theorem 5C vC + vB = 6.25104 10/3 vB = 4.17 103 ft
.(3)
.(4)
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = 4.17103 ft

2nd theorem 5B() vB + vA = 0 B() = 8.33 104 rad
.(5)

w/unit length
wL2/8EI
A
B
L
C
L
wL2/2EI
Between B and C, C = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C B(+) = L/2 (wL2/2EI) = wL3/4EI B(+) = wL3/4EI
and 2nd theorem LC vC + vB = wL3/4EI 2L/3 vB = wL4/6EI
....(1)
....(2)
Between A and B, vA = 0, vB = wL4/6EI

2nd theorem LB() vB + vA = 2L/3 (wL2/8EI) L/2 B() = wL3/8EI
....(3)
42

P
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
RAL/EI
D
PL/2EI
Between A and C, vA = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C A = L/2 (RAL/EI) + L/4 (PL/2EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/8EI
....(1)
and 2nd theorem LC vC +vA =RAL2/2EI2L/3PL2/8EI5L/6 C = RAL2/3EI5PL2/48EI...(2)
Between C and D, vC = 0, vD = 0
1st theorem D C = L/2 (RAL/EI) + L/2 (PL/2EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/4EI
....(3)
nd
2
2
2
2
and 2 theorem LD vD +vC = RAL /2EIL/3PL /4EIL/3 D = RAL /6EIPL /12EI ...(4)
(2~4) (RAL2/6EIPL2/12EI) (RAL2/3EI5PL2/48EI) = RAL2/2EI PL2/4EI
2RAL2/3EI = 13PL2/48EI RA = 13 P/32
.....(5)
2
(2) C = PL /32EI
.....(6)
Between B and C, C = PL2/32EI, vC = 0
2nd theorem (L/2)C vC +vB = PL2/8EIL/3
+13PL2/128EIL/4 +13PL2/256EIL/3
= PL3/1536 EI
vB = 23 PL3/1536 EI
.....(7)
13 PL/32EI
5RC 104
1.5 k/ft
A
B
C
10
10
PL/2EI
18.75 104 rad/ft

56.25 104 rad/ft
Between A and C, A = 0, vA = 0, vC = 0
1st theorem C A = 10 (18.75 104) + 10/2 (37.5 104) + 10/3 (18.75 104)
+ 20/2 (5RC 104) = 187.5 104 187.5 104 62.5 104 + 50RC 104
C = 437.5 104 + 50 RC 104
....(1)
and 2nd theorem 20 C vC + vA = 187.5 104 5 187.5 104 10/3 62.5 104 12.5
+ 50RC 104 20/3
4
4
C = 46.8810 31.2510 39.06104+16.67RC 104 = 117.19104+16.67RC104 (2)
(1, 2) 437.5 104 + 50 RC 104 = 117.19 104 + 16.67 RC 104 RC = 9.61 kips ...(3)
(1, 3) C = 437.5 104 + 480.5 104 = 4.297 103 rad
..(4)
Between B and C, C = 4.297 103 rad, vC = 0
2nd theorem 10 C vC +vB=10/2(24.03 104)10/3+10/3(18.75 104)10/4=244.25 104
vB = 18.55 103 ft
..(5)
43
Conjugate Beam Method

From moment-curvature relationship, Curvature = M/EI d2v/dx2
Slope = dv/dx (M/EI) dx, and Deflection v = dx { (M/EI) dx} dx
On the other hand, if w is the load per unit length,
Shear Force V = w dx and Bending Moment M = V dx = { w dx} dx
(i)
... (ii)
.. (iii)
From the analogy of equations (ii) and (iii), if w is replaced by M/EI, the shear force V and bending
moment M can be considered to be equivalent to slope and deflection v respectively.
However, such equivalence should be represented in the support conditions as well, which should be
modified to form a conjugate of the original beam.
Original Beam
Conjugate Beam
Free end: 0, v 0
Fixed end: V 0, M 0
Fixed end: = 0, v = 0
Free end: V = 0, M = 0
Hinged/Roller end: 0, v = 0
Hinged/Roller end: V 0, M = 0
Internal Support: 0, v = 0
Internal Hinge: V 0, M = 0
Internal Hinge: 0, v 0
Internal Support: V 0, M 0
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
44
1. Calculate C, A, vA using Conjugate Beam Method [EIAB = 40103 k-ft2, EIBC = 20103 k-ft2].
2k/
B
B1
A1
C1
2.25 10-4
4.50 10-4
M/EI
(10-4 rad/ft)
2.25
Conjugate Beam loaded by M/EI
4.50
BMB1 = 0 (right) RC1 6 + 4.50 10-4 6/2 6/3 = 0 RC1 = 4.50 10-4 rad .... .(1)
Fy = 0 RA1 2.25 10-4 3/3 4.50 10-4 6/2 + RC1 = 0 RA1 = 11.25 10-4 rad .(2)
BMB1 = 0 (left) MA1 + RA1 3 2.25 10-4 3/3 (1/4 3) = 0
MA1 = 32.06 10-4 ft = 0.0385 in
....(3)
C = VC1 = RC1 = 4.50 10-4 rad, A = VA1 = RA1 = 11.25 10-4 rad
vA = BMA1 = MA1 = 0.0385 in
2. Calculate C(), C(+) and vC using the Conjugate Beam Method [EI = constant].
PL/4EI
P
A
L/2
L/2
A1
D1
C1
B1
PL/4EI
PL/2EI
Conjugate Beam loaded by M/EI
M/EI
PL/2EI
Fy(C1) = 0 VC1(+) (PL/2EI) L/2 = 0 VC1(+) = PL2/4EI

MC1 = 0 (right) MC1 + (PL/2EI) L/2 2L/3 = 0 MC1 = PL3/6EI
..(1)
.... .(2)
MA1 = 0 (left of C1)

MC1 (PL/4EI) L/2 L/2 + VC1() L = 0 VC1() = 5PL2/48EI
.... .(3)
C(+) = VC1(+) = PL2/4EI, C() = VC1() = 5PL2/48EI

vC = MC1 = PL3/6EI
45
Beam Deflection Solutions using Conjugate Beam Method

A
B
L
A1
B1
M0
MB1
RB1
M0/EI
In the conjugate beam, Fy = 0 RB1 L (M0/EI) = 0 RB1 = M0L/EI

and MB1 = 0 MB1 + M0L/EI L/2 = 0 MB1 = M0L2/2EI
B = VB1 = RB1 = M0L/EI, and vB = MB1 = M0L2/2EI
.(1)
(2)
100k
A
6.25 103 rad/ft
A1
B1
MC1
C1
D1
5
RA1
10
RC1
In the conjugate beam, BMB1 = 0 RA1 10 + 10/2 6.25 103 10/2 = 0

RA1 = 15.63 103 rad
Fy = 0 RA1 + 10/2 6.25 103 + RC1 = 0 RC1 = 15.63 103 rad
MC1 = 0 RA1 20 + 10/2 6.25 103 15 + MC1 = 0 MC1 = 0.156 ft
C = VC1 = RC1 = 15.63 103 rad, and vC = MC1 = 0.156 ft
.....(1)
.(2)
.(3)

P/2
A
B
L/3
L/3
PL/6EI
PL/6EI
P/2
E
A1
B1
RA1
L/3
C1
D1
E1
RE1
L/2
In the conjugate beam, ME1 = 0 RA1 L + {(2L/3)/2 PL/6EI + L/3 PL/6EI} L/2
RA1 = PL2/18 EI
..(1)
PL/6EI
MC1
RA1
RC1
Section at C1 RA1 L/2 + {(L/3)/2 PL/6EI (L/6 + L/9) + L/6 PL/6EI L/12} MC1 = 0
PL3/36 EI + 5PL3/648 EI + PL3/432 EI MC1 = 0
MC1 = 23PL3/1296 EI
...(2)
A = VA1 = RA1 = PL2/18EI, and vC = MC1 = 23 PL3/1296 EI
46
1k
2k
A
A1
C1
104 rad/ft
RB1
B1
RA1
RC1
D1
104 rad/ft
RB1
MA1
In the portion B1C1 of the conjugate beam, RB1 = Rc1 = 6/2 104 = 3 104 rad
In the portion A1B1, Fy = 0 RA1 2/2 104 RB1 = 0 RA1 = 4 104 rad
and MA1 = 0 RB1 2 + 2/2 104 4/3 + MA1 = 0 MA1 = 7.33 104 ft
B = VB1 = RB1 = 3 104 rad, and vA = MA1 = 7.33 104 ft
.....(1)
.(2)
.(3)

P
B
L/3
C
L/3
RA1
D
PL/6EI PL/8EI
RE1
PL/12EI
E
L/3
A1
B1
C1
D1
E1
L/2
In the conjugate beam, ME1 = 0 RA1 L + {(2L/3)/2 PL/12EI + L/2 PL/8EI} L/2
RA1 = 13 PL2/288 EI
..(1)
PL/6EI PL/8EI
RA1
MC1
PL/12EI RC1
Section at C1 RA1 L/2 +{(L/3)/2 PL/12EI (L/6 + L/9) + (L/2)/2 PL/8EI L/6}MC1 = 0
13 PL3/576 EI + 5PL3/1296 EI + PL3/192 EI MC1 = 0
MC1 = 35 PL3/2592 EI
...(2)
A = VA1 = RA1 = 13 PL2/288EI, and vC = MC1 = 35 PL3/2592 EI
P
P
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
A1
B1
C1
D1
MD1
RD1
L/2
PL/2EI
In the conjugate beam, BMC1= 0 RA1 L (L/2)/2 (PL/2EI) L/6 = 0 RA1 = PL2/48 EI ....(1)
MD1 = 0 RA1 3L/2 L/2 (PL/2EI) L/2 MD1 = 0 MD1 = 3PL3/32 EI
.(2)
vD = MD1 = 3PL3/32 EI
47
A
3.13104
2k
C
1 k/ft
B
A1
10
3.13104
B1
2.5104 rad/ft
2.5104 rad/ft
C1
MC1
RB1
RB1
RA1
2.5104 rad/ft
RC1
In the portion A1B1, MA1 = 0 RB1 10 10/2 2.5104 20/3 20/3 3.13104 5 = 0
RB1 = 1.875 103 rad
.(1)
In the portion B1C1, MC1 = 0 RB1 5 + 5/2 2.5104 10/3 MC1 = 0
MC1 = 11.46 103 ft
.(2)
3
3
B = VB1 = RB1 = 1.875 10 rad, and vC = MC1 = 11.46 10 ft
2k
A1
B1
C1
C
B
A
D
5
5
5
2.5104 rad/ft
RC1
RD1
RA1
RB1
D1
RC1
2.5104 rad/ft
2.510 rad/ft
In the portion C1D1, MD1 = 0 RC1 5 5/2 2.5104 10/3 = 0 RC1 = 4.17 104 rad ..(1)
In the portion A1B1C1, MA1 = 0 RB1 5 + 5/2 2.5104 (5 + 10/3) + RC1 10 = 0
RB1 = 1.875 103 rad
.(2)
4
3
For a section at right of B1, Fy = 0 VB1(+) 5/2 2.510 RC1 = 0 VB1(+) = 1.0410 rad (3)
and MB1 = 0 MB1 + 5/2 2.5104 10/3 + RC1 5 = 0
MB1 = 4.17103 ft
.(4)
For a section at left of B1, Fy = 0 VB1() + RB1 = VB1(+) VB1() = 8.33 104 rad
.(5)
B() = VB1() = 8.33 104 rad, B(+) = VB1(+) = 1.04 104 rad, and vB = MB1 = 4.17103 ft
48
w/unit length
RA1
RB1
wL2/8EI
A1
B1
C1
L
wL2/2EI
In the conjugate beam, MA1= 0 RB1 L2L/3 wL2/8EI L/2 + L/2 wL2/2EI (L+2L/3)= 0
RB1 = 3wL3/8EI
.(1)
2
3
For a section at right of B1, Fy = 0 VB1(+) L/2 wL /2EI = 0 VB1(+) = wL /4EI
.(2)
2
4
and MB1 =0 MB1 + L/2 wL /2EI 2L/3 = 0 MB1 = wL /6EI ..(3)
For a section at left of B1, Fy = 0 VB1() + RB1 = VB1(+) VB1() = wL3/8EI
.(4)
3
3
4
B() = VB1() = wL /8EI, B(+) = VB1(+) = wL /4EI, and vB = MB1 = wL /6EI
10k
A
A1
RA1
MA1
15
15RB/EI
B1
C1
50/EI
200/EI
In the conjugate beam, BMB1 = 0 15/2 15 RB/EI10 + 1550/EI 15/2+15/2 150/EI 10 = 0

RB = 15 kips
.(1)
RAL/EI
RA1
RD1
A1
A
B
L/2
C
L/2
D1
B1
C1
PL/2EI
In the conjugate beam, BMC1 = 0 RA1 L + L/2 RAL/EI L/3 L/4 PL/2EI L/6 = 0
RA1 = RAL2/6EI + PL2/48EI
.(1)
Also, BMC1 = 0 RD1 L L/2 RAL/EI L/3 + L/2 PL/2EI L/3 = 0
RD1 = RAL2/6EI + PL2/12EI
.(2)
Fy = 0 RA1 + RD1 = (2L/2) RAL/EI + 3L/4 PL/2EI = RAL2/EI + 3 PL2/8EI
..(3)
[(1) + (2)], (3) RAL2/3EI + 5PL2/48EI = RAL2/EI + 3PL2/8EI
2RAL2/3EI = 13 PL2/48EI RA = 13 P/32
.(4)
2
2
2
2
2
(1) RA1 = RAL /6EI + PL /48EI = 13PL /192EI + PL /48EI = 3PL /64EI
.(5)
Section at B1 RA1 L/2 + L/4 RAL/2EI L/6 MB1 = 0
MB1 = 3PL3/128EI + 13PL3/1536EI = 23PL3/1536EI
vB = MB1 = 23PL3/1536EI
49
.(6)
5RC 104
1.5 k/ft
A
10
A1
10
RC1
C1
B1
18.75 104 rad/ft

56.25 104 rad/ft
In the conjugate beam, MC1 = 0 20/2 5RC 104 40/3 + 10/3 18.75 104 30/4
+ 10 18.75 104 (10+5) + 10/2 37.5 104 (10 +20/3) = 0
666.67 RC = 6406.25 RC = 9.61 kips
.(1)
4
4
Fy = 0 RC1 + 20/2 5 9.61 10 10/3 18.75 10 10/2 (18.75 + 56.25) 104 = 0
RC1 = 4.297 103 rad
..(2)
Section at B1 (right)
RC1 10 10/2 2.5 9.61 104 10/3 + 10/3 18.75 104 10/4 + MB1 = 0
MB1 = 4.297 103 10 + 10/2 2.5 9.61 104 10/310/3 18.75 104 10/4 .(3)
= 18.55 103 ft
C = VC1 = RC1 = 4.297 103 rad, vB = MB1 = 18.55 103 ft
50
Buckling of Columns
v
v
P
M
x
EI v = Pv EI v + Pv = 0
v + 2 v = 0
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x
....(i)
....(ii)
[where 2= P/EI]
v(0) = 0 C1 = 0
...(iii)
v(L) = 0 C2 sin (L) = 0
Either C2 = 0 v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x = 0 ...(iv), which is the trivial solution
Or L = n = n/L
...(v)
P = 2 EI = n22EI/L2
...(vi)
Eq. (vi) provides a set of solutions for the load P in order to cause deflection of the column. The smallest
of these forces is obtained by putting n = 1, resulting in the critical load of the column as
Pcr = 2EI/L2
...(vii)
The critical load shown in Eq. (vii) is also called the buckling load or Euler load of the column, named
after Leonhard Euler who was the first to derive it.
Eulers solution presents the buckling of column as a bifurcation problem; i.e., according to it the column
would not deflect at all until it reaches the first critical load (= 2EI/L2), where its deflection is arbitrary.
After exceeding this load, the column returns to its un-deflected position until it reaches the second
critical load (= 42EI/L2), and so on.
P
P=42EI/L2
P=2EI/L2
v0
Obviously, the Euler solution is not consistent with the observed structural behavior of axially loaded
columns. The discrepancy can be attributed to the assumptions in deriving the formula; i.e., that the
column is perfectly straight, the applied load is concentric, the support condition is pin-pinned, the
material follows Hookes law and that there is no residual stress in the column (which is inappropriate for
steel).
51
Effect of Initial Imperfection

EI (vvi) = Pv EI v + Pv = EI vi
v + 2 v = vi
...(i) [where 2= P/EI]
(v-vi)
vi
P
x
If vi(x) = v0i sin (x/L)

L
vi(x) = (/L)2 v0i sin (x/L) ....(ii)
2
2
(i) v + v = (/L) v0i sin (x/L)
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x (/L)2/[2(/L)2] v0i sin (x/L) .(iii)
v(0) = 0 C1 = 0
.(iv)
v(L) = 0 C2 sin (L) = 0 C2 = 0
.(v)
2
v(x) = 1/[1(L/) ] v0i sin (x/L)
.(vi)
2 = P/EI v(x) = 1/[1P/(2EI/L2)] v0i sin (x/L) = v0i/[1P/Pcr] sin (x/L) ...(vii)
v(L/2) = v0i/[1P/Pcr]
...(viii)
Effect of Load Eccentricity (End Moments)
EI v = Pv Pe
EI v + Pv = Pe
v + 2 v = 2e
...(i)
[where 2 = P/EI]
M0=Pe
M0=Pe
x
L
(i) v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x e

v(0) = 0 C1 = e
v(L) = 0 C2 sin (L) = e (1 cos L) C2 = e tan(L/2)
v(x) = e [cos x 1+ tan(L/2) sin x]
v(L/2) = e [cos L/2 1+ tan(L/2) sin L/2]
= e [sec L/2 1] = e [sec {(/2)(P/Pcr)}1]
(v) EIv(x) = EI2 e [cos x + tan(L/2) sin x]
M(x) = M0 [cos x + tan(L/2) sin x]
M(L/2)/M0 = [sec(L/2)]
(ii)
..(iii)
..(iv)
..(v)
..(vi)
..(vii)
.....(viii)
1
0.8
Graph (1)
Graph (2)
P/Pcr
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
15
(1) v(L/2)/v0i, or (2) v(L/2)/e

Fig. 1: Effect of (1) Column Imperfection and (2) Load Eccentricity
52
20
Effect of Material Nonlinearity

For materials with nonlinear stress-strain relationship, the critical load is P cr = 2 EtI/L2 cr = 2 Et/2
where Et = Tangent modulus = d/d; i.e., slope of the stress-strain graph, = Slenderness ratio
Example: Calculate cr if = 40 20 2 and is (a) , (b) 2, (c) 4.
= 40 20 2 Et = d/d = 40 40
40 20 2 = 2(40 40 )/2 2 2(1+2/2) + 22/2 = 0 = (1+2/2) (1+4/4) (1)
(a) = = 0.586, = 16.57, (b) = 2 = 0.219, = 7.81, (c) = 4 = 0.061, = 2.35
If = 40 , Et = 40 and the corresponding strains and stresses are
(a) = = 1, = 40, (b) = 2 = 0.25, = 10, (c) = 4 = 0.0625, = 2.5
Elasto-plastic Material Property
The material property of an eccentrically loaded beam-column is elasto-plastic; i.e.,
Bending moment M = EI v, with an upper limit of Mp
Pv Pe = EI v, for the elastic range
.....(i)
and Pv Pe = Mp, for the plastic range
.....(ii)
M
Mp
M0=Pe
M0=Pe
EI
x
L
v(L/2) = e [sec{(/2)(P/Pcr)}1], for the elastic range .(iii)

v(L/2) = Mp/Pe, for the plastic range
......(iv)
Example: If EI = 40000 k-ft2, L = 20 ft, e = 0.10 ft, Mp is (a) 200, (b) 100, (c) 50 k-ft.
Pcr = 2EI/L2 = 987 kips
.(1)
For the elastic range, v(L/2)/e = sec{(P/400)} 1
.(2)
and for the plastic range, v(L/2)/e is (a) 2000/P 1, (b) 1000/P 1, (c) 500/P 1
.(3)
1.0
Mp=200 k-ft
Mp=100 k-ft
Mp= 50 k-ft
P/Pcr
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
3
v(L/2)/e
Effect of Material Nonlinearity
53
Effect of End Conditions

(a) Fixed-Hinged column
M0
EI v = M0 Rx Pv
P
EI v + Pv = M0 (M0/L) x
.....(i)
R
x
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x + [M0 (M0/L)x]/P ....(ii)
2
[where = P/EI]
v(0) = 0 C1 = M0/P
..(iii)
v(0) = 0 C2 = M0/PL
..(iv)
v(x) = (M0/P) [ cos x + (1/L) sin x + 1 x/L]
..(v)
v(L) = 0 cos L = (1/L) sin L tan L = L
..(vi)
L = 4.49341
.....(vii)
2
2
2
2
2
P = Pcr = EI = 20.19 EI/L = 2.046 ( EI/L ) EI/(0.7L)2 ...(viii)
(b) For a Fixed-Fixed column, similarly derive
P = Pcr = 4 (2EI/L2) = 2EI/(0.5L)2
(c) Fixed-Free (Cantilever) column
EI v = M0 Pv
EI v + Pv = M0
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x + M0/P
[where 2 = P/EI]
v(0) = 0 C1 = M0/P
v(0) = 0 C2 = 0
v(x) = (M0/P) (1 cos x)
v(L) = 0 2 cos L = 0 L = /2
P = Pcr = EI2 = 2EI/4L2 = 2EI/(2L)2
....(ix)
P
M0
.....(x)
....(xi)
P
x
L
..(xii)
..(xiii)
..(xiv)
..(xv)
.(xvi)
In general, for any support condition, Pcr = 2EI/Le2 = 2EI/(kL)2

.(xvii)
where Le = Effective length of the column = kL, k depends on support conditions at the two ends; i.e., the
relative stiffness of the compression members and flexural members at the two ends.
Example: Calculate the buckling load in column AB if the frame is (i) braced, (ii) unbraced.
[Given: EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft2]
15
A
18
B
11
12
10
(a) Braced
(b) Unbraced
A = (EI/15+EI/18)/(EI/11+EI/12) = 0.122/0.174 = 0.70, B = 0

For braced frame, k = 0.61, Pcr = 2EI/(kL)2 = 240000/(0.6118)2 = 3275 kips
For unbraced frame, k = 1.12, Pcr = 240000/(1.1218)2 = 971 kips
54
1.0
50.0
10.0
5.0
0.9
50.0
100.0
50.0
10.0
5.0
30.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
100.0
50.0
5.0
30.0
4.0
20.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.7
2.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
7.0
7.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
0.6
4.0
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
2.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
4.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
0.2
3.0
0.2
1.0
0.1
1.0
0.1
0
A
0.5
Braced Frames
1.0
Unbraced Frames
= Ratio of EI/L of compression members to EI/L of flexural members in a plane at one end of a compression member.
k = Effective length factor.
Alignment Charts for Effective Length Factors k
55
0
B
Design Concept of Axially Loaded Members

For structural members under compression, the AISC-ASD (AISC American Society of Steel
Construction, ASD Allowable Stress Design) guidelines recommend the following equations
Slenderness Ratio, = Le/rmin, and c = (2E/f y)
If c, all = fy [10.5 (/c)2]/FS,
where FS = Factor of safety = [5/3 + 3/8 (/c) 1/8 (/c)3]
(i)
2
2
If c, all = ( E/ )/FS, where FS = Factor of safety = 23/12 = 1.92
...(ii)
Here E = Modulus of elasticity, f y = Yield strength, all = Allowable compressive stress
A = Cross-sectional area, Le = Effective length of member, rmin = Minimum radius of gyration
The AISC-ASD column design curve is shown in the figure below
0.6
0.5
0.4
all/fy
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
= /c
AISC-ASD Column Design Curve
Example: Calculate Pallow for the column below using the AISC-ASD Method if
(a) L = 5, (2) L = 10 [Given: E = 29000 ksi, fy = 40 ksi]
c = (2E/fy) = (229000/40) = 119.63
k = 0.7 [Fixed-Hinged], rmin = 1.5/(12) = 0.433
(a) L = 5 = 60 = kL/rmin = 0.760/0.433 = 96.99 < c
cr = fy [1 0.5(/c)2] = 40[1 0.5(96.99/119.63)2] = 26.85 ksi
FS = 5/3 + 0.375(/c) 0.125 (/c)3 = 1.90
all = cr/FS = 26.85/1.90 = 14.10 ksi Pall = 14.10 3.0 = 42.30 k
(b) L = 10 = 120 = kL/rmin = 0.7120/0.433 = 193.98 > c
cr = 2E/2 = 229000/193.982 = 7.61 ksi, and FS = 1.92
all = cr/FS = 7.61/1.92 = 3.96 ksi Pall = 3.96 3.0 = 11.88 k
2
L
Problem: Check the adequacy of the truss against buckling using AISC-ASD criteria, if P = 10 k
[Given: A = 1.2 in2, rmin = 1, E = 29000 ksi, fy = 40 ksi for all members].
P
8
56
1.5
Moment Magnification
F/2
F/2
Concentrated Load at the Midspan of a Simply Supported Beam

v
P
EI v = Pv Fx/2
(x < L/2)
EI v + Pv = Fx/2
..(i)
2
F
Using = P/EI
x
v(x) = C1 cos x + C2 sin x Fx/(2P)
..(ii)
L/2
L/2
v(0) = 0 C1 = 0
..(iii)
v(L/2) = 0 C2 cos (L/2) = F/(2P) C2 = F/(2P cos (L)) .(iv)
v(x) = FL/(2P) [sin (x)/{(L) cos (L/2)} x/L]
.....(v)
M(x) = EI v(x) = (2 EI) FL/(4P) [sin (x)/{(L/2) cos (L/2)}]
= (FL/4) [sin (x)/{(L/2) cos (L/2)}]
.(vi) [Using 2= P/EI]
M(L/2) = (FL/4) [tan (L/2)/(L/2)]
....(vii)
Moment magnification factor = [tan (L/2)/(L/2)]

......(viii)
Similarly, moment magnification factor for simply supported beam subjected to end moments only
= [sec (L/2)], as derived earlier
....(ix)
Also, moment magnification factor for simply supported beam under UDL
= 2 [sec (L/2)1]/(L/2)2
....(x)
The moment magnification factor according to AISC code = 1/(1P/Pcr)
....(xi)
End Moments
Conc. Load
UDL
P/Pcr=0.10
1/(1-P/Pcr)
P/Pcr=0.50
P/Pcr=0.90
14
1.0
12
Moment Magnification M/M0
0.8
P/Pcr
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
8
6
4
2
0.0
0
0
10
15
20
0.0
Moment Magnification Factor
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Nondimensional distance, x/L
Moment Magnification Factors for Various Loads
Magnification of BMD for End Moments
57
1.0
Buckling of Columns
1. State the effects of (i) initial imperfection, (ii) load eccentricity, (iii) material nonlinearity and (iv)
residual stresses on the critical buckling load or buckling characteristics of a slender column under
compression.
2. Draw the axial load vs. lateral deflection curve of an ideal column according to Eulers formulation.
Explain why (i) Real columns start bending from the beginning of (axial) loading, (ii) Real columns
fail at axial loads smaller than the Euler load.
3. The beam ACB shown below has an initial deflected shape of v i(x) = v0i sin(x/L). If the deflection at
C for P = 100 kips is 1, calculate the value of v0i and the deflection at C for P = 200 kips [Given: EI
= 4106 k-in2].
A
x
15
15
4. The beam ACB shown below is subjected to compressive loads (P) applied at both ends at an
eccentricity of e. If the deflection at C for P = 100 kips is 1, calculate the value of e and the
deflection at C for P = 200 kips [Given: EI = 4106 k-in2].
e
x
15
15
5. A 5-ft long cantilever column has a 1010 cross-section as shown below and is made of a nonlinear
material with stress-strain relationship given by = 4(1e100), where is the stress (ksi) and is the
strain. Calculate the critical load for the column.
10
5
10
Cross-section
Cantilever Column
6. The figure below shows cross-sectional areas of two columns. Calculate the critical buckling loads of
the columns if (i) One end is fixed and the other is free, (ii) Both ends are fixed [Given: Length of
columns = 10 ft, E = 29000 ksi].
3
1/4
58
7. Calculate the Euler loads for columns AB and BC in the frame shown below
[Given: E = 3000 ksi, EI = constant].
12
A
10
B
16
12
C
Cross-section
15
18
12
8. Calculate the buckling load in column AB if the frame is (i) braced, (ii) unbraced
[Given: EI = constant = 40,000 k-ft2].
12
A
18
B
3@10
9. In the frame shown below, calculate the effective length factor of column AB about x and z-axis and
determine the minimum allowable compressive force on the column according to AISC-ASD criteria
[Given: E = 30103 ksi, fy = 40 ksi, member sections are shown below].
8
8
12
15
A
10
13
B
20
15
20
15
10
13
Beam Section
10
Column Section
Frame
x
z
10. Draw the AISC-ASD design curve for steel columns with E = 29000 ksi and yield strength = 36 ksi.
Show all the relevant details like c, allow at = 0 and = c on the graph.
59
11. Calculate the allowable value of F for the truss shown below using the AISC-ASD criteria
[Given: The truss members are hollow circular tubes of 4 outside and 3 inside diameter, E = 29000
ksi, fy = 50 ksi for all members].
F
10
Cross-section
10
10
12. In the structure shown below, check the adequacy of the member AB using the AISC-ASD criteria for
buckling, if P = 100k [Given: AB is a solid circular tube of 4 diameter, yield strength f y = 40 ksi,
modulus of elasticity E = 29000 ksi].
P
A
10
B
10
10
13. In the structure shown below, check the adequacy of the truss against buckling using the AISC-ASD
criteria, if P = 10k [Given: Area A = 1.2 in2, rmin = 1, Modulus of Elasticity E = 29000 ksi, yield
strength = 40 ksi, for all members].
P
8
b
c
8
d
8
60
14. Check the adequacy of the structure shown below against buckling if P = 20 k. Use a factor of safety of
2 and assume ends A, B and C are all hinged [Given: AB is a solid tube of 3 diameter, BC is a cable
of 1/8 diameter, modulus of elasticity E = 29000 ksi].
C
20k
30
A
B
10
15. What is moment magnification factor? What are the steps involved in calculating the moment
magnification factor of a typical column in a multi-storied building?
16. Using the AISC moment magnification factor (with C m = 0.85), calculate the bending moment at the
mid-span C of the simply supported beam shown below if
(i) P = 0, and (ii) P = 300k [Given: E = 3000 ksi, I = 1728 in4].
10k
B
12
12
17. For the simply supported beam shown below, calculate

(i) the allowable axial load using the AISC-ASD method
(ii) the bending moment at the mid-span C
[Given: E = 29000 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, A = 10 in2, Imin = 90 in4].
1 k/ft
150 k
B
C
10
150 k
10
18. For the beam ACB shown below, compare the deflections at C for P = 0 and P = 200 kips, if
(i) F = 0 but the beam has an initial deflected shape of v i(x) = v0i sin(x/L), where v0i = 1 in,
(ii) F = 10 kips and the beam is perfectly straight initially [Given: EI = 4106 k-in2].
F
P
B
C
x
15
15
61
Solution of Midterm Question

1.
1 k/
B
EI = 40103 k-ft2
10
31.2510-5/
A1
B1
C1
D1
Conjugate Beam
loaded by M/EI
In the conjugate beam, BM at C1 = 0 (2/3)31.2510-5105 10RD1 = 0

RD1 = 104.1710-5 rad
.(1)
In the separated beam C1D1, RC1 = 104.1710-5 rad
In the separated beam A1B1C1, RC1 = 104.1710-5 rad
.(2)
-5
-5
BM at B1 = 104.1710 5 = 520.8310 ft
vB = 520.8310-5 ft = 0.0625
.(3)
2. Moment-Area Theorem:
Using 1st theorem between C and D D C = (2/3)31.2510-510 = 208.3310-5 rad .....(1)
Using 2nd theorem between C and D (xD xC)D vD + vC = (2/3)31.2510-5105
10 D 0 + 0 = 104.1710-4 D = 104.1710-5 rad ...(2)
(1) C = 104.1710-5 rad
...(3)
st
(+)
Using 1 theorem between B and C C B(+) = 0
.(4)
Using 2nd theorem between B and C (xC xB)C vC + vB = 0
5 C 0 + vB = 0
vB = 5C = 520.8310-5 ft = 0.0625
....(5)
Singularity Function:
EIviv(x) w(x) = Cx53* +RCx101* 1x100
EIv(x) V(x) = Cx52* +RCx100 1x101 + C1
EIv(x) M(x) = Cx51* +RCx101 1/2x102 + C1 x + C2
EIv(x) = S(x) Cx50 +RC/2x102 1/6x103 + C1x2/2 + C2 x + C3
EIv(x) = D(x) Cx51+RC/6x1031/24x104 +C1x3/6 +C2x2/2 +C3 x +C4
M(0) = 0 C2 = 0
M(5) = 0 5C1 = 0 C1 = 0
M(20) = 0 10 RC 50 = 0 RC = 5
D(0) = 0 C4 = 0
D(10) = 0 5C + 10 C3 = 0
D(20) = 0 15 C + 833.33 416.67 + 20 C3 = 0 15 C + 20 C3 = 416.67
Solving (9), (10) C3 = 41.67, C = 83.33
EIv(x) = D(x) 83.33x51 +0.8333x103 0.04167x103 + 41.67 x
v(5) = D(5)/EI 41.675/(40103) = 520.8310-5 ft = 0.0625
62
....(1)
....(2)
...(3)
....(4)
.(5)
.(6)
.(7)
.(8)
.(9)
...(10)
...(11)
...(12)
....(13)
3. Le = 2512 = 120 in, A = 1010 = 100 in2, rmin = 10/12 = 2.887

= Le/rmin = 41.57
= 4(1 e100) Et = d/d = 400 e100
4(1 e100) = 2400 e100/2 = 2400 e100/(41.57)2 1 e100 = 0.571 e100
e100 = 1/1.571 e100 = 1.571 = 4.52103
cr = 4(1 e100) = 4(1 e0.452) = 1.454 ksi
Pcr = 1.454100 = 145.4 kips
4.
(1)
(2)
(3)
F
U0
U1
U2
10
L0
Cross-section
L2
L1
10
10
The only compression members in the truss are U1L0 and U1L2
Each of them is 14.14 long and under compressive force of 0.707F
A = (4232)/4 = 5.50 in2, Imin = (4434)/64 = 8.59 in4 rmin = (8.59/5.50) = 1.25
= Le/rmin = 14.1412 /1.25 = 135.76 and c = (2E/fy) = (229000/50) = 107.00
c all = (2E/2)/FS = (229000/135.762)/1.92 = 8.09 ksi
Pall = all A = 8.09 5.50 = 44.46 kips
0.707Fall = 44.46 Fall = 62.88 kips
63

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Torque Diagram and Torsional Stress of Circular Section

Torsion of Circular and Tubular Section

Corresponding torsional moment, dT = dF = (max 2/c) dA ..(iii)

T = (max 2/c) dA = max J/c max = Tc/J

Torsional Rotation of Circular Section

Torsion of Closed Thin-Walled Sections

0.5 thick wall

The enclosed area A = 3.5 3.5 = 12.25 in2

Torsion of Rectangular Sections

(a) For the 4 4 solid section, = 0.208, = 0.141

Distributed Torsion and Torsional Rotation

Composite and Variable Cross-sections

(a) Neglecting the effect of stress concentration

Statically Indeterminate Problems on Torsion

Practice Problems on Torsion

Section between BCD

Stress Combination and Combined Normal Stress

a = + 43.3 1/(0.667) 25 0.5/(0.167) = 64.95 75 = 10.05 ksf, b = 64.95 75 = 139.95 ksf,

Combination of Axial and Biaxial Bending Stress

Fig. 2: Kern of a rectangular area

Combination of Shear Stresses for Helical Spring

Practice Problems on Combination of Stress

Fig. 1: Transformation of Normal and Shear Stresses

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

However, the figure also shows that the principal

Fig. 1: Mohrs Circle

It can also be proved that if the slope of AB with

The principal stresses are

tan = 2xy/(xxyy) = (30)/(40) = = 216.9

Yield and Fracture Criteria

Practice Problems on Transformation of Stress

Qualitative Deflected Shapes

w0 per unit length

Calculation of Deflection using Singularity Functions

1. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang

2. Statically Indeterminate Beam with Overhang

3. Statically Determinate Beam with Overhang & Internal Hinge

Practice Problems on Beam Deflection

2. Calculate the deflection and rotation at point B [EI= constant].

4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI= constant].

6. Calculate the deflection at A [EIAB = 40,000 k-ft2, EIBC = 20,000 k-ft2].

7. Calculate the deflection at C [EIAB = EIDE = EI, EIBCD = 2EI].

11. Calculate the deflection at C [EI = constant].

13. Calculate the reaction at support B [EI = constant].

14. Calculate the deflection at B [EI = constant].

Beam Deflection Solutions using Singularity Functions

EIviv(x) w(x) = M0xL2*

[Instead of V(L) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

EIviv(x) w(x) = 100x51* + RBx101*

4. Calculate the deflection at C and the rotation at A [EI = constant].

[Instead of M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0,

EIviv(x) w(x) = 2x01* + RBx21* + RCx81* 1x121*

8. Calculate the deflection at D [EI = constant].

EIviv(x) w(x) = PxL/21* + RCxL1* Px3L/21*

EIv(x) = D(x) PxL/23/6 + PxL3/3 Px3L/23/6 + PL2x/48

[Instead of M(0) = 0, V(3L/2) = 0 and M(3L/2) = 0, one can use

EIviv(x) w(x) = 1x00 + 1x100 + RBx101* + 2x151*

EIv(x) = S(x) x3/6 + x103/6 + x102 + x152 + 3 x2 58.33