Puranas

Purana manuscripts from 15th to 18th century

Purana (/pʊˈrɑːnə/; Sanskrit: पुराण, purāṇa; literally meaning "ancient, old"[1]) is a vast
genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends and
other traditional lore.[2] The Puranas are known for the intricate layers of symbolism
depicted within their stories. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in Tamil and
other Indian languages,[3][4] several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities
such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Shakti.[5][6] The Puranic genre of literature is
found in both Hinduism and Jainism.[3]
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[1] and it includes diverse topics such
as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages,
and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar,
mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy. [2][4][5] The content
is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in
numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. [3] The Hindu Maha
Puranas are traditionally attributed to "Vyasa", but many scholars considered them
likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas
can be dated and their authors assigned.[3]
There are one Maha Purana, 17 Mukhya Puranas (Major Puranas) and 18 Upa
Puranas (Minor Puranas),[7] with over 400,000 verses.[2] The first versions of various
Puranas were likely to have been composed between 3rd and 10th century CE.[8] The
Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism, [7] but are considered
as Smritis.[9]
They have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional
annual festivals of Hinduism.[10] Their role and value as sectarian religious texts and
historical texts has been controversial because all Puranas praise many gods and
goddesses and "their sectarianism is far less clear cut" than assumed, states Ludo
Rocher.[11] The religious practices included in them are
considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature), because they do not preach
initiation into Tantra.[12] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated
and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is, in the opinion of some, of non-
dualistic tenor.[13][14] But, the dualistic school of Shriman Madhvacharya has a rich and
strong tradition of dualistic interpretation of the Bhagavata, starting from the
Bhagavata Taatparya Nirnaya of the Acharya himself and later, commentaries on the
commentary. The Chaitanya school also rejects outright any monistic interpretation
of the purana. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, and
both Dvaita and Advaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedantic
themes in the Maha Puranas.[15]

Etymology
Douglas Harper states that the etymological origins of Puranas are
from Sanskrit Puranah, literally "ancient, former," from pura "formerly, before,"
cognate with Greek paros "before," pro "before," Avestan paro "before,"
Old English fore, from Proto-Indo-European *pre-, from *per-."[16]

Origin
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler
of the Puranas. The ancient tradition suggests that originally there was but one
Purana. Vishnu Purana (3.6.15) mentions that Vyasa entrusted his Puranasamhita to
his disciple Lomaharshana, who in turn imparted it to his disciples, [note 1] three of whom
compiled their own samhitas. These three, together with Lomaharshana's, comprise
the Mulasamhita, from which the later eighteen Puranas were derived.[17][18]
The term Purana appears in the Vedic texts. For example, Atharva Veda
mentions Purana (in the singular) in XI.7.24 and XV.6.10-11:[19]
"The rk and saman verses, the chandas, the Purana along with the Yajus formulae,
all sprang from the remainder of the sacrificial food, (as also) the gods that resort to
heaven. He changed his place and went over to great direction, and Itihasa and
Purana, gathas, verses in praise of heroes followed in going over."

— Atharva Veda XV.6.10-11, [20]

Similarly, the Shatapatha Brahmana (XI.5.6.8) mentions Itihasapuranam (as one
compound word) and recommends that on the 9th day of Pariplava, the hotr priest
should narrate some Purana because "the Purana is the Veda, this it is" (XIII.4.3.13).
However, states P.V. Kane, it is not certain whether these texts suggested several
works or single work with the term Purana.[21] The late Vedic text Taittiriya
Aranyaka (II.10) uses the term in the plural. Therefore, states Kane, that in the later
Vedic period at least, the Puranas referred to three or more texts, and that they were
studied and recited[21] In numerous passages the Mahabharata mentions 'Purana' in
both singular and plural forms. Moreover, it is not unlikely that, where the singular
'Puranam' was employed in the texts, a class of works was meant. [21] Further, despite
the mention of the term Purana or Puranas in the Vedic texts, there is uncertainty
about the contents of them until the composition of the oldest
Dharmashastra Apastamba Dharmasutra and Gautama Dharmasutra, that mention
Puranas resembling with the extant Puranas. [21]
Another early mention of the term 'Itihas-purana' is found in the Chandogya
Upanishad (7.1.2), translated by Patrick Olivelle as "the corpus of histories and
ancient tales as the fifth Veda".[22][23][note 2] The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad also refers to
purana as the "fifth Veda".[25]
According to Thomas Coburn, Puranas and early extra-puranic texts attest to two
traditions regarding their origin, one proclaiming a divine origin as the breath of the
Great Being, the other as a human named Vyasa as the arranger of already existing
material into eighteen Puranas. In the early references, states Coburn, the term
Purana occurs in singular unlike the later era which refers to a plural form
presumably because they had assumed their "multifarious form". While both these
traditions disagree on the origins of the Puranas, they affirm that extant Puranas are
not identical with the original Purana.[18]
According to the Indologists J. A. B. van Buitenen and Cornelia Dimmitt, the Puranas
that have survived into the modern era are ancient but represent "an amalgam of two
somewhat different but never entirely different separate oral literatures: the Brahmin
tradition stemming from the reciters of the Vedas, and the bardic poetry recited by
Sutas that was handed down in Kshatriya circles". [26] The original Puranas comes
from the priestly roots while the later genealogies have the warrior and epic roots.
These texts were collected for the "second time between the fourth and sixth
centuries CE under the rule of the Gupta kings", a period of Hindu
renaissance.[27] However, the editing and expansion of the Puranas did not stop after
the Gupta era, and the texts continued to "grow for another five hundred or a
thousand years" and these were preserved by priests who maintained Hindu
pilgrimage sites and temples.[27] The core of Itihasa-Puranas, states Klaus
Klostermaier, may possibly go back to the seventh century BCE or even earlier. [28]
It is not possible to set a specific date for any Purana as a whole, states Ludo
Rocher. He points out that even for the better established and more coherent
puranas such as Bhagavata and Vishnu, the dates proposed by scholars continue to
vary widely and endlessly.[17] The date of the production of the written texts does not
define the date of origin of the Puranas. [29] They existed in an oral form before being
written down.[29] In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the "original Purana" may
date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.[30] Wendy Doniger, based on her
study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She
dates Markandeya Purana to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550
CE), Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c. 350
CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c. 450 CE, Brahmanda Purana to c. 350–950
CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c. 550–850 CE, and Linga
Purana to c. 600–1000 CE.[8]

Texts[edit]
Mahapuranas[edit]
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or
the major Puranas.[7] These are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three
groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way.In the Vishnu
Puran Part 3 Section 6(21-24) the list of Mahapuranas is mentioned .The Bhagavat
Puran mentions the number of verses in each puran in 12.13(4-9)

Purana Verses
S.No. Comments
Name number

Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many

Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.[31] The text has 245
chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu,
10,000 Markendeya Puranas, and with the Mahabharata. Includes
1 Brahma
verses mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other
cultural topics. Describes holy places in Odisha, and weaves
themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity
Brahma despite the title.[31]

A large compilation of diverse topics, it describes cosmology,

the world and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. It
also discusses festivals, numerous legends, geography of
55,000 rivers and regions from northwest India to Bengal to the
2 Padma
verses kingdom of Tripura, major sages of India, various Avatars of
Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, a story of Rama-Sita
that is different from the Hindu epic Ramayana.[32] The north
Indian manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different from
south Indian versions, and the various recensions in both
 Purana Verses
S.No. Comments
Name number

groups in different languages (Devanagari and Bengali, for

example) show major inconsistencies.[33] Like the Skanda
Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage
centers in India.[32][34]

One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also

contains genealogical details of various dynasties.[35] Better
preserved after the 17th century, but exists in inconsistent
23,000 versions, more ancient pre-15th century versions are very
3 Vishnu
verses different from modern versions, with some versions
discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely
composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A
Vaishnavism text, focused on Vishnu.[36]

24,000
4 Shiva Discusses Shiva, and stories about him.
verses

The most studied and popular of the Puranas,[13][37] telling of

Vishnu's Avatars, and of Vaishnavism. It contains
18,000 genealogical details of various dynasties.[35] Numerous
5 Bhagavata
verses inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts
exist, in many Indian languages.[38] Influential and elaborated
during Bhakti movement.[39]

Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four Vedas and

the six Vedangas. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters
92 to 109, to summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and
25,000 itself. Lists major rivers of India and places of pilgrimage,
6 Narada
verses and a short tour guide for each. Includes discussion of various
philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths and
characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva,
Devi, Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi and others.[40]

Describes Vindhya Range and western India. Probably

composed in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers,
9,000 in Maharashtra and Gujarat.[41] Named after sage Markandeya,
7 Markandeya
verses a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on dharma and on
Hindu epic Mahabharata.[42] The Purana includes Devi
Mahatmyam of Shaktism.

Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of

15,400
8 Agni Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states), cultural history,
verses
politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories,
organization of army, theories on proper causes for war,
 Purana Verses
S.No. Comments
Name number

diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water

distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu
Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry,
food, rituals and numerous other topics.[43]

The Bhavishya Purana (Bhaviṣya Purāṇa, lit. "Future

Purana") is one of the eighteen major works in the Purana
genre of Hinduism, written in Sanskrit.The title Bhavishya
means "future" and implies it is a work that contains
14,500 prophecies regarding the future, however, the "prophecy"
9 Bhavishya
verses parts of the extant manuscripts are a modern era addition and
hence not an integral part of the Bhavishya Purana.Those
sections of the surviving manuscripts that are dated to be
older, are partly borrowed from other Indian texts such as
Brihat Samhita and Shamba Purana.

It is related by Savarni to Narada, and centres around the

greatness of Krishna and Radha. In this, the story of Brahma-
18,000 varaha is repeatedly told.[44] Notable for asserting that Krishna
10 Brahmavaivarta
verses is the supreme reality and the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma
are incarnations of him.[45] Mentions geography and rivers
such as Ganga to Kaveri.

Discusses Lingam, symbol of Shiva, and origin of the

11,000 universe as per Shaivism. It also contains many stories of
11 Linga
verses Lingam, one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved a
dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.

Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with

large Mahatmya sections or travel guide to Mathura and
24,000 Nepal.[46] Presentation focuses on Varaha as incarnation of
12 Varaha
verses Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or
Vasudeva.[46] Many illustrations also involve Shiva
and Durga.[47]

Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva.

The longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous
81,100 pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of
13 Skanda
verses pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables,
hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to
this text.[48]
 Purana Verses
S.No. Comments
Name number

10,000 Describes North India, particularly Himalayan foothills

14 Vamana
verses region.

17,000 Contains a combination of Vishnu and Shiva related legends,

15 Kurma
verses mythology, Tirtha (pilgrimage) and theology

An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[49] Narrates the story

of Matsya, the first of ten major Avatars of Vishnu. Likely
14,000 composed in west India, by people aware of geographical
16 Matsya
verses details of the Narmada river. Includes legends about Brahma
and Saraswati.[50] It also contains a controversial genealogical
details of various dynasties.[35]

An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[49] Primarily about Vishnu,

but praises all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and
Brahma collaborate. Many chapters are a dialogue between
Vishnu and the bird-vehicle Garuda. Cosmology, Describes
cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses ethics, what
are crimes, good versus evil, various schools of Hindu
philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and
hell" with "karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic
discussion of self-knowledge as a means
of moksha.[51] Includes chapters on rivers, geography of
19,000 Bharat (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals
17 Garuda
verses and stones, testing methods for stones for their quality,
various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines,
aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis,
astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building
home, essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues
such as compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift,
duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and
how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of
grammar, and other topics.[51] The final chapters discuss how
to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal
development and the benefits of self-knowledge.[51]

One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a

controversial genealogical details of various
dynasties.[35] Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, law codes,
12,000
18 Brahmanda system of governance, administration, diplomacy, trade,
verses
ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been
found in the Hindu literature collections of Bali,
Indonesia.[52][49]
The Mahapuranas have also been classified based on a specific deity, although the
texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:

Brāhma:[33] Brahma Purana, Padma Purana

Surya:[33] Brahma Vaivarta Purana[note 3]

Agni:[33] Agni Purana[note 4]

Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Varaha Purana,[note 5][note 6] Vāmana Purana,[note
Śaiva:[33] 5]
Kūrma Purana,[note 5] Mārkandeya Purana,[note 7] , Brahmānda Purana

Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Vayu

Vaiṣṇava:[33]
Purana, Varaha Purana[note 6]Matsya Purana, Bhavishya Purana[note 5]

Śakta: Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Markandeya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Skanda Purana

All major Puranas contain sections on Devi (goddesses) and Tantra; the six most
significant of these are: Markandeya Purana, Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Brahma
Vaivarta Purana, Agni Purana and Padma Purana.[57]
Upapurana[edit]

The Goddess Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against the Demon Raktabija, Folio from Devi
Mahatmyam, Markandeya Purana.

Main article: Upapurana

The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by
Rajendra Hazra as, "a Mahapurana is well known, and that what is less well known
becomes an Upapurana".[58] Rocher states that the distinction between Mahapurana
and Upapurana is ahistorical, there is little corroborating evidence that either were
more or less known, and that "the term Mahapurana occurs rarely in Purana
literature, and is probably of late origin." [59]
The Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which
canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen.
They include among –

1. Sanat-kumara
2. Narasimha
3. Brihan-naradiya
4. Siva-rahasya
5. Durvasa
6. Kapila
 7. Vamana
8. Bhargava
9. Varuna
10. Kalika
11. Samba
12. Nandi
13. Surya
14. Parasara
15. Vasishtha
16. Ganesha
17. Mudgala
18. Hamsa
With only a few having been critically edited.[60][61]
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[62][63]
Sthala Puranas[edit]
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of
particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most
written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams
of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil
literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or
Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean
Shulman.[64]
Skanda Purana[edit]
The Skanda Purana is the largest Purana with 81,000 verses,[65] named after
deity Skanda, the son of Shiva and Uma, and brother of deity Ganesha. [66] The
mythological part of the text weaves the stories of Shiva and Vishnu, along with
Parvati, Rama, Krishna and other major gods in the Hindu pantheon.[65] In Chapter
1.8, it declares,
Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.

— Skanda Purana, 1.8.20-21[67][68]

The Skanda Purana has received renewed scholarly interest ever since the late
20th-century discovery of a Nepalese Skanda Purana manuscript dated to be from
the early 9th century. This discovery established that Skanda Purana existed by the
9th century. However, a comparison shows that the 9th-century document is entirely
different from versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia
since the colonial era.[69]

Content[edit]
The Puranas include cosmos creation myths such as the Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean). It is
represented in the Angkor Wat temple complex of Cambodia, and at Bangkok airport, Thailand (above).
Several Puranas, such as the Matsya Purana, [70] list "five characteristics" or "five
signs" of a Purana.[2] These are called the Pancha Lakshana ( pañcalakṣaṇa), and
are topics covered by a Purana:[2][71][72]

1. Sarga: cosmogony or the creation of the world

2. Pratisarga: cosmogony and cosmology[73]
3. Vamśa: genealogy of the gods, sages and kings[74]
4. Manvañtara: cosmic cycles,[75] history of the world during the time of
one patriarch
5. Vamśānucaritam: Account of royal dynasties dynasty, including the
Suryavamshi and Chandravamshi kings[76]
A few Puranas, such as the most popular Bhagavata Purana, add five more
characteristics to expand this list to ten:[77]

1. Utaya: karmic links between the deities, sages, kings and the various
living beings
2. Ishanukatha: tales about a god
3. Nirodha: finale, cessation
4. Mukti: moksha, spiritual liberation
5. Ashraya: refuge
These five or ten sections weave in biographies, myths, geography, medicine,
astronomy, Hindu temples, pilgrimage to distant real places, rites of passage,
charity, ethics,[78] duties, rights, dharma, divine intervention in cosmic and human
affairs, love stories,[79] festivals, theosophy and philosophy.[2][4][5] The Puranas link gods
to men, both generally and in religious bhakti context.[77] Here the Puranic literature
follows a general pattern. It starts with introduction, a future devotee is described as
ignorant about the god yet curious, the devotee learns about the god and this begins
the spiritual realization, the text then describes instances of God's grace which
begins to persuade and convert the devotee, the devotee then shows devotion which
is rewarded by the god, the reward is appreciated by the devotee and in return
performs actions to express further devotion. [77]
The Puranas, states Flood, document the rise of the theistic traditions such as those
based on Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess Devi and include respective mythology,
pilgrimage to holy places, rituals and genealogies.[80] The bulk of these texts in
Flood's view were established by 500 CE, in the Gupta era though amendments
were made later. Along with inconsistencies, common ideas are found throughout
the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon
another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole. [81] An example of
similar stories woven across the Puranas, but in different versions, include
the lingabhava – the "apparition of the linga". The story features Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva, the three major deities of Hinduism, who get together, debate, and after
various versions of the story, in the end the glory of Shiva is established by the
apparition of linga. This story, state Bonnefoy, and Doniger, appears in Vayu Purana
1.55, Brahmanda Purana 1.26, Shiva Purana's Rudra Samhita Sristi Khanda 15,
Skanda Purana's chapters 1.3, 1.16 and 3.1, and other Puranas. [82]
The texts are in Sanskrit as well as regional languages, [3][4] and almost entirely in
narrative metric couplets.[1]
Symbolism and layers of meaning [edit]
The texts use ideas, concepts and even names that are symbolic. [82] The words can
interpreted literally, and at an axiological level.[83] The Vishnu Purana, for example,
recites a myth where the names of the characters are loaded with symbolism and
axiological significance. The myth is as follows,
The progeny of Dharma by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá
(devotion) he had Kama (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa
(pride); by Dhriti (courage), the progeny was Niyama (precept); by Tusht́i (inner
comfort), Santosha (contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha
(cupidity, greed); by Medhá (wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá
(hard work, labour), the progeny were Dańd́ a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics,
and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha (understanding); by Lajjá (shame,
humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body, strength), Vyavasaya
(perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to Kshama (forgiveness); Siddhi
(excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha
(reputation). These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional
fulfillment) had baby Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).
The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a
son Anrita (falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had
two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá
(deceit) and Vedaná (torture), who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and
Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha
(pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and Vedaná (torture). The children of Mrityu
were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa (greediness), and
Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are characterised as
the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity, without
the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this
world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend
perpetually to influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes
endowed with mighty power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly
contribute to its preservation.

— Vishnu Purana, Chapter 7, Translated by Horace Hayman Wilson[84]

Puranas as a complement to the Vedas[edit]

The mythology in the Puranas has inspired many reliefs and sculptures found in Hindu temples.[85] The
legend behind the Krishna and Gopis relief above is described in the Bhagavata Purana.[86]

The relation of the Puranas with Vedas has been debated by scholars, some holding
that there's no relationship, others contending that they are identical. [87] The Puranic
literature, stated Max Muller, is independent, has changed often over its history, and
has little relation to the Vedic age or the Vedic literature. [88] In contrast, Purana
literature is evidently intended to serve as a complement to the Vedas, states Vans
Kennedy.[5]
Some scholars such as Govinda Das suggest that the Puranas claim a link to the
Vedas but in name only, not in substance. The link is purely a mechanical
one.[88] Scholars such as Viman Chandra Bhattacharya and PV Kane state that the
Puranas are a continuation and development of the Vedas. [89] Sudhakar Malaviya and
VG Rahurkar state the connection is closer in that the Puranas are companion texts
to help understand and interpret the Vedas.[89][90] K.S. Ramaswami Sastri and Manilal
N. Dvivedi reflect the third view which states that Puranas enable us to know the
"true import of the ethos, philosophy, and religion of the Vedas". [91]
Barbara Holdrege questions the fifth Veda status of Itihasas (the Hindu epics) and
Puranas.[92][note 8] The Puranas, states V.S. Agrawala, intend to "explicate, interpret,
adapt" the metaphysical truths in the Vedas. [18] In the general opinion, states Rocher,
"the Puranas cannot be divorced from the Vedas" though scholars provide different
interpretations of the link between the two. [89] Scholars have given the Bhagavata
Purana as an example of the links and continuity of the Vedic content such as
providing an interpretation of the Gayatri mantra. [89]
Puranas as encyclopedias[edit]
The Puranas, states Kees Bolle, are best seen as "vast, often encyclopedic" works
from ancient and medieval India.[94] Some of them, such as the Agni Purana and
Matsya Purana, cover all sorts of subjects, dealing with – states Rocher – "anything
and everything", from fiction to facts, from practical recipes to abstract philosophy,
from geographic Mahatmyas (travel guides)[95] to cosmetics, from festivals to
astronomy.[4][96] Like encyclopedias, they were updated to remain current with their
times, by a process called Upabrimhana.[97] However, some of the 36 major and
minor Puranas are more focused handbooks, such as the Skanda Purana, Padma
Purana and Bhavishya Purana which deal primarily with Tirtha
Mahatmyas (pilgrimage travel guides),[95] while Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana
focus more on history, mythology and legends. [98]
Puranas as religious texts[edit]
The colonial era scholars of Puranas studied them primarily as religious texts, with
Vans Kennedy declaring in 1837, that any other use of these documents would be
disappointing.[99] John Zephaniah Holwell, who from 1732 onwards spent 30 years in
India and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767, described the Puranas as
"18 books of divine words".[100] British officials and researchers such as Holwell,
states Urs App, were orientalist scholars who introduced a distorted picture of Indian
literature and Puranas as "sacred scriptures of India" in 1767. Holwell, states Urs
App, "presented it as the opinion of knowledgeable Indians; But it is abundantly clear
that no knowledgeable Indian would ever have said anything remotely similar". [100]
Modern scholarship doubts this 19th-century premise.[101] Ludo Rocher, for example,
states,
I want to stress the fact that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak
of or pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas.

— Ludo Rocher, The Puranas[99]

The study of Puranas as a religious text remains a controversial subject. [102] Some
Indologists, in colonial tradition of scholarship, treat the Puranic texts as scriptures or
useful source of religious contents.[103] Other scholars, such as Ronald Inden,
consider this approach "essentialist and antihistorical" because the Purana texts
changed often over time and over distance, and the underlying presumption of they
being religious texts is that those changes are "Hinduism expressed by a religious
leader or philosopher", or "expressiveness of Hindu mind", or "society at large",
when the texts and passages are literary works and "individual geniuses of their
authors".[104]
Jainism[edit]
The Jaina Puranas are like Hindu Puranas encyclopedic epics in style, and are
considered as anuyogas (expositions), but they are not considered Jain Agamas and
do not have scripture or quasi-canonical status in Jainism tradition.[3] They are best
described, states John Cort, as post-scripture literary corpus based upon themes
found in Jain scriptures.[3]
Sectarian, pluralistic or monotheistic theme[edit]
Scholars have debated whether the Puranas should be categorized as sectarian, or
non-partisan, or monotheistic religious texts.[11][105] Different Puranas describe a
number of stories where Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva compete for supremacy. [105] In
some Puranas, such as Devi Bhagavata, the Goddess Devi joins the competition
and ascends for the position of being Supreme. Further, most Puranas emphasize
legends around one who is either Shiva, or Vishnu, or Devi. [11] The texts thus appear
to be sectarian. However, states Edwin Bryant, while these legends sometimes
appear to be partisan, they are merely acknowledging the obvious question of
whether one or the other is more important, more powerful. In the final analysis, all
Puranas weave their legends to celebrate pluralism, and accept the other two and all
gods in Hindu pantheon as personalized form but equivalent essence of the Ultimate
Reality called Brahman.[106][107] The Puranas are not spiritually partisan, states Bryant,
but "accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and
of the Goddess Devi too".[105]
[The Puranic text] merely affirm that the other deity is to be considered a derivative
manifestation of their respective deity, or in the case of Devi, the Shakti, or power of
the male divinity. The term monotheism, if applied to the Puranic tradition, needs to
be understood in the context of a supreme being, whether understood as Vishnu,
Shiva or Devi, who can manifest himself or herself as other supreme beings.

— Edwin Bryant, Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata

Purana[105]
Ludo Rocher, in his review of Puranas as sectarian texts, states, "even though the
Puranas contain sectarian materials, their sectarianism should not be interpreted as
exclusivism in favor of one god to the detriment of all others".[108]
Puranas as historical texts[edit]
Despite the diversity and wealth of manuscripts from ancient and medieval India that
have survived into the modern times, there is a paucity of historical data in
them.[35] Neither the author name nor the year of their composition were recorded or
preserved, over the centuries, as the documents were copied from one generation to
another. This paucity tempted 19th-century scholars to use the Puranas as a source
of chronological and historical information about India or Hinduism.[35] This effort was,
after some effort, either summarily rejected by some scholars, or become
controversial, because the Puranas include fables and fiction, and the information
within and across the Puranas was found to be inconsistent. [35]
In early 20th-century, some regional records were found to be more consistent, such
as for the Hindu dynasties in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh. Basham, as well as
Kosambi, have questioned whether lack of inconsistency is sufficient proof of
reliability and historicity.[35] More recent scholarship has attempted to, with limited
success, states Ludo Rocher, use the Puranas for historical information in
combination with independent corroborating evidence, such as "epigraphy,
archaeology, Buddhist literature, Jaina literature, non-Puranic literature, Islamic
records, and records preserved outside India by travelers to or from India in
medieval times such as in China, Myanmar and Indonesia". [109][110]

Manuscripts[edit]
An 11th-century Nepalese palm-leaf manuscript in Sanskrit of Devimahatmya (Markandeya Purana).

The study of Puranas manuscripts has been challenging because they are highly
inconsistent.[111][112] This is true for all Mahapuranas and Upapuranas. [111] Most editions
of Puranas, in use particularly by Western scholars, are "based on one manuscript or
on a few manuscripts selected at random", even though divergent manuscripts with
the same title exist. Scholars have long acknowledged the existence of Purana
manuscripts that "seem to differ much from the printed edition", and it is unclear
which one is accurate, and whether conclusions drawn from the randomly or
cherrypicked printed version were universal over geography or time. [111] This problem
is most severe with Purana manuscripts of the same title, but in regional languages
such as Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, and others which have largely been ignored. [111]
Modern scholarship noticed all these facts. It recognized that the extent of the
genuine Agni Purana was not the same at all times and in all places and that it
varied with the difference in time and locality. (...) This shows that the text of the Devi
Purana was not the same everywhere but differed considerably in different
provinces. Yet, one failed to draw the logical conclusion: besides the version or
versions of Puranas that appear in our [surviving] manuscripts, and fewer still in our
[printed] editions, there have been numerous other versions, under the same titles,
but which either have remained unnoticed or have been irreparably lost.
— Ludo Rocher, The Puranas[58][113]

Chronology[edit]
Newly discovered Puranas manuscripts from the medieval centuries have attracted
scholarly attention and the conclusion that the Puranic literature has gone through
slow redaction and text corruption over time, as well as sudden deletion of numerous
chapters and its replacement with new content to an extent that the currently
circulating Puranas are entirely different from those that existed before 11th century,
or 16th century.[114]
For example, a newly discovered palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana
in Nepal has been dated to be from 810 CE but is entirely different from versions of
Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia since the colonial
era.[69][114] Further discoveries of four more manuscripts, each different, suggest that
document has gone through major redactions twice, first likely before the 12th
century, and the second very large change sometime in the 15th-16th century for
unknown reasons.[115] The different versions of manuscripts of Skanda Purana
suggest that "minor" redactions, interpolations, and corruption of the ideas in the text
over time.[115]
Rocher states that the date of the composition of each Purana remains a contested
issue.[116][117] Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas manuscripts is
encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom
these were written:[118]
As they exist today, the Puranas are stratified literature. Each titled work consists of
material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus
no Purana has a single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which
new volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf,
but randomly.

— Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader
in the Sanskrit Puranas[118]

Forgeries[edit]
Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British
India colonial era, some in the 19th century.[119][120] The scholarship on various
Puranas, has suffered from frequent forgeries, states Ludo Rocher, where liberties in
the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts
replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars were
keen on publishing.[119][120]
Translations[edit]
Horace Hayman Wilson published one of the earliest English translations of one
version of the Vishnu Purana in 1840.[121] The same manuscript, and Wilson's
translation, was reinterpreted by Manmatha Nath Dutt and published in 1896. [122] The
All India Kashiraj Trust has published editions of the Puranas. [123]
Marinas Poullé (Mariyadas Pillai) published a French translation from a Tamil version
of the Bhagavata Purana in 1788, and this was widely distributed in Europe
becoming an introduction to the 18th-century Hindu culture and Hinduism to many
Europeans during the colonial era. Poullé republished a different translation of the
same text as Le Bhagavata in 1795, from Pondicherry.[124] A copy of Poullé translation
is preserved in Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.