Drug Addiction PDF

REVIEWS
Development of pharmacotherapies
for drug addiction: a Rosetta Stone
approach
George F. Koob*, G. Kenneth Lloyd and Barbara J. Mason*
Abstract | Current pharmacotherapies for addiction represent opportunities for facilitating

treatment and are forming a foundation for evaluating new medications. Furthermore,
validated animal models of addiction and a surge in understanding of neurocircuitry
and neuropharmacological mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance
of addiction such as the neuroadaptive changes that account for the transition to
dependence and the vulnerability to relapse have provided numerous potential
therapeutic targets. Here, we emphasize a Rosetta Stone approach, whereby existing
pharmacotherapies for addiction are used to validate and improve animal and human
laboratory models to identify viable new treatment candidates. This approach will promote
translational research and provide a heuristic framework for developing efficient and
effective pharmacotherapies for addiction.
Addiction
This term can be used
interchangeably with substance
dependence (as currently
defined by the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 4th edition) to refer
to a final stage of a usage
process. Clinically, the
occasional but limited use of
a drug with the potential for
abuse or dependence is distinct
from the emergence of
addiction.
*Committee on the
Neurobiology of Addictive
Disorders, The Scripps
Research Institute,
10550 North Torrey Pines
Road, SP302400 La Jolla,
California 92037, USA.
Research and Development,

Nereus Pharmaceuticals,
10480 Wateridge Circle,
San Diego, California
92121, USA.
Correspondence to G.F.K.
email: [email protected]
doi:10.1038/nrd2828
Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder

characterized by a compulsion to seek and take a drug,
loss of control in limiting intake and emergence of a
negative emotional state (for example, dysphoria, anxiety
and irritability) when access to the drug is prevented1.
An important goal of current neurobiological research is
to understand the molecular, neuropharmacological and
neurocircuitry changes that mediate the transition from
occasional, controlled drug use to the loss of behavioural
control over drug seeking and drug taking that defines
chronic addiction. In this Review, we suggest that a
combination of validated animal models for addiction,
neurobiological targets derived from such models, and
translation to and from the clinical domain provides a
heuristic framework for the development of pharmaco
therapies for addiction. Moreover, the application of
known treatments for addiction to existing animal
and human laboratory models can provide an evolving
Rosetta Stone approach for accelerating the translation
of newly identified targets to pharmacotherapies for
addiction (BOX 1; FIG. 1).
A key element of this approach will be to prevent
predictions from animal models being limited by the con
structs of the models themselves. Several aspects of the
Rosetta Stone approach address this issue. First, because
no single animal or human laboratory model exists for
all of the aspects of addiction, various models are used
to emulate different components of addiction, some

of which are still evolving 2. Second, there is a dynamic
approach to the process of validation, with changes being
discovered and implemented at both ends. New targets
from neurobiology will feed forwards through the system
and new medications will feed backwards, regardless of
whether these medications are derived from the feed
forward process, clinical experience or serendipity. Third,
symptoms or components of the addiction cycle provide a
face-valid model that facilitates the creation of new animal
and human laboratory models (for example, the animal
model of compulsivity and drug seeking in the context
of aversive consequences, or the human model of brain
imaging in the context of cueinduced imagery 35).
The addiction cycle

A useful psychiatrybased motivational framework that
integrates well with animal models of addiction is the
concept that drug addiction has aspects of both impulse
control disorders (such as kleptomania) and compulsive
disorders (such as obsessivecompulsive disorder). It
has been suggested that, as an individual moves from
an impulsive disorder to a compulsive disorder, a shift
from positive reinforcement to negative reinforcement
drives the motivated behaviour 1 within a cycle compris
ing three stages: bingeintoxication, withdrawalnegative
affect, and preoccupationanticipation.
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2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved
REVIEWS
Box 1 | Disease concept: addiction as a treatable disease
Addiction is a brain disease, and is defined as a chronically relapsing disorder of
compulsive drug use. Advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of addiction
have given substantial support to the disease basis for addiction. Changes in specific
neuronal and neurochemical circuits have been identified that correspond to different
components of the addiction cycle. Perhaps more importantly, these changes are long
lasting and in some cases can be permanent. One goal of medications development
for addiction is to reverse or compensate for such pathological effects.
The concept of addiction as a disease is also supported by overwhelming evidence
that addiction leads to brain pathology from a functional perspective, and this
pathology is manifested by reversible, and possibly some irreversible, brain changes.
In the United States alone, illicit-drug abuse and addiction costs society US$180.9
billion per year159; in addition, alcoholism costs $180 billion160 and tobacco addiction
costs $167 billion161.
From the perspective of treatment, relapse rates for addiction with abstinence as
a goal are high: generally 90% without treatment after 1 year. However, such relapse
rates for addiction are similar to those for other chronic relapsing disorders, such as
diabetes, hypertension and asthma162. Treatments for addiction have limited success,
often only doubling the number of individuals that do not relapse after 1 year.
However, even capturing 10% of subjects per year could afford considerable savings
in human suffering and societal cost. Appropriately monitored replacement
treatments, such as methadone and buprenorphine, have a relatively high success
rate in terms of reducing or eliminating illicit use of opioids. Furthermore, recent
successes with naltrexone, acamprosate, buprenorphine and varenicline hold
promise for future medications development for addiction.
Face-valid model
A model that looks or seems
to be a valid representation of
what it purports to measure.
Kleptomania
A classic impulse control
disorder in which there is an
increase in tension before
stealing an object or objects
that are not needed and relief
after the act, but little or no
regret or self-reproach.
Animal models relevant to the addiction cycle. Animal

models of addiction have outstanding face validity (for
example, for intravenous selfadministration) and reca
pitulate aspects of the condition in humans. They also
have substantial construct validity (for example, deregu
lated stress responsivity during drug withdrawal), that
is, explanatory power or functional equivalence for the
condition in humans. Although no animal model fully
reproduces addiction in humans, such models do permit
investigation of elements of the drug addiction process
that can be defined by models of addiction symptoms
within the three stages of the addiction cycle. Different
animal models for the study of the neurobiology of
addiction can be superimposed on these three stages,
collectively reproducing the pathological state known as
addiction1 (TABLE 1).
Novel compounds
New use of approved drugs
Animal screening studies:

multiple models
comparison with
reference compounds
Human laboratory studies:

multiple dependent variables
comparison with reference
compounds
Phase II clinical trials
Figure 1 | The Rosetta Stone approach to drug development. A crucial aspect of

the proposed Rosetta Stone approach is the dynamic feedback from animal models and
Nature
Reviewsthat
| Drug
clinical data which can be used to identify treatments for drug
addiction
areDiscovery
likely
to succeed in clinical trials and to facilitate further development of animal and human
models. These data may ultimately provide a rational basis for combination therapies
such that multiple components of the addiction cycle can be treated by a given
pharmacological strategy.
Animal models for the bingeintoxication stage of

the addiction cycle incorporate drug reinforcement and
include drug and alcohol selfadministration. For the
withdrawalnegative affect stage, animal models exist
for the somatic signs of withdrawal for almost all drugs
of abuse. However, more relevant to addiction are the
animal models of components of the motivational signs
of withdrawal and the negative reinforcing effects of
dependence, which are beginning to be used to explore
how the nervous system is involved in motivation and
adapts to drug use. These include anxietylike responses,
conditioned place aversion (a form of place conditioning),
elevated reward thresholds and withdrawalinduced
increases in drug selfadministration. For the preoc
cupationanticipation (craving) stage, models include
drug, cue and stressinduced reinstatement of drug
seeking behaviour. Animal models of craving can also
include the conditioned rewarding effects of drugs of
abuse, measures of the conditioned aversive effects of
withdrawal, and signs and symptoms of protracted
abstinence6,7.
Neurobiological targets in addiction

Neurocircuitry of addiction. A crucial issue for the
development of treatments for addiction is that selec
tion of relevant targets should be informed by an
empirical understanding of the neurobiology of addic
tion7. Three neurobiological circuits have been iden
tified that have heuristic value for the study of the
neurobiological changes associated with the development
and persistence of drug dependence (FIG. 2).
The circuitry related to the origin and terminal regions
of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system, which
includes signalling by dopamine and opioid peptides, is a
crucial mediator of the positive reinforcing effects of drugs
associated with the bingeintoxication stage of the addic
tion cycle8.The preoccupationanticipation (craving) stage
involves key glutamatergic projections to the extended
amygdala and nucleus accumbens from the prefrontal
cortex (for druginduced reinstatement of drug seeking)
and from the basolateral amygdala (for cueinduced rein
statement of drug seeking)9. Compulsive drugseeking
behaviour is thought to engage ventral striatalventral
pallidalthalamiccortical loops that could subsequently
engage dorsal striataldorsal pallidalthalamiccortical
loops10, both of which are exaggerated by concomitant
decreased activity in reward circuits11,12. The neural sub
strates and neuropharmacological mechanisms for the
negative motivational effects of the withdrawalnegative
affect stage of the addiction cycle may involve not only
disruption of the neural systems implicated in the positive
reinforcing effects of drugs, but also recruitment of brain
stress systems13. Common responses during acute with
drawal from the main drugs of abuse include decreased
dopaminergic activity, an activated pituitaryadrenal
stress response and an activated brain stress response with
activated extrahypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor
(CRF) systems in the amygdala. However, repeated cycles
of addiction lead to a blunted pituitaryadrenal response
and a sensitized extrahypothalamic CRF stress system
response in the amygdala13.
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Table 1 | Laboratory models of the stages of the addiction cycle
Stage of
addiction cycle
Animal models
Human laboratory models
Binge
intoxication
Drug or alcohol selfadministration172
Self-administration in
dependent subjects120,176,177
Conditioned place
preference6
Impulsivity178180
Brain stimulation reward

thresholds173
Increased motivation for selfadministration in dependent
animals3,4,174,175
Withdrawal
negative affect
Anxiety-like responses60,72,181
Acute withdrawal125,188,189
Conditioned place
aversion182
Self-medication190192
Elevated reward thresholds183
Mood induction57,149
Withdrawal-induced
increases in drug selfadministration175,184187
Preoccupation
anticipation
Drug-induced reinstatement6
Drug reinstatement132
Cue-induced reinstatement6
Cue reactivity134,137,139
Stress-induced
reinstatement6
Emotional reactivity55
Stress-induced craving135,141143
Resistance to relapse150
Cue-induced brain imaging
responses5,151,152
Obsessivecompulsive
disorder
A classic compulsive disorder
is one in which obsessions of
contamination or harm drive
anxiety, the reduction of which
requires repetitive compulsive
acts to reduce the anxiety.
Binge
Any behaviour indulged to
excess. In alcohol abuse,
a binge is defined in the
United States as four drinks
for females and five drinks for
males in a 2-hour period or
reaching a blood alcohol level
of 0.08 g per 100 ml.
Withdrawal
A collection of physiological
signs and symptoms that
present after the sudden
cessation of drug intake,
which can include shaking,
sweating and anxiety,
depending on the drug.
Molecular targets within the brain circuits associated with

addiction. Molecular changes at the signal transduction,
gene transcription or gene level are thought to provide
insights into how the circuits described above become
deregulated and maintain such deregulation, and provide
several contributions to medications development. Drugs
of abuse perturb intracellular signal transduction, leading
to changes in nuclear function and rates of transcription
of certain genes14. This leads to altered activity of the
neurons in which such changes occur and ultimately to
changes in the function of the associated neural circuits.
To date, no medication targets have been identified from
molecular targets but, in the future, molecular studies
may provide the basis for future targets for pharmaco
therapeutic approaches and a key to understanding the
vulnerability to addiction.
Animal models of addiction: reverse validity

Several medications are currently on the market for the
treatment of addiction (FIG. 2; TABLE 2). The validation
procedure termed the Rosetta Stone or reverse validity
approach uses drugs that are known to be effective in
human clinical studies to validate animal models and
human laboratory models, and can provide a means of
refining such models. For more detailed information
on the effects of drugs approved for the treatment of
addiction on established animal models of addiction,
see Supplementary information S1 (box).
New targets for medications development

The premise of this Review is that different components
of the addiction cycle can be targeted by different
medications, selected on the basis of information from
three key sources. These comprise research into basic
neurobiological mechanisms for the different stages of
the addiction cycle, the effects of medications approved
for the treatment of addiction on animal models of the
different stages of the addiction cycle (Supplementary
information S1 (box)) and clinical studies of medica
tions approved for other indications that overlap with
specific components of addiction (discussed below)
(FIG. 2; TABLE 3).
The effects of selected compounds acting on specific
neurobiological targets on models of the motiva
tional components of the addiction cycle that are
relevant for pharmacotherapies, using alcoholism as
an example, are shown in TABLE 4. It compares novel
approaches with two medications currently on the
market (naltrex one, and acamprosate (Campral/
Aotal; MerckSerono/Forest laboratories)). Different
patterns of action on the animal models are thought
to reflect actions in different stages of the addiction
cycle. The Rosetta Stone approach places emphasis on
elements of the withdrawalnegative affect stage (the
dark side) of addiction. we propose that this frame
work is crucial for the neuroadaptations that lead to
changes in motivation and thereby drive addiction
to maintain an allostatic state12. There is compelling
evidence that direct antagonism of the reinforcing
effects of drugs of abuse, representing the binge
intoxication stage, produces compensatory increases
in drug taking, motivational side effects that limit
compliance, or a combination of both. other reviews
have focused on animal models of the preoccupation
anticipation (craving) state15. Here, we explore four
neurotransmitter systems: dopamine, aminobutyric
acid (GABA), CRF and glutamate, all of which have
targets that can restore deregulated reward systems, as
in the withdrawalnegative affect stage, and in some
cases affect the bingeintoxication stage (dopamine)
and the preoccupationanticipation stage (glutamate).
Although GABA, glutamate and CRF are not new tar
gets in the treatment of addiction 2, targeting these
and the dopamine system using the framework of
validation described here has the potential to provide
new medications.
Dopamine receptor partial agonists. The mesolimbic
dopamine system projects from the ventral tegmental
area to basal forebrain sites, the nucleus accumbens and
the central nucleus of the amygdala, and has a key role
in motivation. Activation of the mesolimbic dopamine
system is thought to be important for directing behaviour
towards salient rewarding stimuli16, but may not be
necessary for hedonic experience17. Therefore, meso
limbic dopamine activity seems to be crucial for the
reinforcing actions of indirect sympathomimetics, such
as cocaine and amphetamines, and is involved in, but
not essential for, the reinforcing actions of other drugs
of abuse, such as opioids and alcohol.
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Place conditioning
A procedure for assessing the
reinforcing efficacy of drugs
using a classical or Pavlovian
conditioning procedure.
Animals typically show
conditioned place preference
for an environment associated
with the common drugs of
addiction in humans and avoid
environments associated
with aversive states of drug
withdrawal (that is, they show
conditioned place aversion).
Corticotropin-releasing
factor
A 41-amino-acid polypeptide
with wide distribution
throughout the brain and high
concentrations in cell bodies
in the paraventricular nucleus
of the hypothalamus, the basal
forebrain and notably the
extended amygdala and
brainstem.
GABAA receptor
A receptor that is coupled

to Cl channels and forms a
receptor complex that
includes recognition sites for
convulsants, benzodiazepines,
barbiturates and steroids.
GABAB receptor
A metabotropic receptor that

regulates K+ and Ca2+ channels
through a G protein-coupled
mechanism. Both GABAA and
GABAB receptors have an
inhibitory action in the central
nervous system and are
thought to mediate the
anxiety-decreasing, motoruncoordinating, sedative and
hypnotic effects of alcohol.
More importantly for our dark side view, dopamin

ergic function is compromised during acute withdrawal
from all major drugs of abuse18: levels of extracellular
dopamine decrease in the nucleus accumbens following
a binge of selfadministered cocaine19; animals kept on
a diet of alcohol show a decrease in extracellular levels
of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens during with
drawal20. withdrawal from most major drugs of abuse
is also associated with decreased firing of dopaminergic
neurons in the ventral tegmental area21.
Given the role of dopamine in the acute reinforcing
effects of drugs and its deregulation during drug with
drawal, a dopamine partial agonist may be an effec
tive treatment in different stages of the addiction cycle.
A dopamine receptor partial agonist has antagonist prop
erties in situations of high intrinsic activity and agonist
properties in situations of low intrinsic activity. Because
of its intermediate efficacy, a dopamine partial agonist
acts as an agonist in the absence of dopamine and can
act as an antagonist in the presence of dopamine2325,
and would hypothetically have less severe or fewer side
effects than full agonists or antagonists22. Indeed, partial
agonists of dopamine D2 receptors dosedependently
decrease the reinforcing effects of intravenous cocaine
and amphetamine selfadministration and oral alcohol
selfadministration in nondependent rats2629.
In a series of studies, D2 partial agonists have been
shown to reverse psychostimulant withdrawal and block
the increase in selfadministration associated with
extended access to the psychostimulant. A D2 partial
agonist reversed the motivational deficit that occurs
during amphetamine and methamphetamine with
drawal30,31. Animals with extended access to metham
phetamine through intravenous selfadministration show
an increased intake of methamphetamine (escalation
in intake)32. A notable effect of the D2 partial agonist
aripiprazole on methamphetamine selfadministration
was a shift to the right of the doseresponse function,
with a greater effect in rats with higher methampheta
mine intake associated with extended access. These data
again suggest an increased sensitivity to the effects of
the D2 partial agonists in dependent rats32.
Antagonists of the dopamine D3 receptor do not affect
baseline cocaine selfadministration, but block responses
in a progressiveratio schedule, a measure that is thought
to reflect a compulsivity component of cocaine seeking.
Additionally, D3 antagonists block cueinduced rein
statement of cocaine and alcohol selfadministration33.
Similarly, D3 partial agonists do not block baseline
cocaine selfadministration but block cueinduced rein
statement of selfadministration34 and cueinduced drug
seeking in a secondorder schedule of reinforcement 35.
A D3 partial agonist also blocked amphetamineinduced
conditioned place preference36.
D1 antagonists competitively block cocaine self
administration in rats37, but little work has been done
on D1 partial agonists. one study has shown strain
dependent agonist and antagonist effects on cocaine self
administration with a D1 partial agonist in rats38. Together,
these results suggest that deregulation of dopamine
signalling contributes to the motivational effects of drug
withdrawal and reinstatement, and dopamine partial

agonists with the appropriate neuropharmacological
and pharmacokinetic profile may be effective in treating
certain aspects of addiction39.
GABAergic modulators. GABAA receptor antagonists and
inverse agonists decrease alcohol selfadministration40,41.
However, their therapeutic actions are limited by potential
side effects involving central nervous system hyperexcit
ability. By contrast, GABA receptor agonists or modu
lators can block drugseeking behaviour through their
actions on reward, dependence or both. GABA receptor
modulators that increase GABAergic activity directly or
indirectly decrease selfadministration of cocaine, heroin,
nicotine and alcohol in nondependent rats4245. GABA
receptor agonists also block alcohol withdrawal in ani
mals46 and humans, and decrease drinking and certain
components of craving in humans with alcoholism47,48
(TABLE 4). GABAB receptor agonists also block the increased
alcohol selfadministration observed during acute with
drawal in dependent rats at lower doses than those that
block alcohol selfadministration in nondependent rats,
suggesting an increased sensitivity of this system during
the development of dependence49. The GABAB agonist
baclofen has been reported to reduce alcohol craving and
intake in a preliminary doubleblind, placebocontrolled
trial47. However, GABAB agonists currently in therapeutic
use for the relief of flexor spasms in multiple sclerosis have
substantial sedative effects at therapeutic doses50. Thus,
another approach is to explore the role of GABA receptor
modulators that indirectly facilitate GABA release.
Gabapentin (Neurontin; Pfizer), an amino acid
designed as a structural analogue of GABA51, is a novel
anticonvulsant drug that is also used in the treatment of
neuropathic pain. Gabapentin increases the concentration
of GABA in the brain52 and GABA release from rat brain
slices in vitro53. It also decreases synaptic transmission
in the brain by selectively inhibiting Ca2+ influx through
voltageoperated Ca2+ channels54 and may be an agonist
of GABAB receptors55.
In animal models of alcohol dependence, gabapentin
has strikingly different effects in nondependent and
alcoholdependent rats, both cellularly and pharmaco
logically 56. In nondependent rats, gabapentin facilitated
GABAergic transmission in the central nucleus of the
amygdala but did not affect alcohol intake. However,
in dependent rats, gabapentin decreased GABAergic
transmission in the central nucleus of the amygdala and
reduced excessive alcohol intake. Furthermore, gabapen
tin suppressed the anxiogeniclike effects of withdrawal
from an acute alcohol injection. A possible explana
tion for these results is that, during the development of
alcohol dependence, neuroadaptive changes occur in the
GABAergic system, including a reduced sensitivity and/
or a downregulation of presynaptic GABAB receptors56.
Gabapentin has proved effective in human laboratory
studies in decreasing craving, reversing physiological
measures of protracted abstinence and reversing sleep
deficits in protracted abstinence57, suggesting a key
translation from animals to humans and supporting the
translational approach suggested here.
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Thalamus
mPFC
(AC)
GP
DS
VS
Hippocampus
BNST
AMG
OFC
Prefrontal cortex (orbital, medial and

cingulate nuclei): subjective effects
Sensory
information
Hippocampus: context
BLA: conditioned cues
Negative
emotional state
Stress
CeA and BNST
Reinforcement
Habits
Acb shell and core
NA CRF
Brain stem
DA
Thalamus
Dorsal striatum
DA
VTA
SNc
Hypothalamus and brainstem

effectors (autonomic,
somatic and neuroendocrine)
Preoccupation or anticipation (craving)

Existing medications:
Acamprosate
Bupropion
Potential pharmacotherapies:
GABA modulators (homeostatic resetters)
CRF1 antagonists (stress reducers)
Glutamate modulators (habit reducers)
VGP
DGP
Withdrawal or negative affect

Methadone
Buprenorphine
Varenicline
Nicotine patch
GABA modulators (homeostatic resetters)
CRF1 antagonists (stress reducers)
-opioid antagonists (dysphoria reducer)
Binge or intoxication
Disulfiram
Naltrexone
Methadone
Buprenorphine
Partial agonists of the relevant receptor
system (intoxication blockers)
Drug vaccines (intoxication blockers)
Nature Reviews | Drug Discovery
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Figure 2 | Neural circuitry, current drugs and potential targets associated with the
three stages of the addiction cycle. In the bingeintoxication stage, reinforcing
effects of drugs may engage associative mechanisms and neurotransmitters that signal
reward in the shell (or medial portion) and core of the nucleus accumbens (Acb) and
then engage stimulus response habits that depend on the dorsal striatum (DS). In the
withdrawalnegative affect stage, the extended amygdala (AMG) may be activated.
It consists of several basal forebrain structures, including the bed nucleus of the stria
terminalis (BNST), the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), and a transition area in
the shell of the nucleus accumbens. Neurons containing a key neurotransmitter in the
extended amygdala, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), project to the brainstem,
from which noradrenergic neurons provide a major reciprocal projection. In the
preoccupationanticipation (craving) stage, conditioned reinforcement is processed
in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and contextual information is processed in the
hippocampus. Executive control depends on the prefrontal cortex and includes
representation of contingencies, representation of outcomes, and their value and
subjective states (that is, craving and feelings) associated with drugs. Functional
imaging studies have shown that the subjective states, called drug craving in humans,
involve activation of the orbital and anterior cingulate cortex and the temporal lobe,
including the amygdala. For each stage of the addiction process, the existing medications
and potential future medications for addiction treatment that are particularly relevant to
that stage are shown. Dashed arrows represent output circuits. CRF1, CRF receptor 1;
DA, dopamine; DGP, dorsal globus pallidus; GP, globus pallidus; mPFC (AC), medial
prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate); NA, noradrenaline; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex;
SNc, substantia nigra pars compacta; VGP, ventral globus pallidus; VS, ventral striatum;
VTA, ventral tegmental area. Figure is modified, with permission, from rEF. 171 (2008)
Academic Press.
Hamilton Depression
Inventory
A validated scale to measure
the severity of depressive
symptoms.
Dynorphins
Opioid peptides derived
from the prodynorphin
precursor that contain the
leucineencephalin sequence
at their amino termini.
They are the presumed
endogenous ligands of the
-opioid receptor and have
long been thought to mediate
negative emotional states.
Modulators of the brain stress system: CRF antagonists.

Alcohol is a powerful activator of stress systems, which
could have important implications for our understanding
of the neurobiology of dependence and relapse. Alcohol
mediated activation of stress systems occurs through
the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis and extensive
extrahypothalamic, extraneuroendocrine CRF systems
implicated in behavioural responses to stress58. Central
administration of CRF mimics the hormonal, autonomic
and behavioural response associated with activation and
stress in rodents; competitive CRF receptor antagonists
generally have the opposite effects13.
In animal models, a common response to acute with
drawal and protracted abstinence from all major drugs
of abuse is the manifestation of anxietylike responses.
withdrawal from repeated administration of cocaine,
alcohol, nicotine and cannabinoids produces an anxio
geniclike response in the elevated plus maze and defensive
burying test, and one or both of these effects are reversed
by administration of either selective CRF receptor 1 (CRF1)
antagonists or mixed CRF1CRF2 antagonists6066.
During alcohol withdrawal, extrahypothalamic CRF
systems become hyperactive and there is an increase
in extracellular CRF within the central nucleus of the
amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in
dependent rats6769. extracellular CRF is increased in the
amygdala during withdrawal from chronic administra
tion of nicotine64, cocaine70, opioids71 and cannabinoids66
in rats.
The ability of CRF antagonists to block the anxio
geniclike and aversivelike effects of drug withdrawal
would predict the motivational effects of CRF antagonists
in animal models of dependence40,62,63,72. A CRF1CRF2
peptide antagonist that has no effect on alcohol self
administration in nondependent rats eliminates exces
sive drinking in dependent rats during acute withdrawal
and protracted abstinence73. Direct administration of a

CRF1CRF2 peptide antagonist into the central nucleus
of the amygdala also eliminated excessive drinking during
acute withdrawal67. Systemic injections of smallmolecule
CRF1 antagonists also blocked the increased alcohol intake
during acute withdrawal and protracted abstinence in
alcoholdependent rats, but not in nondependent rats74,75
(TABLE 4). These data suggest an important role for CRF,
primarily in the central nucleus of the amygdala, in medi
ating the increased selfadministration associated with
alcohol dependence. CRF1 antagonists also selectively
blocked the increased selfadministration associated with
extended access to cocaine76, nicotine64 and heroin77.
Several clinical trials that have been completed
explored the effects of CRF1 antagonists on anxiety and
depression, but no human laboratory studies or clinical
trials have yet been initiated to investigate the effects of
such drugs on alcohol dependence. In a trial terminated
in Phase II because of increased levels of liver transami
nases, the CRF1 antagonist R121919 caused a significant
reduction in scores on the Hamilton Depression Inventory
during the 30 day treatment period of the open trial78.
A randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled trial of
another CRF1 antagonist, CP316311, had no effect com
pared with the placebo, whereas the selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitor sertraline produced a positive result79.
CP316311 had no adverse effects and in both trials the
CRF1 antagonists were well tolerated, suggesting that
CRF1 antagonists could be viable therapeutics for other
addictionrelated disorders.
Modulators of the brain stress systems: non-CRF targets.
Preclinical data are emerging which suggest that other
neurotransmitter systems and neuromodulators within
the extended amygdala can be deregulated during
the development of dependence on drugs of abuse13.
evidence for deregulation of noradrenaline in alcohol,
cocaine and opioid dependence; dynorphin in cocaine and
alcohol dependence; vasopressin in opioid and alcohol
dependence; and orexin and substance P in cocaine,
opioid and alcohol dependence are pertinent exam
ples13. Administration of the noradrenergic 1receptor
antagonist prazosin decreases selfadministration in rats
that are dependent on alcohol, cocaine and opioids8082
(TABLE 4). It has been proposed that noradrenergicCRF
interactions contribute to the brain stress activation
associated with withdrawal from drugs of abuse13. In
animal models of alcohol selfadministration, the dra
matic motivational effects of CRF in dependence can be
observed in dependent animals.
Activation of the dynorphinopioid receptor system
produces effects that are similar to those of most other
opioid systems, but often opposite to those of opioid
receptors in the motivational domain83. opioid recep
tor agonists produce conditioned place aversion84, and
depression and dysphoria in humans85. Substantial evi
dence suggests that expression of the gene encoding the
dynorphin peptide and opioid receptor activation are
increased in the striatum and amygdala during acute
and chronic administration of cocaine in rats86,87 and in
humans88,89. The activation of the dynorphin system in the
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nucleus accumbens decreases activity in the dopamine
system. It is therefore possible that the activation of the
dynorphin system could contribute to the dysphoric
syndrome associated with cocaine dependence90.
Dynorphin activity is also increased by stress91,
suggesting a potential interaction with the CRF sys
tem. In mice, forcedswim stress and inescapable foot
shock produced place aversions that were blocked by
a opioid receptor antagonist and dynorphin knock
out 92. Blockade of dynorphin activity, either by opioid
receptor antagonism or by disruption of the prodynor
phin gene, blocked stressinduced reinstatement of
cocaineinduced place preference in mice93 and blocked

stressinduced reinstatement of cocaineseeking behav
iour in rats94, and CRF is thought to produce its aversive
effect through activation of the dynorphin system92. There
is also evidence that the link between reinstatement of
drugseeking behaviour and activation of opioid recep
tors is mediated by CRF95. Thus, the dynorphinopioid
system mimics stressor administration in animals in
producing aversive effects and inducing drugseeking
behaviour. This aversive response could involve recipro
cal interactions with dopamine in the nucleus accumbens
and the extrahypothalamic brain CRF system.
Table 2 | Medications currently on the market for the treatment of drug addiction
Name
Addiction year of FDA

approval
Description
Disulfiram
Alcohol
1954
An acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) inhibitor used to

prevent relapse in patients with alcoholism who have stopped
drinking193
Produces an aversive reaction if the subject drinks and has
adequate blood levels of disulfiram, presumably owing to
increased acetaldehyde in the bloodstream; this is similar to the
intense flush reaction of Asians with a deletion of one or two
alleles of the ALDH2 gene194
Methadone
Opiate
1972
This long-acting opioid was developed as a substitution

treatment for opioid addiction because of its property of being
orally active with a long half-life, and became the standard
medication for opioid detoxification
Naltrexone
Alcohol
1994
and 2005
(extendedrelease
formulation)
A competitive opioid antagonist that has oral bioavailability and

binds to -, - and -opioid receptors, with a higher affinity for
the -opioid receptor
Decreases heavy drinking in patients with alcoholism and
prevents relapses to heavy drinking195,196; has greater efficacy
when combined with associated behavioural treatments,
particularly cognitive behavioural therapy
Bupropion
(Wellbutrin/Zyban;
GlaxoSmithKline)
Nicotine
1997
An antidepressant with efficacy in smoking cessation197 that has

beneficial effects on protracted abstinence, consistent with its
antidepressant properties
Effectively doubles abstinence rates after 1 year198
Buprenorphine
(Subutex;
ScheringPlough)
Opiate
2002
An oripavine derivative that is a partial agonist at -opioid

receptors, -opioid receptors and nociceptin receptors and
an antagonist at -opioid receptors
Studies have shown that maintenance therapy with
buprenorphine is an effective treatment for opioid dependence
Can be prescribed as a sublingual tablet consisting of
buprenorphine or buprenorphine with naloxone (Suboxone;
ScheringPlough); the addition of naloxone limits diversion
because naloxone is inactive when taken orally, but will block
the effects of buprenorphine if the preparation is diverted to
intravenous use
Acamprosate
Alcohol
(Campral/Aotal;
MerckSerono/
Forest Laboratories)
2004
An indirect partial agonist of the NMDA glutamate receptor and

an antagonist of metabotropic glutamate receptors, used to
prevent relapse in patients with alcoholism who have stopped
drinking198,199
In a clinical trial, treatment efficacy was particularly high
in patients who had a clearly identified goal of achieving
abstinence, before starting treatment
Varenicline
(Chantix/Champix;
Pfizer)
Nicotine
2006
A partial agonist of the 42 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

used for detoxification and treatment of nicotine addiction200
Nicotine
replacement
therapy
Nicotine
Oral slow release nicotine from nicotine chewing gum or

lozenges, or percutaneous administration using a nicotine patch
facilitates abstinence as an aid to smoking cessation
FDA, US Food and Drug Administration; NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate.
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Table 3 | Potential pharmacotherapies derived from preclinical research
class
candidates
Dopamine receptor partial

agonists
D2 receptor partial agonist (aripiprazole)

D3 receptor partial agonist
Modulators of -aminobutyric
acid (GABA) signalling
GABA neurotransmission modulators
Modulators of brain stress

systems
CRF1 antagonist
Dynorphin antagonist
Neurokinin 1 receptor antagonist
Modulators of glutamate
signalling
AMPA receptor antagonist (topiramate)

NMDA receptor antagonist
mGluR agonist
mGluR5 receptor antagonist
AMPA, -amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid; CRF1, corticotropin-releasing

factor receptor 1; mGluR, metabotropic glutamate receptor; NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate.
Administration of a opioid receptor antagonist

had no effect on baseline selfadministration of limited
access cocaine or heroin in primates96, but blunted the
increased selfadministration of cocaine in rats with
extended access to the drug (S. wee et al., in the press).
A opioid receptor antagonist also selectively blocked
the increase in ethanol selfadministration associated
with withdrawal in alcoholdependent rats97.
Neuromodulatory systems that oppose the actions
of CRF in modulating stress and emotional behaviour
could also be future targets for addiction treatment.
These include neuropeptide Y and nociceptin systems, in
which agonists reduce the excessive drinking associated
with alcohol dependence98,99. Targeting the receptor sys
tem for substance P, known as the neurokinin 1 receptor
(NK1R; also known as TACR1) system, which modulates
emotional states, provides an example of a translational
approach100. NK1Rknockout mice backcrossed onto a
highdrinking strain of mice showed a major decrease
in voluntary alcohol consumption, and recently detoxi
fied subjects with alcohol dependence and treated with
an NK1R antagonist showed decreased craving, blunted
cortisol responses and decreased functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) responses to affective stimuli.
This suggests that NK1R may be a viable therapeutic target
for the treatment of the dark side of addiction.
Behavioural sensitization
An increased drug-induced
locomotor response or drug
reward response with repeated
administration.
Glutamate modulators. Glutamate is thought to have

several roles in the neurobiology of addiction, many of
which provide potential targets for medications develop
ment. At low doses, ethanol may act as an NMDA
(Nmethyldaspartate) receptor antagonist, which could
contribute to the acute rewarding effects of ethanol102.
Acute and protracted abstinence from ethanol described
in alcohol dependence models seems to involve over
active glutamatergic systems, which are thought to be
a target for the therapeutic effects of acamprosate39,102,103
(TABLE 4).
Glutamate has also long been associated with the
neuroplasticity that is important for behavioural sensitization
to drugs of abuse, particularly psychostimulants. AMPA
(amino3hydroxy5methyl4isoxazole propionic
acid) receptor antagonists and NMDA receptor antago
nists block the development of locomotor sensitization to
psychomotor stimulants104, and NMDA receptor antago

nists also block the longterm potentiation and longterm
depression associated with repeated administration of
psychostimulants105. Some of these effects have been
linked to increases in AMPA receptors that lack the
subunit known as glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2)106.
one prominent hypothesis is that repeated self
administration of psychostimulants decreases basal
release of glutamate in key brain circuits associated
with the preoccupationanticipation (craving) stage
of the addiction cycle, but an exaggerated response
of glutamate to activity in these circuits could confer
susceptibility to relapse107. For example, druginduced
reinstatement of drug seeking seems to be mediated by
a glutamatergic projection from the prefrontal cortex
to the nucleus accumbens9. Cueinduced reinstatement
of drug seeking involves a glutamatergic projection to
the nucleus accumbens from both the basolateral amy
gdala and the ventral subiculum108,109. In addition, in
cocainetreated mice, there was less strengthening of
synaptic transmission in ventral tegmental area slices
from mice that lacked mGluR1 or the NMDA receptor
subunit NR1 in dopamine neurons, suggesting a direct
dopamine neuron target produced by glutamatergic
plasticity110.
Additional evidence that AMPA or kainate receptors
mediate glutamate modulation in addiction comes from
a topdown perspective. Clinical trials of topiramate,
an anticonvulsant with some glutamate antagonist
activity, have reported decreases in drinking behaviour
in alcohol dependence and improvements in quality of
life, but with significant adverse effects on memory and
concentration111,112. In preclinical studies, topiramate
decreased alcohol consumption and preference113 and
decreased stressinduced increases in alcohol consump
tion and preference in mice114. However, topiramate also
decreased saccharin preference, increased water intake
and failed to block conditioned place preference to alco
hol113,115. Together, these results suggest that topiramate
can interact with both withdrawalinduced negative
affective states and the rewarding effects of ethanol.
Pharmacological agents that modulate glutamate
function may not only have a role in the basal hypoexcita
bility or hyperexcitability of glutamatergic systems during
protracted abstinence, depending on the drug of abuse,
but may also decrease drug and cueinduced reinstate
ment of drug selfadministration. To this end, antagonists
of AMPA receptors, NMDA receptors and metabotropic
glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5), and agonists of mGluR2
and mGluR3, all of which decrease glutamate function,
have been shown to block cueinduced reinstatement of
drug selfadministration116119.
Given the side effects associated with direct gluta
matergic antagonists, drugs that modulate the system
may be more promising candidates for the treatment of
addiction. Agents that can restore homeostasis to systems
associated with both the withdrawalnegative affect (dark
side) stage and the preoccupationanticipation (crav
ing) stage would be optimal. Studying the withdrawal
negative affect stage of the addiction cycle reveals numerous
targets for pharmacotherapy development for addiction.
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Table 4 | Effects of drugs on animal models of the motivational components of the addiction cycle*
Naltrexone
Acamprosate cRF
Noradrenaline gABA
Metabotropic
receptor
receptor
receptor
glutamate
antagonist antagonist
modulator receptor agonist
Baseline drinking 201
No effect202
No effect75
80
203
204
Dependence98
induced drinking
205
75
80
56
Not determined
cue-induced
reinstatement
206
207
No effect206
Not determined 208
Stress-induced
reinstatement
No effect206
Not
determined
206
209
117
Not
117
determined
*Using alcoholism as an example. CRF, corticotropin-releasing factor; GABA, -aminobutyric acid.
A similar case can be made for the preoccupationantici

pation stage using the neurobiological targets identified
here7. However, in both domains, a limiting step for clini
cal development is the progression from identifying pre
clinical targets to testing in humans.
Human laboratory studies

A crucial step in medications development is the sub
mission of an investigational new drug (IND) applica
tion to the uS Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
or its equivalent in other countries, so that the drug can
be tested in humans. See Supplementary information
S2 (box) for further information regarding INDs for
pharmacotherapies for the treatment of addiction.
Human laboratory studies provide a potentially
powerful means of exploring treatment targets for spe
cific components of the addiction cycle without the
need for expensive doubleblind, placebocontrolled
trials. They can potentially predict efficacy measures of
potential treatments for each stage of the addiction cycle
(TABLES 1,4). Although the predictive validity of human
laboratory models remains to be determined, ongoing
studies with established medications for addiction can
be used in a Rosetta Stone approach to evaluate the
validity of animal and human models. Human labora
tory models can also then serve as a springboard for the
development of new pharmacotherapies.
Endophenotype
Measurable components,
unseen by the unaided eye,
along the pathway between
disease and genotype.
The bingeintoxication stage. For the bingeintoxica

tion stage of the addiction cycle, selfadministration pro
cedures for cocaine, heroin and marijuana in humans
have been established largely using operant responding
paradigms, in which participants who are dependent on
a drug make a behavioural response such as pressing a
key on a computer to receive the drug 120. As in animal
models, heroin selfadministration is reduced by all
three medications approved by the FDA to treat opioid
dependence methadone, naltrexone and buprenor
phine (Subutex; ScheringPlough) supporting the
predictive validity of the animal models121,122. However,
for cocaine, support for the validity of these models is
less robust. A range of medications have been shown to
reduce the subjective effects and craving associated with
cocaine but do not decrease cocaine selfadministration
itself 120. These results are consistent with clinical data
showing that, of more than 60 medications tested,
none has proved reliably effective in clinical trials123.

To date, little or no work has been done on treatments for
marijuana dependence.
other measures, such as impulsivity, could be con
sidered endophenotypes of the bingeintoxication stage
and have some potential for predicting which pharma
cotherapies could have efficacy for addiction treatment.
Impulsivity can increase the probability that an individual
will engage in initial drug intake, and the subsequent
effects of the drug on impulsivity may increase impulsive
behaviours that facilitate further drug use, prolonging
the binge or even provoking relapse (discussed below).
Various tasks have been used to assess impulsivity,
including delayed discounting (that is, whether subjects
show a relative preference for smaller, more immediate
rewards over larger, more delayed rewards), behavioural
inhibition (for example, the Stop Task124) and attentional
measures (that is, whether subjects show increased vari
ability in performance in a simple reaction time task that
reflects lapses in attention).
The withdrawalnegative affect stage. For the with
drawalnegative affect stage, negative reinforcement
mechanisms are in operation. Numerous human labo
ratory measures of acute withdrawal have proved to be
sensitive to drug substitution125. In the laboratory, mari
juana withdrawal is alleviated by marijuana smoking
or by administration of oral 9tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC)126. Cognitive measures are sensitive to withdrawal
effects of drug dependence during acute and protracted
abstinence, and can be considered to be another endo
phenotype of the addiction process that could be used in
medication screening 127 (TABLE 1). Nicotine can improve
cognitive processing and reduce negative affect 128. The
cascade of stress hormone interactions with drugs of
abuse which can facilitate the bingeintoxication
stage, exaggerate the withdrawalnegative affect stage,
and cause sensitization to stressinduced relapse may
all be amenable to human laboratory studies129.
The preoccupationanticipation (craving) stage. For
the preoccupationanticipation stage, three main exter
nal factors (priming doses of drug, drugassociated
cues and stressor exposure) and two internal factors
(the malaise of protracted abstinence and an associated
state of stress that contributes to malaise) are thought to
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contribute to relapse. Several human laboratory pro
cedures have been developed to reflect these aspects of
the preoccupationanticipation stage. Drug reinstate
ment has been developed in human laboratory models,
notably for alcohol and tobacco addiction. Priming
induced drinking in alcoholdependent subjects in a
barlike setting was greater than in social drinkers and
was selectively decreased in the alcoholdependent
groups by administration of opioid antagonists 130.
Similar results were observed in individuals who were
dependent on alcohol, had a family history of alcohol
dependence and received a priming dose of alcohol131,
and in cigarette smokers primed with five cigarettes132.
exposure to alcohol cues, such as the sight or smell
of alcoholic beverages using the cue reactivity paradigm,
reliably increases the urge to drink alcohol, salivation
and attention to cues57,133,134. Furthermore, cue reactivity
can predict treatment outcome135 and has been validated
in some cases using medications that successfully treat
alcohol dependence. For example, naltrexone, but not
topiramate, blocked cue reactivity in subjects with alco
hol dependence134,136, and nicotine replacement therapy
decreased craving associated with smoking cues137. other
drugs not currently in therapeutic use for addiction have
shown positive results with cueinduced reactivity para
digms, including carbamazepine (Tegretol; Novartis) for
alcohol138 and amantadine for cocaine139.
Stress responses, including changes in the activities
of the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis and extra
hypothalamic brain stress systems, affect all phases of the
addiction cycle but may be particularly relevant to both
the withdrawalnegative affect stage and the preoccupa
tionanticipation stage. Stress and stressors have also been
associated with relapse and vulnerability to relapse129,140.
Negative affect, stress or withdrawalrelated distress also
increases drug craving 57,135,141,142. Both stress and drugs of
abuse activate the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis,
but the glucocorticoid response becomes blunted with
chronic highdose drug use. High glucocorticoid tone can,
in turn, drive the brain stress systems in the amygdala129.
Thus, drugs of abuse can trigger a cascade of stress hor
mone interactions that can facilitate the bingeintoxica
tion stage and exacerbate the withdrawalnegative affect
stage. They may also cause hypersensitivity of brain stress
systems that contribute to maintaining the withdrawal
negative affect stage and sensitize the individual to stress
induced relapse. All of these changes may be amenable to
study in humans in a laboratory setting.
Stressrelated responses and stressinduced craving
have been elicited in individuals with an addiction
using a new model of stressinduced responsivity with
an emotional imagery paradigm142 based on the early
work of lang and colleagues143. In this paradigm, indi
viduals using the higher amounts of cocaine and alcohol
and subjects recovering from an alcohol dependence
showed greater craving and physiological responses
to stressors than control social drinkers144. Perhaps of
greatest importance in terms of paradigm validation,
stressinduced cocaine craving in the laboratory could
be used to accurately predict time to relapse145. Similar
results have been observed for subjects dependent on
alcohol or nicotine146,147. Preliminary results suggest

that an 2adrenoceptor agonist and an antagonist of
sympathetic signalling, but not naltrexone, significantly
decreased stressinduced opioid craving in subjects
dependent on opioids148. These results support the con
struct and predictive validity of this laboratory model
for stressinduced craving. Future studies crossreferencing
pharmacological probes from the animal and human
studies should provide an excellent basis for translational
advances.
exploration of the interaction of cue exposure with
emotional states during protracted abstinence has pro
vided a novel approach to the study of cue reactivity in
alcohol craving 57,149. A sample of nontreatmentseeking
subjects with alcohol dependence was exposed to
affective stimuli that had positive or negative valence
(that is, they produced emotional responses that were
positive or negative in nature) and then to a beverage
cue but with no opportunity to selfadminister alcohol.
Cue reactivity was measured using subjective measures
of craving, measures of emotional reactivity and psycho
physiological measures. Alcohol exposure and both posi
tive and negative emotional cues had the expected effects
on subjective and emotional reactivity, and related effects
on psychophysiological measures57. Gabapentin signifi
cantly decreased subjective craving and craving that was
affectively evoked, and improved several measures of
sleep quality 57. These results suggest that affective prim
ing, combined with alcohol cue exposure, could provide a
powerful means to evaluate potential pharmacotherapies
for addiction treatment.
Another novel approach involves measuring resistance
to relapse in humans. The smoking lapse behaviour
model allows the measurement of two crucial features
of relapse: the ability to resist the first cigarette and sub
sequent smoking behaviour 150. Subjects with nicotine
dependence are first exposed to precipitants of smoking
relapse, such as alcohol, stress and nicotine deprivation,
and then their ability to resist smoking when presented
with their preferred brand of cigarettes is measured150.
This model remains to be validated with existing anti
craving medications but provides an intriguing exten
sion of cue reactivity studies that could be useful as
an intermediary step between preclinical models and
clinical trials.
An evolving area in human laboratory relapse models
is the measurement of neural correlates of cues for
relapse. Increased functional brain activation elicited
by drugassociated cues, as measured in brain imaging
studies, may correlate with an increased risk of relapse.
Cueinduced functional activation of the brain can be
assessed by measuring changes in cerebral blood flow
with positron emission tomography or single photon
emission computed tomography, or by combining
blood flow measurements with fMRI. Core regions
activated in most studies include the anterior cingulate,
orbitofrontal cortex, basolateral amygdala, ventral stria
tum and dorsal striatum5. Strong cueinduced activa
tion of similar regions, including the ventral striatum,
dorsal striatum, medial prefrontal cortex and anterior
cingulate, has been observed in subjects with alcohol
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Box 2 | Genetic association studies two examples
-opioid receptor
In transfected AV-12 cells, A118G substitution leads to increased receptor affinity
for -endorphin154
A118G substitution is associated with higher pain thresholds and greater
requirements for opioid medication163
Subjects with A118G substitution show greater response to alcohol and opioid
antagonists164,165
A118G substitution does not predict vulnerability to alcoholism166
Subjects with the A118G single nucleotide polymorphism had a significantly greater
cortisol response to naloxone167
corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (cRF1)
Adolescent subjects homozygous for the C allele of R1876831 drank more alcohol per
occasion and had higher lifetime rates of heavy drinking in response to negative life
events than subjects carrying the T allele168
Increased expression of CRF1 is associated with higher intake of ethanol in animal
studies169,170
CRF1 antagonists block increased ethanol intake associated with acute withdrawal
and protracted abstinence in animal studies75,170
dependence who have repeatedly suffered relapses151,152.

even more intriguingly, reduced functional activation
of the ventral striatum in response to cues that signal
nondrug rewards was observed in individuals with
alcoholism, suggesting a shift in incentive salience to
drugrelated cues153. Imaging studies may therefore
provide unique insights into subjects who exhibit the
most dramatic functional activation in response to
cues and, by extrapolation, the subjects who are more
likely to relapse. Future studies will need to explore
pharmacotherapeutic approaches to normalizing such
cueinduced responses and whether such measures will
predict therapeutic efficacy in treatment 100.
Genetic variations and medications development

widespread attempts are being made to identify genetic
markers for addiction. However, a more exciting possi
bility is that certain single nucleotide polymorphisms
may predict vulnerability to certain subtypes of excessive
drinking syndromes and, of particular relevance to this
Review, may predict responsiveness to pharmacothera
pies in the treatment of alcoholism. Animal and human
studies are beginning to realize this potential opportunity.
Genetic association studies have focused on two path
ways: one representing the reward side of addiction (the
opioid peptide system) and one representing the dark
side of addiction (the CRF brain stress system). The
human opioid receptor is encoded by the OPRM1
gene and is a primary candidate for causing the phar
macogenetic variability of the clinical effects of opioid
drugs and opioid receptor antagonists in the treatment
of addiction. Mutations in OPRM1 have been found in
the promoter, coding regions and introns of the gene.
one mutation that has received considerable attention
is the A118G single nucleotide polymorphism, which
causes an amino acid substitution of asparagine with
aspartate at position 40 of the opioid receptor protein
(Asn40Asp)154 (BOX 2).
In a separate series of studies, an association was

found between single nucleotide polymorphisms of the
gene that encodes CRF1 and binge drinking in adoles
cents and in adults with an alcohol dependence155. one
of these single nucleotide polymorphisms, R1876831,
is located in an intron that could potentially influence
transcription of the gene that encodes CRF1 (BOX 2).
Clinical trials: challenges and opportunities

Doubleblind, placebocontrolled trials with random
assignment to treatments are the accepted standard for
determining pharmacotherapy efficacy. A number of
unique features of clinical trials for medications to treat
addiction need to be emphasized. These include a lack
of consensus about clinically relevant outcome measures,
admission criteria and methods for detecting relapse to
use of substances between study visits. Additionally,
general issues related to medication compliance, placebo
response and dropout rates present challenges for the
design of clinical trials in addiction. There are also
safety and tolerability issues that are specific to addic
tion, including the potential interaction of alcohol or
other substances of abuse with the pharmacotherapy
under study.
Outcome measures. The choice of the outcome for
which a pharmacotherapy is likely to show efficacy may
be guided by results from preclinical models of addiction
and human laboratory studies. For example, naltrexone
is thought to reduce the rewarding effects of drinking
such that the individual with an alcohol dependence is
no longer motivated to drink heavily. An outcome of
reduced heavy drinking, as opposed to complete absti
nence, is well characterized for naltrexone in human
laboratory models involving alcohol administration
and in clinical trials with subjects that are nonabstinent.
Conversely, medications such as acamprosate or gaba
pentin, which are thought to support abstinence from
alcohol by normalizing activity in a brain pathway that
has become chronically deregulated, have shown efficacy
in human laboratory models of cue reactivity but not
in alcohol administration models, and have primarily
shown efficacy on abstinence outcomes in clinical trials
(see below).
Historically, the rate of complete abstinence has been
the primary outcome measure of pharmacotherapy effi
cacy. However, clinically relevant abstinenceoriented
outcomes also include latency to first lapse, percentage
of abstinence days over the study duration, longest dura
tion of abstinence during the study, abstinence at the end
of the study (as indicative of behaviour likely to continue
after the study) and statistical modelling of the trajectory
of abstinence over the course of the study. Depending on
the pharmacokinetic properties of the medication (for
example, time to achieve steadystate serum concentra
tions), it may be necessary to specify a grace period during
which a lapse may occur that would not normally be
considered in efficacy determinations. Alternatively,
to ensure an abstinent starting point across all patients,
detoxification and a brief abstinent interval (for example,
25 days) may be required before randomization.
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Harm reduction and nonhazardous use of substances
are alternative end points for patients that do not have
abstinence as their treatment goal. Related outcomes may
include time to first heavy use, percentage of heavy use
days during the study or statistical models of the trajectory
of heavy use days over the course of the study.
Admission criteria. Admission criteria related to pre
randomization substance use or abstinence vary as a
function of the stage of the addiction cycle that a
pharmacotherapy is thought to target. To show efficacy,
pharmacotherapies that are thought to support abstinence
through normalization of a brain pathway deregulated
by discontinuation of the addictive substance require a
study sample that has achieved a minimal period of absti
nence before randomization (usually 25 days to avoid
the effects of acute withdrawal). Conversely, pharmaco
therapies that are predicted to decrease heavy or hazard
ous use may require a nonabstinent sample with a high
prerandomization rate of heavy use to show efficacy.
Safety considerations specific to a medication also
influence admission criteria. For example, subjects with
an addiction, especially those dependent on alcohol,
frequently present for treatment with pathologically
elevated liver function test values. Trials of pharmaco
therapies that are associated with hepatotoxicity (for
example, naltrexone) typically exclude patients with liver
function test results that are more than three times the
upper limit of the normal range. However, such necessary
exclusion criteria may also limit the dependence severity
in the study sample and the extent to which clinically
relevant generalizations can be made. Although women
with childbearing potential are often omitted from clinical
trials, this group needs to be represented in clinical trials
of substance dependence because gender can affect drug
efficacy. For example, longacting injectable naltrexone
showed efficacy in males but not in females in a multi
centre trial of alcohol dependence156.
Multiple event monitoring

system cap
Caps on pill bottles with built-in
microelectronics that record
each date and time the cap is
removed.
Measures of substance use. Measures of substance use

are another unique aspect of clinical trials for pharmaco
therapy development for addiction. urine dipsticks and
handheld analysers of alcohol or carbon monoxide in
expired breath can provide an immediate indication of
drug use, drinking and cigarette smoking, respectively,
at the time of a clinical trial research visit. However,
most substances of abuse and their active metabolites
(if any) have short halflives, and their use cannot be
assessed in breath, urine or plasma during the interval
between study visits. one exception is 9THC, the
primary metabolite of cannabis, which can be present
in urine for 1 month after use, potentially resulting in
an underestimate of abstinence if detected. Because
of such a long halflife, urinary 9THC levels can be
normalized to the urinary creatinine concentration to
reduce variability in drug measurement owing to urine
dilution157; abstinence is reflected by a reduction in the
9THC/creatinine ratio across visits.
Available biomarkers of substance use between study
visits (for example, glutamyl transpeptidase levels,
mean corpuscular volume and carbohydratedeficient
transferrin levels in the case of alcohol) have sensitivity

and/or specificity limitations that can contribute to inac
curate estimations of use. A standardized interview using
a calendar format, typically a variation on the timeline
followback interview 158, uses prompts such as weekend
versus weekdays, paydays or holidays to assess quantity
and frequency of substance use between study visits.
Periodic interviews with collateral informants such as
close friends or relatives of the subject can also be used
in conjunction with biological measures to validate
the subjects timeline followback interview selfreport
measures of substance use. If discrepancies between
sources cannot be resolved, the most negative outcome is
typically assumed to be accurate.
Medication compliance. Medication noncompliance is
not a common factor that influences outcomes in clinical
trials involving addiction. when it occurs, factors such
as drug tolerability should be assessed if standard meas
ures to ensure compliance have been implemented. Such
measures can include packaging medication in blister
cards with day and time of day indicated for each dose,
identifying frequently missed doses by reviewing unused
medication at every visit or using multiple event monitoring
system cap data, linking missed dosing with an activity
of daily living, such as meals or brushing teeth, and a
suggestion to affirm a commitment to recovery with
every dose.
Premature study termination. Part of the definition of
substance dependence by the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM IV) is
an increased risk of relapse, impaired impulse control
and psychosocial difficulties. Not surprisingly, there
fore, trials of substance dependence may involve higher
dropout rates than clinical trials of treatments for other
psychiatric disorders. Therefore, incorporating strate
gies to enhance study completion in order to adequately
assess use, safety and efficacy of a pharmacotherapy is
important. Such strategies can include a flat rate of mon
etary compensation to offset transportation expenses at
each visit and a lump sum payment for trial completion
that is sufficient to be motivating but not coercive, the
offer of a ~uS$5 value coupon at each visit or system
atic acknowledgement of the gains the subject is making
(for example, income saved on days of abstinence that
was previously spent on substances or normalization of
liver function tests). obtaining comprehensive contact
information is also prudent.
Conclusions and future directions

The uS National Institutes of Health (NIH) has promoted
many of the elements required for the development of
pharmacotherapies for addiction. To our knowledge,
equivalent programmes do not exist in europe, and should
be encouraged. Areas of success include tremendous
breakthroughs in the basic neurobiology of addiction,
the successful development and validation of behavioural
and pharmacological treatments of addiction (such as
buprenorphine, supported by the National Institute on
Drug Abuse (NIDA), and naltrexone, supported by the
VoluMe 8 | juNe 2009 | 511

REVIEWS
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
(NIAAA)), and improved infrastructure for some aspects
of pharmacotherapy development. For example, NIDA
has established an extensive clinical trials network (see
Further information for a link to the NIDA clinical trials
network website). However, tremendous resources have
been devoted to the development of pharmacotherapies
for cocaine addiction, with little or no success reported
to date2. It is hoped that the burgeoning use of human
laboratory studies, outlined above, and the Rosetta Stone
approach linking human and animal studies promoted
here will yield better results.
A relevant issue is therefore how the NIH can do more
to help. Several suggestions can be provided on the basis
of this Review. These include developing a more balanced
portfolio at the preclinical and clinical stage regarding
which drugs of abuse should be studied and expanding
the development and validation of human laboratory
studies for potential medications. A major bottleneck
for testing new medications is obtaining IND approvals
for new drugs for human laboratory studies and Phase II
clinical trials. A core facility like that of the NIDA clinical
trials network should be considered for pooling resources
for IND development, not only by NIDA and NIAAA,
but by all central nervous systemrelated NIH institutes.
of crucial importance is a scientifically determined and
clinically relevant decision tree of which drugs should
go forward. Such a decision tree could be built on the
framework elaborated here, by incorporating a Rosetta
Stonelike validation into the strategic planning of the
NIH to facilitate translational research.
Another key element is that the pharmaceutical
industry must consider that pharmacotherapies to target
addiction are potentially profitable. Recent success
with acamprosate and varenicline (Chantix/Champix;
Pfizer) should provide some indication that further
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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9.
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14.
15.
16.
investigations in this area of disease are merited. Increased

interaction with NIH in general to pool resources could
reduce some of the developmental costs for industry, and
some mechanisms are clearly underway in the form of
small business innovation research grants and small busi
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for a link to the Small Business Innovation Research
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industry to partner with the NIH for the development of
medications for addiction treatment. Furthermore, the
pharmaceutical industry should consider allowing com
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they are no longer developing to be used in proofof
concept human laboratory studies of addiction.
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of future pharmacotherapies for addiction. Medications
currently on the market for this indication have not
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facilitating treatment but are also forming a means to
evaluate future medications. A combination of validated
animal models of addiction and a surge in understanding
the neurocircuits and neuropharmacological mechanisms
involved in the development and maintenance of addic
tion through basic research has provided numerous viable
targets for future medications. New neurobiological
targets will be derived from this basic research on addic
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account for the transition to dependence and the vulner
ability to relapse, possibly within a genetic context. we
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Acknowledgements
This is manuscript number 19,996 authored from The Scripps

Research Institute. The authors thank M. Arends for his
assistance with manuscript preparation. Preparation of this
work was supported by the Pearson Center for Alcoholism
and Addiction Research and National Institutes of Health
grants AA12602, AA08459, (R37)AA014028 and AA06420
from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism,
DA04043, DA04398, (P20)DA024194 and DA10072 from
the National Institute on Drug Abuse, DK26741 from the
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney
Diseases, and 17RT-0095 from the Tobacco-Related Disease
Research Program from the State of California. The opinions
expressed in this article by G.K.L. are as an individual and not
as an employee of Nereus Pharmaceuticals.
Competing interests statement
The authors declare competing financial interests: see web

version for details.
DATABASES
Entrez Gene:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=gene
OPRM1
UniProtKB: http://www.uniprot.org
-opioid receptor | -opioid receptor | CRF1 | D2 | D3 | NK1R
FURTHER INFORMATION
NIDA clinical trials network: http://www.nida.nih.gov/ctn/
Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small
Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programmes:
http://grants.nih.gov/grants/funding/sbirsttr_programs.htm
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
See online article: S1 (box) | S2 (box)
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REVIEWS

Abstract | Current pharmacotherapies for addiction represent opportunities for facilitating

Research and Development,

Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder

to emulate different components of addiction, some

The addiction cycle

500 | juNe 2009 | VoluMe 8

Animal models relevant to the addiction cycle. Animal

New use of approved drugs

Animal screening studies:

Human laboratory studies:

Phase II clinical trials

Figure 1 | The Rosetta Stone approach to drug development. A crucial aspect of

Animal models for the bingeintoxication stage of

Neurobiological targets in addiction

NATuRe ReVIewS | DRug DiScoveRy

VoluMe 8 | juNe 2009 | 501

Human laboratory models

Drug or alcohol selfadministration172

Brain stimulation reward

Elevated reward thresholds183

Molecular targets within the brain circuits associated with

Animal models of addiction: reverse validity

New targets for medications development

502 | juNe 2009 | VoluMe 8

A receptor that is coupled

A metabotropic receptor that

More importantly for our dark side view, dopamin

withdrawal and reinstatement, and dopamine partial

NATuRe ReVIewS | DRug DiScoveRy

VoluMe 8 | juNe 2009 | 503

Prefrontal cortex (orbital, medial and

BLA: conditioned cues

Acb shell and core

Hypothalamus and brainstem

Preoccupation or anticipation (craving)

Withdrawal or negative affect

504 | juNe 2009 | VoluMe 8

Modulators of the brain stress system: CRF antagonists.

and protracted abstinence73. Direct administration of a

NATuRe ReVIewS | DRug DiScoveRy

VoluMe 8 | juNe 2009 | 505

cocaineinduced place preference in mice93 and blocked

Addiction year of FDA

An acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) inhibitor used to

This long-acting opioid was developed as a substitution

A competitive opioid antagonist that has oral bioavailability and

An antidepressant with efficacy in smoking cessation197 that has

An oripavine derivative that is a partial agonist at -opioid

An indirect partial agonist of the NMDA glutamate receptor and

A partial agonist of the 42 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

Oral slow release nicotine from nicotine chewing gum or

FDA, US Food and Drug Administration; NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate.

506 | juNe 2009 | VoluMe 8

Dopamine receptor partial

D2 receptor partial agonist (aripiprazole)

GABA neurotransmission modulators

Modulators of brain stress

AMPA receptor antagonist (topiramate)