Recent Trends in Industrial Waste Management

1) Developed Countries
A recent study on the impact of a circular economy on the waste sector, found that the majority of
businesses are moving waste up the hierarchy by focussing on increasing recycling rates; better waste
prevention; a greater focus on waste reuse; setting zero waste to landfill targets; and energy recovery
(Perella, 2013). Waste recycling and recovery have become the focus of integrated waste management.
Around 70% of the municipal waste produced worldwide is driven to dumpsites and sanitary landfills,
11% is treated in thermal and Waste-to-Energy (WtE) facilities and the rest 19% is recycled or treated by
Mechanical and Biological Treatment (MBT), including composting. (ISWA, 2012).
Recent Eurostat data (2010) shows this transition away from landfilling towards recovery within the EU
(EuroStat, 2013) (Figure 1). Statistics for South Africa are included for comparison. What is clear from
Figure 1 is that countries are at different stages in transitioning up the waste hierarchy, and that there
are different paths to take in achieving waste diversion. Some countries have prioritised thermal
treatment, with a large percentage of their waste being sent for energy recovery and incineration
(without energy), while other countries have prioritised recovery other than energy (e.g. recycling of
waste). While differences in waste management approaches (technology mix) exist between EU
member states, the EU, as with most developed countries, is showing a move away from waste disposal,
to resource recovery (other than energy) (which includes recycling) and energy recovery (Eurostat,
2013). Countries such as the Italy, Germany, Denmark and Belgium have managed to reduce the
quantity of waste disposed to land, to less than 20% (Figure 1).

Figure 1

The intention of the alternative waste management facilities is to recover viable resources from the
waste, such as energy, polymer, fibre, ferrous- and non-ferrous metals, etc., and re-introduce them back
into the economy. As the use of WtE technologies grows and becomes part of the standard technology
portfolio of a country, there is increasing debate around the trade-off between recycling and energy
recovery. From a circular economy and resource recovery philosophy, WtE should be seen as a
complementary technology to recycling, with the approach to integrated waste management being one
of firstly waste prevention, followed by maximising waste reuse and recycling and finally recovery,
including energy recovery (REA, 2011; DEFRA, 2013a). WtE technologies are therefore typically
concerned with recovering energy from residual waste, once all economically viable recyclables have
been removed (DEFRA, 2013). If countries are successful in achieving the top orders of the waste
hierarchy, potentially less residual waste will be available for energy recovery.
Governments aim is to get the most energy out of residual waste, rather than to get the most waste
into energy recovery DEFRA (2013:22).
Developing and emerging countries
Within the waste sector, BoAML (2013) see the fastest growth in the next decade coming from waste
diversion, recycling, recovery, waste-to-energy, e-waste, and sustainable packaging, particularly in the
emerging markets, in particular China, India and Latin America.
Research shows that many developing and emerging countries face many of the same waste
management challenges as developed countries
Lack of adequate infrastructure to deal with growing volumes of waste

Changing waste streams in terms of quantity and composition/complexity due to changing

socio-economic conditions

Dominant means of waste management is disposal of waste to landfill, typified by open dumps
and open burning

Problematic waste streams being organic (putrescible) waste, packaging waste, hazardous
waste, and construction and demolition waste

High tonnages of organic waste in the waste stream, often as high as 60-70%

Low levels of recycling, largely carried out by an informal sector

Lack of adequate environmental legislation regulating waste management activities

Many developing countries in Africa, South America and Asia are actively pursuing alternative waste
management options, which are focussed on increased materials and energy recovery through
increased recycling and recovery. However, with respect to organic waste, the complexity of technology
responses varies between countries, from basic composting, to anaerobic digestion, to high
temperature thermal destruction, e.g. incineration. China is also driving this trend towards increased
recycling and recovery. The 12th five-year plan for National Economic and Social Development of the
Peoples Republic of China (2011-2015) (CBI, 2011) has identified two specific areas of socio-economic
development relating to waste

Cultivating and developing strategic emerging industries, one of which focuses on an energy
conservation and environmental protection industry, including recycling
Vigorously developing a circular economy, including implementing circular production methods;
enhancing the circular use of resources and recycling systems; popularizing the green
consumption model; and strengthening policy and technical support

Chinas focus areas for waste recycling are very similar to those of Europe and include (China Briefing,
2012)

Waste recycling and recovery of metals (i.e. scrap metal, waste electronics, used electromechanical products) and plastic (recycled polymer)
Recycling of large industrial waste streams, e.g. fly ash, gypsum, mining waste, etc.
Energy recovery from waste, e.g. domestic and industrial waste, and sewage sludge

Key issues facing global recycling and recovery include (VTT, 2012)

Increased efficiency in material recovery and recycling

Improved feedstock management, including increased access to recyclables (quantity) and to
clean recyclables (quality); and
Design for dismantling and recycling, in response to the increasing complexity of products and
related wastes

Global waste and recycling flows

The global generation of solid waste is expected to increase from more than 3.5 million tonnes per day
in 2010 to more than 6 million tonnes per day in 2025 (Hoornweg et al., 2013). With waste management
being increasingly linked to resource management, a global network of material and recyclable waste
flows has evolved, creating global recycling markets (ISWA, 2012). Much of these recyclables are
directed towards China, which in 2010 imported around 7.4m tonnes of discarded plastic, 28m tonnes
of waste paper and 5.8m tonnes of steel scrap. Between 2000 and 2008, European exports of plastic
waste increased by 250% and about 87% of these exports ended up in China (including Hong Kong)5.
As noted by Moses (2013) The trade is being driven by tough EU legislation forcing local authorities and
businesses to recycle more, and increasing landfill charges, making it cheaper to send the waste abroad.
More than a third of the waste paper and plastic collected by British local authorities, supermarkets and
businesses for recycling is sent to China.
The success in recycling by China has been ascribed to the high demand for the materials (markets),
accompanied by the low labour costs, high unemployment rates, and developed recycling skills which
allows for manual dismantling/recycling at higher recovery rates than can be achieved with high-cost
technologies. Recycled metal accounts for approximately 25% of Chinese aluminium production, 40% of
copper production, and 15% of steel production.

A recent study by StEP (Duan et al., 2013) mapped out the global flows in used electronics (e-waste),
one of the fastest growing waste streams in developed and developing countries. The results show that
the bulk of the e-waste was transported to low-middle and low-income economies.
Clean technologies
For most people the concept of clean technology, or clean tech, is relatively new. Clean tech refers to
any product, service, or process that delivers value using limited or zero nonrenewable resources and/or
creates significantly less waste than conventional offerings. Clean technology comprises a diverse range
of products and services, such as solar-power systems and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), that
Harness renewable materials and energy sources or reduce the use of natural resources by using them
more efficiently and productively.

Cut or eliminate pollution and toxic wastes

Deliver equal or superior performance compared with conventional offerings
Provide investors, companies, and customers with the promise of increased returns, reduced
costs, and lower prices

Clean tech covers four main sectors: energy, transportation, water, and materials. It includes relatively
well-known technologies such as solar photovoltaics, wind power, biofuels, bio-based plastics, advanced
lithium ion batteries, and large-scale reverse-osmosis water desalination. It also includes such emerging
technologies as tidal power, silicon-based fuel cells, distributed-hydrogen generation, plug-in hybrid
vehicles, and nanotechnology-based materials.
In the 1970s, clean tech was considered "alternative," the province of back-to-the-land lifestyle
advocates, altruistic environmentalists, and lab scientists on research grants-and for good reason: It was
in an early stage of development, it was too expensive, it didn't have widespread political support, and
very few large, established companies were embracing the sector. Even at the start of the twenty-first
century, the term clean tech wasn't yet in the financial or business community's lexicon. If you had done
a Web search on clean technology or dean tech in 2000, you'd have received only a few relevant results.
If you did a similar Web search on the topic today, you'd find more than 500,000 relevant hits, reflecting
tcday's reality-clean technology is everywhere.
Throughout the world, in trends large and small, we're seeing the beginning of a revolution that is
changing the places where we live and work, the products we manufacture and purchase, and the
development plans of cities, regional governments, and nations around the globe. One need look no
further than the daily headlines to see clean tech taking hold. Portland, Oregon, recently became the
first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol.
California passed landmark legislation to cap and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and to install
nearly 1 million solar roofs over the next decade. Gas-guzzling sport utility vehicle (SUV) proprietor Ford
has seen its fortunes plummet as those of hybrid-leader Toyota rise. Entrepreneurs have raised venture
capital (Ve) to develop products as varied as a high-performance, battery-powered, $98,000 electric
sports car and solar cells based on nanotechnology.

Selection of Energy Intensive Industries

Chemical
Accounts for 30% of global industrial energy use and 16% of direct CO2 emissions
Iron & Steel
Accounts for about 19% of final energy use and about a quarter of direct CO2 emissions from the
industry sector
Cement
Non-metallic mineral sub-sector accounts for about 9% of global industrial energy use, of which 70 to
80% is used in cement production
Pulp & Paper
Accounts for about 5.7% of global industrial final energy use
Aluminium
Global avg. electricity use for primary aluminum production is 15 300 kWh/t

Manufacturing industry can improve its energy efficiency by an impressive 18 to 26%,

while reducing the sectors CO2 emissions by 19 to 32%, based on proven technology

Energy Efficiency Overview in Cement Manufacturing

Cement Industry Comparison: EU & India

1) EU cement industry energy bill represents about 40% of
total production costs, while European cement production
techniques are amongst the most energy efficient in the
world
2) Percentage of the dry process use in the EU production
in the cement industry has increased from 78 % in 1997 to
90 % in 2008
3) Cements containing granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS)
are very common in Europe
4) One of the main sources of CO2 emission reduction in
Europe is the decrease of the proportion of clinker in the
cement, i.e. the clinker-to-cement ratio
5) Plants in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands
and Switzerland have reached average substitution rates of
from 35% to more than 70% with some plants achieving
100% substitution
Major Initiatives taken are:
a) Process conversion away from less energy efficient
processes to dry and semi-dry processes
b) Using blast furnace slag, power station fly ash, natural
pozzolana or limestone as a constituent of the final cement
reducing the clinker required per tonne of cement

1 ) At present 96-97% of Indis cement production is from

dry process kilns, a further 3% of production is accounted
for by wet process kilns, with the remainder of Indian
production about 1% now coming from semi dry & semi
wet process kiln
2) A number of plants are still using ball mills, many have
installed pre-grinders like roller press to improve energy
efficiency
3) Best reported energy performance figures in India is
69 kWh/t of cement & 665 kCal/kg of clinker as
compared to 65 kWh/t & 650 kCal/kg respectively for the
rest of the world
4) Government of India to attach top priority to
encourage application of nano-technology in the
production of cement in view of the limited and finite
nature of mineral resources available in the country
5) Shree cement, India was the first cement company in
the world to be certified EN 16001, which is designed to
continuously monitor and document energy use, identify
action targets, and provide the necessary resources and
employee training
Key players in cement technologies are Ashoka
Technologies, Kakatiya engineering equipments Pvt ltd,
Supertech International, Tata Steel Growth shop

Key players in cement technologies are FL SMIDTH, KHD

Humboldt Wedag, ABB, Loesche GmbH, AUMUND Group

Energy Efficient Technologies for Iron and Steel Making

Process
Coke making

Sinter making

Energy-efficient Technologies
Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ)
Automatic Combustion Control
Automatic Ignition for Coke Oven Flare
Tall batteries and stamp charged batteries
Sinter Cooler Waste Heat Recovery

Iron making

Steel Making
Casting
Rolling

Multi-slit Burners
Top Pressure Recovery Turbine
Hot Stove Waste Recovery
Coal Dust Injection (CDI)
Bled BF Gas Recovery
Bled BOF Gas Recovery
BOF gas Sensible Heat Recovery
Continuous Casting replacing Ingot Casting
Thin Slab Casting / Near-net-strip Casting
Walking Beam Furnace
Reheating Furnace Waste Heat Recovery

Life Cycle Analysis

Life cycle analysis (LCA) is the systematic approach of looking at a products complete life cycle, from
raw materials to final disposal of the product. It offers a cradle to grave look at a product or process,
considering environmental aspects and potential impacts. When LCAs were first developed in the 1960s,
they were motivated by the economic struggles of the time. Through the 1970s and 80s, this analytical
process became less popular due to the lack of standardization. The LCA concept has once again become
important to industry and academia. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, published by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) in 2006, provides a detailed guideline for a systematic
LCA approach. The EPA report, as well as other reports from the International Journal of Life Cycle
Analysis and reports written by the European Commission regarding life cycle analyses, were used as
sources for this description of basic life cycle concepts. Good examples of life cycle assessments can be
found in Choi et al. and Lu et al. In addition, Appendix 4 contains a list of other useful life cycle reports
on electronic devices.
How LCA Works
Life cycle analysis examines the environmental impacts of a product by considering the majorcstages of
a products life, which are:
Raw material acquisition,which includes material harvesting and transportation to manufacturing sites;
Processing, which involves materials processing and transportation to production sites;
Manufacturing, which includes product manufacture and assembly, packaging, and transportation to
final distribution;
Product life, which includes energy and emissions during normal product life, required maintenance,
and product reuse (refurbishing, material reuse); and
Waste management/end of life, which includes recycling, landfills, liquid waste, gas emissions, etc.
The LCA technique can be narrowed down to four main steps which address one or more of the
products life stages at a time:
1. The definition and scope is determined along with information needs, data specificity, collection
methods and data presentation.
2. The life cycle inventory (LCI) is completed through process diagrams, data collection, and evaluation
of the data.
3. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is determined with impact categories and their weights, as
well as any subsequent results.
4. The final report should include significant data, data evaluation and interpretation, final conclusions,
and recommendations.

Figure 1 shows that the first three steps of a life cycle analysis are related to one another. More
importantly, however, data interpretation is an integral part of all three steps and should be done
after each of the sub-analyses is completed

Figure 1: Phases of a Life

Cycle Analysis

Why Use LCA?

An effective LCA allows analysts to:
Calculate a products environmental impact
Identify the positive or negative environmental impact of a process or product
Find opportunities for process and product improvement
Compare and analyze several processes based on their environmental impacts
Quantitatively justify a change in a process or product
The LCA method provides researchers or companies with quantitative data for their current
products. By looking at a products life from the raw material extraction to its disposal, the
environmental impact of each process and material can be analyzed. The LCA allows analysts to
determine and analyze the technological, economical, environmental, and social aspects of a
product or process necessary to manage the complete life cycle. With this quantitative data,
desired changes can be justified with respect to the cost and environmental impacts of a product
or process
Definitions
Anomaly assessment: An analysis which examines surprising or unexpected results based on previous
results.
Completeness check: A test that ensures that all relevant information and data which is needed for the
interpretation of results is available and complete. The completeness check should follow a checklist of
significant areas to be checked.
Consistency check: An analysis that determines if the assumptions, methods, and data used in the LCA
follow the goal, definition, and scope determined at the beginning of the LCA.
Co-product (or Byproduct): Any stream of product which is neither the primary product of
manufacture or waste. It may be resold or remanufactured for another purpose.
Contribution analysis: An analysis that determines the contribution of the individual life cycle stages in
comparison with the total result.
Data quality indicators: Benchmarks created to test the fulfillment of the data quality requirements.
They depend on the type of information obtained and the sources which are evaluated.
Dominance analysis: An analysis that determines which statistical tools and techniques can identify
significant contributions.
Industrial scrap: Waste that is created during standard production (e.g. trim scraps). It is sometimes
reworked into the production system. Industrial scrap is also a co-product.

 Sensitivity analysis: An analysis which observes how sensitive the results are to any changes in
assumptions.
Sensitivity check: A test which evaluates the reliability of the LCA results by determining if the
uncertainty in data affects the level of confidence in conclusions.
Uncertainty analysis: An analysis of the LCIA data variability in order to determine the significance of
the impact indicator results.
Data Acquisition
Obtaining necessary data for a life cycle analysis can be a difficult task. Sometimes companies are willing
to provide available data in order to assist with a life cycle analysis. However, longstanding
confidentiality agreements often present unforeseen difficulties in obtaining necessary and required
data. To obtain needed data, several extensive databases and software applications are available and
may be used. They include data based on observations, quantitative research, and manufacturer
information to calculate national averages. Using a software package can be a convenient way to obtain
data for a life cycle analysis, but software packages can also introduce errors into the process. For
example, if the LCA observes a national trend, then the available software programs will provide
sufficient data. Conversely, if the LCA is specific to a manufacturer or region, then the averaged data
used in a software program will most likely not be detailed enough. Because data acquired during this
process may include gaps due to lack of information, it is necessary to explain these gaps in the final
report.
It is important to not only consider the data source, but also consider its validity. The data used in a LCA
should be current. Because many manufacturing processes change frequently, the data must reflect the
current process. It may be necessary to complete additional research to fill data gaps. Surveys
sometimes provide enough information to fill the current data gaps. Some examples of common data
gaps that might be filled by conducting a survey include: product turnover rates; maintenance frequency
and need; changes in manufacturing processes; and using a product for something other than its
intended purpose.
Data availability also varies by region, country, and continent. In general the United States, Canada,
Western Europe, and Japan have the most readily available and accurate current statistical information.
In regions and countries where data is unavailable, it may be acceptable to draw a comparison in data
between similar countries that are not on the same continent. However, it is very important to make the
assumptions reasonable. For example, just because there is a lack of data on Chinese manufacturing and
a wealth of data from European manufacturing, one cannot conclude that industries in China and
Europe are comparable or even similar to each other. Each location has drastically different attitudes
toward and laws governing the manufacture and disposal of materials, which makes such a substitution
unrealistic.
When comparing two or more sets of data, it is important that the sets are equivalent to one another. If
the available data is not equivalent to one another, it cannot be correctly compared and analyzed. When
evaluating data equivalency, it is necessary to consider the data source, age, and type. If there is
detailed quantitative data for one process or product, but there is minimal data on another process
which will be used for comparison, the analyst has to decide whether to omit data from the first data set
in order to ensure data quality equivalence for both sets. The analyst can also report all of the data
available, but only use equivalent data to make a quantitative comparison.

Table 1: Examples of Checklist Categories for Potential Inconsistencies between Alternatives A and
B for Life Cycle Inventories (LCI)
Types of data LCIs can include:
Measurements
Models
Samples
Averaged data
Site or manufacturer specific data
Vendor or manufacturer data
LCA and non-LCA intended data
Data sources for LCIs can include:
Equipment meter readings
Operating logs and journals
Industry and manufacturer reports and databases
Test results
Government reports, databases, and documents
Publically available data and reports
Published documents (journals, articles, books, references, encyclopedia, patents)
Related previous tests and LCAs
Government, process, and equipment specifications and requirements
Previous experience
Surveys and audits

Input and Output Considerations

When designing a life cycle analysis, it is important to clearly define the inputs and outputs of a process
or product. Inputs include energy and raw materials. Outputs include various types of products and
wastes. This section will detail the input and outputs which should be considered when performing a

LCA. Figure 2 shows the life cycle stages of a general process. Creating a similar process list/diagram at
the beginning of a LCA helps an analyst to identify the major input and output materials.

Figure 2: Sample Life Cycle Stages

Some of the following elements to consider regarding input/output are:

Energy (Input and Output)
o Process energy: Energy to operate subsystems (pumps, reactors, heat exchangers, blowers,
boilers, etc.)
o Transportation energy: Energy for trucks, trains, boats, etc.
o Energy of material subsystems: Energy which is inherently in a system.
o Energy combustion: Energy for combustion during a process or manufacture.
o Energy pre-combustion: Energy used to deliver a useable fuel for combustion.
o Energy sources
Electricity
Complicated to relate electricity use to a specific source of the electricity (coal,
nuclear, hydro, etc.)
Computer models for electricity may be applicable
Coal
Nuclear power
Usually measured in its fossil fuel equivalency
Natural gas
Wind
Solar
Biomass
Hydropower
Theoretical energy equivalence of 3.61 MJ per kWh with no pre-combustion
impacts

 Associated ecosystem disruption is not considered in the inventory

Oil
Petroleum
Water (Input and Output)
o Only water unavailable for beneficial uses is included in the inventory
Beneficial uses include navigation, drinking water, aquatic habitat, etc.
o Withdrawn, used, treated, and replaced water is not included in the inventory
Environmental impacts (Output)
o Atmospheric emissions
Reported by unit of weight of input and output
Usually only regulated materials required by the government are monitored
Common air emissions: particulates, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, sulfur
oxides, carbon monoxide, aldehydes, ammonia, and lead
Water vapor and carbon monoxide are generally not included
o Waterborne waste
Reported by unit of weight
Includes emissions from fuel combustion and processes
Common waterborne wastes includes biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), suspended solids, dissolved solids, oil, grease, sulfides, iron, chromium, tin,
metal ions, cyanide, fluorides, phenol, phosphates, and ammonia
o Solid waste
Includes all solid material disposed within sources of the system
Reported by unit of weight
Types of solid waste:
Industrial: Waste generated during production
Process: Waste generated within a process and not recycled
Fuel-related: Waste produced from combustion and product production (includes ransportation
and operating processes)
Post-consumer: Product and packaging waste which is discarded purchase
o Hazardous vs. non-hazardous
o Hazard classification of waste depends on governing laws and regulations
o Fugitive/accidental releases
May not be recorded, but estimates and discrepancies should be reported
Include low-frequency, high magnitude events (major oil spills) and more frequent, lower
magnitude events
Special cases (input or output)
o Capital equipment

 Resources and energy required for constructing buildings and process equipment should be
included
Capital expenditures are complicated making the process specification difficult
o Personnel issues
Waste generated and energy used by employees is not included
Consider personnel issues if they correspond with less efficient manufacturing processes
o Improper waste disposal
It is generally assumed that all waste is disposed of properly and lawfully. Illegal dumping,
littering, and other waste disposal methods are usually not considered in the LCI as a means of
waste disposal
If it is clearly known that products are dumped and/or recycled illegally, the associated health
and environmental hazards should be included in the final report
Data Quality Indicators
In the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) of the life cycle assessment (LCA), characterization
factors for chemicals and materials are determined in order to calculate the total environmental
and health impacts for each material and process used. The impact indicator calculation is
Inventory Data x Characterization Factor = Impact Indicator
For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) determined that the factor
value of chloroform is 9. Therefore, if a process produces 20 pounds of chloroform, the
impact indicator for the chloroform in that process is 180.
Characterization factors should be applied with caution because most are based on European
data. In order to apply the factors in the United States, the characterization factors should be
based on U.S. data, rather than on available data of another country
Impact Categories
When performing a LCIA, it is important to consider how the results of the life cycle inventory
affect the world around us. Below are several categories along with their associated impacts.
Global impacts
o Global warming
Polar melt, soil moisture loss, longer seasons, forest loss/change, wind and ocean pattern
changes
o Ozone depletion
Increased ultraviolet radiation
o Resource depletion
Decreased resources for future generations

 Regional impacts
o Photochemical smog
Smog, decreased visibility, eye irritation, respiratory tract and lung irritation, and vegetation
damage
o Acidification
Building corrosion, water body acidification, vegetation and soil effects
Local impacts
o Human health
Increased morbidity and mortality
o Terrestrial toxicity
Decreased production and biodiversity, decreased wildlife populations
o Aquatic toxicity
Decreased aquatic plant and insect production, decreased biodiversity, decreased fish
populations
Completing a Life Cycle Analysis
In order to complete a successful LCA, detailed steps should be followed. The following
checklist of information needs is useful when completing a LCA, since it helps an analyst know
what type of information to look for and include. The list is not all-inclusive, but it does offer a
starting point and is meant to inspire more detailed questions in order to complete a successful
and thorough LCA.
Step 1: Create a definition and scope
When developing the scope and definition, consider the following topics:
Goal of this life cycle analysis
o Available data and possible data gaps
o Current legislation
o Currently available designs of the product/process
o Environmental impacts of current processes and products
o Product or process comparison options
Audience
o End consumer, stakeholders, policy makers, manufacturers, processors, recyclers, refurbishers
Production and process information
o Product usage
o Product or process materials
o Identifying the least environmentally damaging product/process
o Inclusion of all necessary data
o Possible result impacts (uncertainties, assumptions)
o Possible process or product changes
Data accuracy
o Type of data

o Specificity and required amount of data

o System boundaries (regional, national, or global)
o Availability of current data
o Need for additional data collection
o Data discrepancies
o Data equivalency for comparisons
Result interpretation and display
o Data comparison of products and process steps
o Units for comparison
o Required data for accurate results
o Data clarity
o Amount of data to display
o Data gaps
Ground rules
o Assumptions
o Quality assurance
o In line with goal and scope
o Ground rule implementation during data collection
Figure 3 is an example flow chart which should be completed when beginning a LCI. To
improve accuracy of the analysis, the flow chart should be as detailed as possible.

Figure 3: Television Life Cycle Assessment

Flow Chart

Step 2: Complete a life cycle inventory (LCI)

LCI is a process which quantifies all inputs and outputs of a process or product. Consider inputs like
energy and raw materials. The process outputs include any material emissions to the environment, such
as water, air, and solid waste.
An LCI is also a way to develop a comparison of the environmental impacts and potential improvements
of the process or product. LCIs can be useful for finding improvement opportunities, supporting design
changes, and developing new regulations.
Consider the following when completing a LCI:
Process flow
o Energy inputs
o Raw materials
o Transportation (mode of transportation, weight, and distance of transport)
o Production quantity
o Final product and by-products
o Industrial scrap
o Production duration (includes plant shut downs, startup activities, fluctuations in production, etc.)
o Environmental impacts of product use
o Final product disposal
o Environmental impacts of disposal
o Energy and materials consumed from product use
Data gathering
o Data type and quality
o Data quality indicators (DQIs)
o Data generation and accuracy
o Necessary spreadsheets
o Decision areas
Purpose of the inventory
System boundaries
Geographic scope
Types of data used
Data collection procedures
Data quality measures
Computational spreadsheet construction
Presentation of results
o Possible omissions or doublec ounting
o Data sensitivity
o Data collection methods (research, interviews, surveys, available data)
o Data inventory; options are:
Providing all data, no matter how minor
Excluding data which may be outside of the predetermined scope
Excluding data which may be negligible, as determined by the sensitivity analysis
Excluding certain types of input, such as capital equipment replacement
o Units of measure and their consistency
Results
o Boundaries
o Environmental impacts

o Basis of comparison
o Relative process contributions
o Result trends
o Environmental impact recommendations
o Geographical limitations
o Environmental and health impacts
o Clear result summary (table or graph)
o Information organization (by life cycle stage, media, process, or a combination)
Step 3: Co

Step 3: Complete the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

The LCIA is a way to interpret how the processes and products in the LCA impact human health
and the environment. The LCIA addresses concepts like the depletion of resources and possible
health effects by analyzing the stressors found within the manufacturing process or product.
Therefore, the LCIA considers the LCI data but gives it a more meaningful basis for comparison.
In order to calculate the environmental and health impacts of a product or process, science-based
characterization factors are utilized. According to ISO 14042 [3], impact category selection,
classification, and characterization are required steps when performing an LCIA. In order to
complete a life cycle impact assessment, the following should be taken into account:
Impact categories
o Global warming, acidification, terrestrial toxicity (natural system effects)
o Input/output effects on human health, plants, animals, future availability of natural resources
Result categorization (e.g. Carbon dioxide effects global warming)
o LCI categorization
o Conversion factors
o Impact factors
Impact comparisons
o Single life cycle stage or whole life cycle comparison
o Indicator grouping (By location, industry, process, product, and manufacturer)
o Baseline comparison
Important potential impacts
o Sorting (By severity, characteristics)
o Weighting (Determination, bias)
Results
o Accuracy
o Conclusions
o Recommendations
o Limitations
o Assumptions
o Uncertainties

Figure 4 is an example pie chart for a life cycle analysis report, showing one way that data can be
displayed in order to indicate which television components have the largest environmental
impact.

Figure 4:An Example Showing the Environmental Impact of Television Set Components

Step 4: Interpret the results and make recommendations

Life cycle assessments are performed in order to systematically examine a products life cycle,
from raw materials to the final disposal of products . LCAs utilize information from LCI and
LCIA to draw conclusions on processes and make appropriate recommendations from their
results.
When interpreting LCA results, consider:
Final results
o Consistency check
o Evaluate completeness, sensitivity and consistency of LCIA
o Contribution or dominance
o Result expectation
o Result discrepancies
o Anomaly check
o Completeness check
o Sensitivity check
Conclusions
o Most significant issues
o Comparison data
o Data differences
o Environmental and health impacts
o Impact magnitude
o Boundary conditions
Limitations
o Assumptions and estimates
o Data bias
o Result specifications
o Observations and recommendations

 Recommendations
o Data availability
o Product/process change
o Maintain initial scope and goal
Report information
o Administration information
o Goal and scope
o Data collection methods and results
o Results, assumptions, limitations, and conclusions
o Peer review
o Reviewer comments and recommendations
Figure 5 shows a sample quantitative comparison of the energy usage of products A and B. This
identifies the process with the greatest environmental energy use.

Figure 5: Energy Assessment Example

Conclusion
The four steps that comprise the life cycle assessment (LCA) allow one to examine the full
extent of environmental and economic effects assignable to products and processes in order to
make more informed decisions. In todays manufacturing world, life cycle assessments are
becoming increasingly complicated, due to extensive globalization evidenced worldwide.
Despite such difficulties, LCA is an invaluable tool when comparing the environmental impacts
of various products and processes. By performing life cycle analyses, manufacturers around the
globe are able to quantitatively see the environmental impacts (and associated money flow) of
their products or processes. Companies can make necessary corrections to decrease economic
costs and, more importantly, decrease the environmental impacts and find better ways to make
their products.