Polarization of Dielectrics
Polarization of Dielectrics
Polarization of Dielectrics
Dielectrics are materials which have no free charges; all electrons are bound and associated with the nearest
atoms. An external electric field causes a small separation of the centres of the electron cloud and the
positive ion core so that each infinitessimal element of volume behaves as an electric dipole. Dielectrics
may be subdivided into two groups :
Non-Polar
Polar
The induced dipole field opposes the applied field. In the diagram
shown opposite the volume element indicated could represent an atom,
a molecule, or a small region.
The type of polarization on a microscopic scale is determined by the
material. Most materials exhibit polarization only in the presence of an
external field. A few however show permanent polarization:
Vol element
Ferroelectric
Electrets
The type of polarization may be additionally subdivided into the following categories :
Electronic
Ionic
Orientational
Space-charge
The Electric Polarization P is the dipole moment per unit volume at a given point.
P = Np where p is the average dipole moment per molecule
N is the number of molecules per unit volume.
1.
Any molecule develops a dipole moment which is proportional to the applied field
p = aE where a is the polarizabilty.
2.
40 r2 R3
gives p
where
= electronic
polarizabilty = 4pe R3
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a
e Fields2
C.G Pearce EM
eE
er
e 2r
40R3
3
40R E
3.
d t'
dV
1
40
r2
1
40
4.
1 d
5.
( )
dV
r
integrating over the block
Now
fA
f (
(r )
so, putting
6.
and P = A
40
A)
da
P
r
40 s
40
40
P)
7.
8.
Thus
V =
40 s r
r
9.
and
E
= V
40
da r
r
d r
2
10.
E
C.G Pearce EM Fields2
16/10/96
1
40
1
40
( f +
( f
s
b)
da
b)
r2
2
da
( f +
+
( f +
b)
11.
r
d
12.
b )
r2
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E
+
dielectric, -
where
the +
Then, the amount of charge dQ crossing da is just the amount of positive charge within the volume
dt = s @ da
i.e.
dQ = NQ s da Qs = p , NQs = P
i.e.
dQ = P da
@
13.
If da is on the surface of the material, this charge accumulates there in a layer of thickness s n ( which is
small, of molecular dimensions) and the charge can be treated as a surface layer with density
@
= dQ/da = P n
14.
The net charge flowing out of a volume t across the elementary area da of its surface is P da as found
above in (13). Thus the total charge flowing out of the surface bounding t is the integral of this over the
surface, i.e.
P da
Q =
@
hence
da
15.
P) d
16.
i.e. the bound charge density is numerically equal to minus the divergence of the polarization. An
important consequence of this is that if the polarization is uniform within a region and its divergence is zero,
then so is the bound charge density rb .
div E in Dielectrics
Gauss's law states
s E
da
E d
17.
Q here is the total charge enclosed, which for dielectrics must include free as well as bound charges. i.e.
( f + b) d
18.
Q =
where the integration is intended to cover both volume and surface distributions. Hence substituting (18)
into (17) and equating the integrands of the volume integrals then
E
19.
b)
or
20.
This is Gauss's law in its more general form and is one of the four Maxwell's Equations.. In obtaining it
we have implicitly assumed that space derivatives of E exist. This is not the case at the interface between
media and where this applies we must use the integral form i.e we must integrate E da over a closed
surface.
N.B. Since E = -V this leads to 2V = - rt/e0 Poisson's equation.
@
= @
1 (f
21.
P)
22.
or
( 0 E
P)
23.
24.
i.e.
25.
D = rf
This is the equivalent Maxwell's equation for a dielectric. Note it does not contain the permittivity e and is
thus independent of the medium. It can be regarded as Gauss's law for D. In its integral form it becomes
f d
26.
D da =
s
D
0
27.
i.e. the electric field inside the dielectric is the resultant of two fields,
D/e0 associated with free charges,
since (D/e0) = rf / e0
28.
29.
( - P/e0) = rb / e0
The Susceptibility
Provided that P E , which it is in practice for moderate fields
since D = e0E + P
= e0E(1 + ce )
c
e = P/e0 E
30.
31.
32.
The Permittivity
D =
=
+ ce )E
e is the relative permittivity
E
0 r
r
or dielectric constant
D = eE
in vacuum c = 0 ,
where
0(1
33.
34.
e e
or k = 1
is the permittivity.
e e
0 r
35.
36.
or k are usually in the range 1 - 7, but some non-linear materials have k as high as 105.
Pure water has k ~ 80. For all materials k is a function of frequency.
e
In class A dielectrics D
D = rf
and if er f(x,y,z)
E = rf /e
\
2V = -rf /e Poisson's equation for class A dielectrics
If the material is not class A then
2V
-r
/e
( rf
+ r
b)
E =
/ e
37.
38.
39.
40.
or
The total charge density is
r 1
r 1 D
r
41.
(
1
42.
43.
f
r
44.
0E
+ s
45.
and
D = eE =
Hence
b =
e e
r 0
E =
/er
from Gauss
46.
(cf 44.)
47.
Boundary Conditions
The calculation of electric field variation across a boundary between two media needs a knowledge of the
boundary conditions. These are :
At the boundary between media
V is continuous
V1 = V2
This can be shown by applying Gauss's Law to a small pillbox at the boundary. The net outward
displacement = free charge enclosed. Note that between dielectrics the free charge density sf is usually
zero. At a dielectric / conductor interface, if E is constant, then D = 0 inside the conductor, and Dn = sf in
the dielectric.
Et1 = Et2
This can be shown by evaluating the line integral E dl around a thin rectangular loop lying
parallel to the boundary. If the boundary is between a dielectric and a conductor, then E = 0 in the
conductor, and hence Et = 0 in both media. Therefor E must be normal at the surface of a conductor.
Forces on Dielectrics
A dipole in a uniform field experiences a torque, but no net force
(p
and P
)E
) (E
(P
1
2
) E
(2 E )
Ex. Calculate the force in the dielectric of a coaxial cable, radii R1, R2 permitivitty e with charge per unit
length l.
R2
E =
E d =
R2
,
=
V
By Gauss
2
2 ln
R1
R1
V
E = =
2
ln ( R2 / R1)
2
| |
2
( r
1)
( r
1) V 2
, radial, inwards.