PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

Lectures 13 and 14 Electromagnetic induction

Introduction
In the previous lectures we saw that when a current passes through a wire
then a magnetic field is produced. It is reasonable to guess that there might
be the reverse effect: if a wire is passed through a magnetic field then a
current is produced. This effect, known as electromagnetic induction, was
discovered in 1831-1832 during a series of experiments by Michael Faraday.

Faraday’s Experiments
• Mutual inductance: two coils A and B are arranged such that when a
current flows in A some of the magnetic flux produced links (i.e. crosses)
B. If the current through A changes then a current is induced in B.
• Relative motion: a coil is placed such that the magnetic flux from a source
M (this may be a magnet or a current) links it. If relative motion occurs
between the coil and the source such that the flux linking the coil changes
then a current is induced in the coil.
• Cutting of flux by a conductor: when part of a circuit moves and, in doing
so, cuts magnetic flux then a current is induced in the circuit.

A B
B B B
M
I I
I

• Electromotance (voltage) or current?: the induced current is proportional to

the conductance of the circuit. Hence a given change produces a definite
electromotance (or electromotive force e.m.f – the ability to drive current
around a circuit – related to voltage) rather than a definite current.
• Self induction: an electromotance is induced in a circuit due to changes in
its own current.
• The magnitude of the induced electromotance is proportional to the rate of
change.

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

The results of Faraday’s experiments are described by his laws of

electromagnetic induction, summarised as follows

An electromotance is induced when

1. A rigid stationary circuit is placed in a time varying magnetic field

2. A rigid circuit moves in a steady B-field such that the magnetic flux through
the circuit changes
3. Part of a circuit moves and in doing so cuts magnetic flux

Effect 1 is sometimes known as transformer electromotance and effects 2

and 3 as motional electromotance.

Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s laws do not give the direction or sense of the induced
electromotance or current. This is given by Lenz’s law which states ‘whenever
a change produces an induced current the direction of flow of this current is
such as to oppose the change causing it’.

Some definitions

Magnetic flux: This is defined in the same way as electric flux. If a magnetic
field B passes through a surface A (described by a vector A) then the flux
through A is Φ=B⋅A (i.e. it is the component of B normal to the surface
multiplied by the area of the surface).

Electromotance (or electromotive force e.m.f) The electromotance E is

defined as the energy or work done per unit charge (Qt) when it is moved
around a closed path L.

E
z
= L
dW
Qt
= LzF ⋅ dL
Qt
z
= L E ⋅ dL

(the final term results because F/Qt=E)

The units of electromotance are the Volt (V).

Because for electrostatics

produce an electromotance.
z L
E ⋅ dL = 0 , static charges are unable to

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

Motional electromotance
Consider the conductor in the figure which is moving with respect to the
magnetic field B. Charges within the conductor experience a magnetic force
given by F=Qv×B and hence an effective
B
electric field E=v×B. If the conductor is part of
E a complete circuit then this E-field will cause
a current to flow around the circuit.

v⊥ Because this E-field results from the effect of

a magnetic field and not static charges (and
as we will see is capable of producing an electromotance) we denote it as EM
to distinguish it from electrostatic fields which we denote as ES.

If the E-field EM exists along an element dl of the moving conductor then an

electromotance

dE =EM⋅dl= (v×B)⋅dl

results.

Because of the form of this result it is only the components of v and dl which
are perpendicular to the B-field (v┴ and dl┴ respectively) which are important.

Hence the electromotance can be written in the non-vector form

dE =v┴Bdl┴

For a complete circuit the total electromotance is given by the line integral

E
z z z
= EM ⋅ dl = ( v × B) ⋅ dl = v⊥ Bdl⊥

Motional electromotance in terms of flux cutting

The above result can also be expressed in terms of the rate of change of flux
cutting. In time dt the element dl┴ moves a distance v┴dt and hence sweeps
out an area v┴dtdl┴. The flux cut is hence
dl⊥ this area multiplied by the field dΦ=
v┴dtdl┴B.

B Hence
v⊥dt

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

dΦ
= v ⊥ B dl ⊥
dt

but this is identical to the result for the motional electromotance derived
previously so we have

E = dΦ (where Φ is the flux cut)

dt
This result can be shown to be a general one which applies to all types of
electromagnetic induction (not just motional). A negative sign is inserted in
the equation to account for Lenz’s law

E dΦ (Φ is the flux linking the circuit)

=−
dt
This equation fully summarises Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Induced currents and charges

If the flux Φ through a circuit changes then an electromotanceE is produced
and, from Ohm’s law, a current I=ℰ/R, where R is the resistance of the circuit,
will flow.

1 dΦ
I =−
R dt

If the flux through the circuit varies from an initial value Φi at time ti to a final
value Φf at time tf (Φi-Φf=∆Φ) then the total charge which flows in the circuit is

z
t 1 Φ
z 1
Q = t f I dt = − Φ f dΦ = − ( Φ f − Φ i ) =
i R i R
∆Φ
R
This result may be used in conjunction with a small coil (a search coil) to
determine the size of a magnetic field.

The differential form of Faraday’s law

Faraday’s law tells us that a new type of electric field (EM) is produced in
situations where the flux through a circuit changes.
Although so far we have considered the effects of EM on conductors, EM will
be present even in the absence of these conductors (in a similar way to the
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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

existence of electrostatic fields (ES) independent of the presence or not of any

charges).

Hence the electromotance can be calculated around any arbitrary closed path
L in free space

E=
z E ⋅ dL = −
L M
dΦ
dt
but the flux can be written as
the path L. Hence
zS
B⋅ dS where S is any surface enclosed by

z E ⋅ dL = −
L M
∂
z
∂t S
B ⋅ dS

The order of integration and differentiation on the right hand side of this
equation can be reversed and the left hand side can be transformed into a
surface integral by applying Stoke’s theorem

z L
E M ⋅ dL =zS
( ∇ × E M ) ⋅ dSz FH
= S
−
∂B
∂t
I
K⋅ dS

Because the second and third terms contain an integral over the same
surface S the arguments of the two integrals must be equal at any given
point. Hence

∂B
∇ × EM = −
∂t

At any point in space the total E-field E is the sum of ES and EM

E=ES+EM

Because ∇×ES=0 and ∇×E=∇×ES+∇×EM we can write finally

∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
This is the fourth Maxwell equation.

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

It can also be shown that the divergence of EM is always zero.

∇⋅EM=0

Hence ∇⋅E=ρ/ε0 as for purely electrostatic fields.

Self-inductance
For any circuit the magnetic field at any point is proportional to the current I
flowing in the circuit. Hence the magnetic flux Φ which links the circuit is also
proportional to I. The constant of proportionality (which is a function of the
shape and size of the circuit) is known as the self-inductance L.

Φ=LI

The unit of self-inductance is the henry (H).

A device designed to exhibit a specific value of self-inductance is known as
an inductor.

When the current through a circuit changes an electromotance or voltage is

produced, given by

E dΦ d ( LI ) dI
=− =− = −L
dt dt dt

the negative sign indicates that the induced voltage has a direction which
opposes the change in I.

Calculation of self-inductance
A solenoid: It was shown in a previous lecture that for a helically wound
solenoid with a length much greater than its diameter that the field within the
solenoid was approximately constant and had a value µ0nI where n is the
number of turns per unit length.

The flux across each turn of area A is hence

Aµ0nI

and if the solenoid has a length l and hence nl turns, the total flux is

Aµ0n2Il

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

Using the definition of L: L=Φ/I

⇒ L= Aµ0n2l

Magnetic energy
(a) In terms of self-inductance
The electromotance or voltage across an inductor is E=LdI/dt. Hence the rate
at which energy is stored is in the inductor (Power = voltage x current)

=LIdI/dt

In time dt the energy stored by the inductor is LIdI so the total energy UM
stored when the current increases from 0 to I is

UM = zI
0
LI dI 2
= L I /2
0
I
=
1 2
2
LI

(b) In terms of the magnetic field

It was shown above that the self-inductance of a solenoid is L= Aµ0n2l and
the field inside the solenoid is B=µ0nI. Hence substituting in for L and using
the formula for B to eliminate I the magnetic energy stored by the solenoid is

1 1
U M = LI 2 = ( Aµ 0n 2 l )
B FG IJ 2 = 1 B 2 ( Al)
2 2 µ 0n H K 2 µ0
this result expresses the magnetic energy in terms of an energy density
(1/2)B2/µ0 multiplied by the volume of the solenoid Al.

This can be shown to be a general result

Magnetic energy density = 1 B 2

2 µ0

This result can be compared with the similar result derived for the electrical
energy density

Electrical energy density = 1 ε E 2

0
2
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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lectures 13 and 14

Conclusions

• Electromagnetic induction – experimental evidence

• Laws of electromagnetic induction
• Lenz’s law
• Definition of magnetic flux
• Definition of electromotance or electromotive force (e.m.f)
• Motional electromotance
• Motional electromotance in terms of flux cutting
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction E dΦ
=−
dt
• Induced currents and charges
• The differential form of Faraday’s law ∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
• Self-inductance: definition and calculation
• Magnetic energy in terms of self-inductance and magnetic fields