Mahabharata

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This article is about the Sanskrit epic. For other uses, see Mahabharata (disambiguation).

Mahabharata

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Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18th-19th-century painting

The Mahabharata or Mahbhrata (US /mhbrt/;[1] UK /mhbrt/;[2] Sanskrit:

, Mahbhratam,pronounced [mabarttm]) is one of the two
major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana.[3]
The Mahabharata is an epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and
the Pandava princes. It also containsphilosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion
of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in
the Mahabharata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated version of
the Ramayana, and theRishyasringa, often considered as works in their own right.
Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa. There have been many
attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of
the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic
probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.[4] The text probably reached its final form by
the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).[5] The title may be translated as "the great tale of the
Bhrata dynasty". According to the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter
version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhrata.[6]
The Mahabharata is the longest known epic poem and has been described as "the longest poem
ever written".[7][8] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 shloka or over 200,000 individual

verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total,
the Mahabharata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about
four times the length of the Ramayana.[9][10] W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of
the Mahabharata in the context of world civilization to that of the Bible, the works
of Shakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Qur'an.[11]
Contents
[hide]

1Textual history and structure

o

1.1Accretion and redaction

1.2Historical references

1.3The 18 parvas or books

2Historical context

3Synopsis
o

3.1The older generations

3.2The Pandava and Kaurava princes

3.3Lakshagraha (the house of lac)

3.4Marriage to Draupadi

3.5Indraprastha

3.6The dice game

3.7Exile and return

3.8The battle at Kurukshetra

3.9The end of the Pandavas

3.10The reunion

4Themes
o

4.1Just war
5Versions, translations, and derivative works

5.1Critical Edition

5.2Regional versions

5.3Translations

5.4Derivative literature

5.5In film and television

6Jain version

7Kuru family tree

8Cultural influence

9Editions

10References

11Sources

12External links

Textual history and structure

Modern depiction of Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha at theMurudeshwara temple, Karnataka.

The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, who is also a major character in the epic.
Vyasa described it as being itihsa (history). He also describes the Guru-shishya parampara,
which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.
The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Ganesha who wrote down the text to
Vyasa's dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only if Vyasa never paused in his
recitation. Vyasa agrees on condition that Ganesha takes the time to understand what was said
before writing it down.
The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in
many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaisampayana, a disciple
of Vyasa, to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of the Pandavaprince Arjuna. The
story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named Ugrasrava Sauti, many years later,

to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in
the Naimisha Forest.
The text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and
chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an
immense "tragic force" but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos." [12] Moritz
Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists
and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole. [13]

Accretion and redaction

Research on the Mahabharata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers
within the text. Some elements of the present Mahabharata can be traced back to Vedic times.
[14]

The background to the Mahabharata suggests the origin of the epic occurs "after the very

early Vedic period" and before "the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C." That
this is "a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C." [4][15] is likely. It is generally
agreed that "Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular
work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style," [15] so the earliest
'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external'
references we have to the epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's 4th century BCE
grammar Ashtdhyy4:2:56.[4][15] It is estimated that the Sanskrit text probably reached something
of a "final form" by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century CE).[15] Vishnu Sukthankar,
editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata, commented: "It is useless to think of
reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and astemma
codicum. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the
text which it is possible to reach on the basis of the manuscript material available."[16] That
manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India,
but it is very extensive.
The Mahabharata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses:
the Bharata proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the Ashvalayana
Grhyasutra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly
recognized: Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, Bharata with 24,000 verses as
recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the Mahabharata as recited by Ugrasrava Sauti with over
100,000 verses.[17][18] However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue
that Jaya and Bharata refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of Jaya with 8,800 verses to
a misreading of a verse in Adiparvan (1.1.81).[19] Theredaction of this large body of text was
carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18 [20] and 12. The addition of the
latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anushasana-parva and the Virata parva from the
"Spitzer manuscript".[21] The oldest surviving Sanskrit text dates to the Kushan Period (200 CE). [22]
According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic,
beginning with Manu (1.1.27), Astika (1.3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1.57), respectively. These
versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues.
The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa.

The astika version would add the sarpasattra and ashvamedha material from Brahmanical
literature, introduce the name Mahabharata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The
redactors of these additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies
(1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of the Huna in
the Bhishma-parva however appears to imply that this parva may have been edited around the
4th century[citation needed].
The Adi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) of Janamejaya, explaining its motivation,
detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this,
there are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often considered an
independent tale added to a version of the Mahabharata by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski
1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature.
The Panchavimsha Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of
a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhrtarashtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of
the Mahabharata's sarpasattra, as well as Takshaka, the name of a snake in the Mahabharata,
occur.[23]

Historical references
See also: Bhagavad Gita Date and text
The earliest known references to the Mahabharata and its core Bharata date to
the Ashtadhyayi (sutra 6.2.38) of Pnini (fl. 4th century BCE) and in the Ashvalayana
Grhyasutra (3.4.4). This may mean the core 24,000 verses, known as the Bharata, as well as an
early version of the extended Mahabharata, were composed by the 4th century BCE. A report by
the Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (c. 40 - c. 120 CE) about Homer's poetry being sung even in
India[24] seems to imply that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit. However, Indian scholars
have, in general, taken this as evidence for the existence of a Mahabharata at this date, whose
episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the Iliad.[25]
Several stories within the Mahabharata took on separate identities of their own in Classical
Sanskrit literature. For instance,Abhijnashkuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Klidsa (c.
400 CE), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the
precursor to theMahabharata. Urubhanga, a Sanskrit play written by Bhsa who is believed to
have lived before Klidsa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by
Bhima.
The copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533534 CE) from Khoh
(Satna District, Madhya Pradesh) describes the Mahabharata as a "collection of 100,000 verses"
(shatasahasri samhita).

The 18 parvas or books

The division into 18 parvas is as follows:

Parv

Title

Sub-

Contents

parvas

How the Mahabharata came to be narrated

by Sauti to the assembled rishis at Naimisharanya,
after having been recited at
1

Adi Parva (The Book of

the Beginning)

119

thesarpasattra of Janamejaya by Vaishampayana

at Taksail. The history and genealogy of
the Bharata and Bhrigu races is recalled, as is the
birth and early life of the Kuru princes (adi means
first).

Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha),

Sabha Parva (The
2

Book of the Assembly

at Indraprastha. Life at the

2028

Hall)

court, Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yajna, the game of

dice, the disrobing of Pandava wife Draupadi and
eventual exile of the Pandavas.

Vana
Parva also Aranyaka3

parva, Aranya-parva

2944

The twelve years of exile in the forest (aranya).

4548

The year spent incognito at the court of Virata.

(The Book of the

Forest)

Virata Parva (The Book

of Virata)

Preparations for war and efforts to bring about

5

Udyoga Parva (The

Book of the Effort)

4959

peace between the Kaurava and the Pandava

sides which eventually fail (udyogameans effort or
work).

Bhishma Parva (The

Book of Bhishma)

6064

The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as

commander for the Kaurava and his fall on the bed
of arrows. (Includes theBhagavad Gita in chapters

25[26]-42.[27])

The battle continues, with Drona as commander.

7

Drona Parva (The Book

of Drona)

6572

This is the major book of the war. Most of the great

warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this
book.

Karna Parva (The Book

of Karna)

73

The continuation of the battle with Karna as

commander of the Kaurava forces.

The last day of the battle, with Shalya as

commander. Also told in detail, is the pilgrimage of
9

Shalya Parva (The

Book of Shalya)

7477

Balarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the

mace fight between Bhima and Duryodhana which
ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by
smashing him on the thighs with a mace.

Ashvattama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the

Sauptika Parva (The

10

Book of the Sleeping

7880

Warriors)

remaining Pandava army in their sleep. Only 7

warriors remain on the Pandava side and 3 on the
Kaurava side.

Gandhari and the women (stri) of the Kauravas and

11

Stri Parva (The Book of

the Women)

8185

Pandavas lament the dead and Gandhari

cursing Krishna for the massive destruction and the
extermination of the Kaurava.

The crowning of Yudhishthira as king of

Hastinapura, and instructions from Bhishma for the
12

Shanti Parva (The

Book of Peace)

8688

newly anointed king on society, economics and

politics. This is the longest book of the
Mahabharata. Kisari Mohan Ganguli considers this
Parva as a later interpolation.'

13

Anushasana

8990

The final instructions (anushasana) from Bhishma.

Parva (The Book of the

Instructions)

The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha (Horse

Ashvamedhika
14

Parva (The Book of the

9192

Horse Sacrifice)[28]

sacrifice) conducted by Yudhishthira. The world

conquest by Arjuna. The Anugita is told by Krishna
to Arjuna.

The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and

Ashramavasika
15

Parva (The Book of the

Kunti in a forest fire when they are living in a

9395

Hermitage)

hermitage in the Himalayas. Vidura predeceases

them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra's bidding goes
to live in the higher Himalayas.

The materialisation of Gandhari's curse, i.e., the

16

Mausala Parva (The

Book of the Clubs)

96

infighting between the Yadavas with maces

(mausala) and the eventual destruction of the
Yadavas.

The great journey of Yudhishthira, his brothers and

Mahaprasthanika
17

Parva(The Book of the

97

Great Journey)

Parva (The Book of the

98

Ascent to Heaven)

Harivamsa Parva (The

khila

Book of the Genealogy

of Hari)

Historical context
Further information: Epic India

finally their ascent of the great Himalayas where

each Pandava falls except for Yudhishthira.

Svargarohana
18

his wife Draupadi across the whole country and

99
100

Yudhishthira's final test and the return of the

Pandavas to the spiritual world (svarga).

This is an addendum to the 18 books, and covers

those parts of the life of Krishna which is not
covered in the 18 parvas of theMahabharata.

The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the
Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[29] The setting of the epic has a
historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political
power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.[30] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the
inspiration for the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahabharata corpus was built, with a
climactic battle eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.
Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahabharata narrative. The
evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there
were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession
of Mahapadma Nanda (400-329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the
Bharata battle.[31] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings
listed in the genealogies.[32] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the
Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma
Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists
and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE
for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[33]