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Explaining Concepts: Discussion and Writing

117. Which of the following pairs of equations are equivalent?
Explain.
(a) x2 = 9; x = 3
(b) x = 29; x = 3

120. Create three quadratic equations: one having two distinct

solutions, one having no real solution, and one having exactly
one real solution.

118. Describe three ways that you might solve a quadratic equation. State your preferred method; explain why you chose it.

121. The word quadratic seems to imply four (quad), yet a quadratic equation is an equation that involves a polynomial of
degree 2. Investigate the origin of the term quadratic as it is
used in the expression quadratic equation. Write a brief essay
on your findings.

(c) 1x - 121x - 22 = 1x - 122; x - 2 = x - 1

119. Explain the benefits of evaluating the discriminant of a

quadratic equation before attempting to solve it.

Are You Prepared? Answers

1. 1x - 621x + 12

2. 12x - 321x + 12

5
3. e - , 3 f
3

4. True

5. x2 + 5x +

25
5 2
= ax + b
4
2

1.3 Complex Numbers; Quadratic Equations

in the Complex Number System*
PREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following:
Classification of Numbers (Section R.1, pp. 45)

Rationalizing Denominators (Section R.8, p. 45)

Now Work the Are You Prepared? problems on page 111.

OBJECTIVES 1 Add, Subtract, Multiply, and Divide Complex Numbers (p. 105)
2 Solve Quadratic Equations in the Complex Number System (p. 109)

Complex Numbers
One property of a real number is that its square is nonnegative. For example, there
is no real number x for which
x2 = - 1
To remedy this situation, we introduce a new number called the imaginary unit.

DEFINITION

The imaginary unit, which we denote by i, is the number whose square is - 1.

That is,
i2 = - 1

This should not surprise you. If our universe were to consist only of integers,
there would be no number x for which 2x = 1. This unfortunate circumstance was
1
2
remedied by introducing numbers such as and , the rational numbers. If our
2
3
universe were to consist only of rational numbers, there would be no x whose square
equals 2. That is, there would be no number x for which x2 = 2. To remedy this, we
introduced numbers such as 12 and 1
3 5, the irrational numbers. The real numbers,
you will recall, consist of the rational numbers and the irrational numbers. Now, if
our universe were to consist only of real numbers, then there would be no number
x whose square is -1. To remedy this, we introduce a number i, whose square is -1.
*This section may be omitted without any loss of continuity.

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SECTION 1.3 Complex Numbers; Quadratic Equations in the Complex Number System

105

In the progression outlined, each time we encountered a situation that was

unsuitable, we introduced a new number system to remedy this situation. The
number system that results from introducing the number i is called the complex
number system.

DEFINITION

Complex numbers are numbers of the form a bi, where a and b are real
numbers. The real number a is called the real part of the number a + bi; the
real number b is called the imaginary part of a + bi; and i is the imaginary
unit, so i2 = - 1.
For example, the complex number -5 + 6i has the real part -5 and the
imaginary part 6.
When a complex number is written in the form a + bi, where a and b are real
numbers, we say it is in standard form. However, if the imaginary part of a complex
number is negative, such as in the complex number 3 + 1-22i, we agree to write it
instead in the form 3 - 2i.
Also, the complex number a + 0i is usually written merely as a. This serves to
remind us that the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers. The complex
number 0 + bi is usually written as bi. Sometimes the complex number bi is called
a pure imaginary number.

1 Add, Subtract, Multiply, and Divide Complex Numbers

Equality, addition, subtraction, and multiplication of complex numbers are defined
so as to preserve the familiar rules of algebra for real numbers. Two complex
numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts
are equal. That is,
Equality of Complex Numbers
a + bi = c + di

if and only if a = c and b = d

(1)

Two complex numbers are added by forming the complex number whose real
part is the sum of the real parts and whose imaginary part is the sum of the
imaginary parts. That is,
Sum of Complex Numbers
1a + bi2 + 1c + di2 = 1a + c2 + 1b + d2i

(2)

To subtract two complex numbers, use this rule:

Difference of Complex Numbers
1a + bi2 - 1c + di2 = 1a - c2 + 1b - d2i

EXAMPLE 1

(3)

Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers

(a) 13 + 5i2 + 1-2 + 3i2 = 33 + 1-224 + 15 + 32i = 1 + 8i

(b) 16 + 4i2 - 13 + 6i2 = 16 - 32 + 14 - 62i = 3 + 1- 22i = 3 - 2i

Now Work

PROBLEM

13

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Products of complex numbers are calculated as illustrated in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 2

Multiplying Complex Numbers

15 + 3i2 # 12 + 7i2 = 5 # 12 + 7i2 + 3i12 + 7i2 = 10 + 35i + 6i + 21i2
c
Distributive Property

c
Distributive Property

= 10 + 41i + 211 -12

c
i2 = - 1

= - 11 + 41i

Based on the procedure of Example 2, the product of two complex numbers is

defined as follows:
Product of Complex Numbers
1a + bi2 # 1c + di2 = 1ac - bd2 + 1ad + bc2i

(4)

Do not bother to memorize formula (4). Instead, whenever it is necessary to

multiply two complex numbers, follow the usual rules for multiplying two binomials,
as in Example 2, remembering that i2 = - 1. For example,
12i212i2 = 4i2 = - 4

12 + i211 - i2 = 2 - 2i + i - i2 = 3 - i

Now Work

PROBLEM

19

Algebraic properties for addition and multiplication, such as the commutative,

associative, and distributive properties, hold for complex numbers. The property
that every nonzero complex number has a multiplicative inverse, or reciprocal,
requires a closer look.

DEFINITION

If z = a + bi is a complex number, then its conjugate, denoted by z, is defined as

z = a + bi = a - bi

For example, 2 + 3i = 2 - 3i and - 6 - 2i = - 6 + 2i.

EXAMPLE 3

Multiplying a Complex Number by Its Conjugate

Find the product of the complex number z = 3 + 4i and its conjugate z.

Solution

Since z = 3 - 4i, we have

zz = 13 + 4i213 - 4i2 = 9 - 12i + 12i - 16i2 = 9 + 16 = 25

The result obtained in Example 3 has an important generalization.

THEOREM

The product of a complex number and its conjugate is a nonnegative real

number. That is, if z = a + bi, then
zz = a2 + b2

(5)

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107

Proof If z = a + bi, then

zz = 1a + bi21a - bi2 = a2 - 1bi22 = a2 - b2 i2 = a2 + b2

To express the reciprocal of a nonzero complex number z in standard form,

1
multiply the numerator and denominator of
by z. That is, if z = a + bi is a
z
nonzero complex number, then
1
1
z
a - bi
1 z
= = # =
= 2
z
z z
a + bi
zz
a + b2
c
Use (5).

EXAMPLE 4

Writing the Reciprocal of a Complex Number in Standard Form

Write

Solution

a
b
- 2
i
2
a + b
a + b2
2

1
in standard form a + bi; that is, find the reciprocal of 3 + 4i.
3 + 4i

The idea is to multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of 3 + 4i,
that is, by the complex number 3 - 4i. The result is
1 # 3 - 4i
3 - 4i
3
4
1
=
=
=
i
3 + 4i
3 + 4i 3 - 4i
9 + 16
25
25

To express the quotient of two complex numbers in standard form, multiply the
numerator and denominator of the quotient by the conjugate of the denominator.

EXAMPLE 5

Writing the Quotient of Two Complex Numbers in Standard Form

Write each of the following in standard form.
1 + 4i
2 - 3i
(a)
(b)
5 - 12i
4 - 3i

Solution

(a)

(b)

1 + 4i # 5 + 12i
5 + 12i + 20i + 48i2
1 + 4i
=
=
5 - 12i
5 - 12i 5 + 12i
25 + 144
-43 + 32i
43
32
=
= +
i
169
169
169
2 - 3i
2 - 3i # 4 + 3i
8 + 6i - 12i - 9i2
=
=
4 - 3i
4 - 3i 4 + 3i
16 + 9
17 - 6i
17
6
=
=
i
25
25
25

Now Work

EXAMPLE 6

PROBLEM

27

Writing Other Expressions in Standard Form

If z = 2 - 3i and w = 5 + 2i, write each of the following expressions in standard
form.
z
(a)
(b) z + w
(c) z + z
w

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Solution

12 - 3i215 - 2i2
z
z#w
10 - 4i - 15i + 6i2
= # =
=
w
w w
15 + 2i215 - 2i2
25 + 4
4
19
4 - 19i
=
i
=
29
29
29
(b) z + w = 12 - 3i2 + 15 + 2i2 = 7 - i = 7 + i
(a)

(c) z + z = 12 - 3i2 + 12 + 3i2 = 4

The conjugate of a complex number has certain general properties that we shall
find useful later.
For a real number a = a + 0i, the conjugate is a = a + 0i = a - 0i = a.
That is,

THEOREM

The conjugate of a real number is the real number itself.

Other properties of the conjugate that are direct consequences of the definition
are given next. In each statement, z and w represent complex numbers.

THEOREM

The conjugate of the conjugate of a complex number is the complex number

itself.
1z2 = z

(6)

The conjugate of the sum of two complex numbers equals the sum of their
conjugates.
z + w = z + w

(7)

The conjugate of the product of two complex numbers equals the product of
their conjugates.
z#w = z#w

(8)

We leave the proofs of equations (6), (7), and (8) as exercises.

Powers of i
The powers of i follow a pattern that is useful to know.
i1
i2
i3
i4

=
=
=
=

i
-1
i2 # i = - 1 # i = - i
i2 # i2 = 1- 121 - 12 = 1

i5
i6
i7
i8

=
=
=
=

i4 # i = 1 # i = i
i4 # i2 = - 1
i4 # i3 = - i
i4 # i4 = 1

And so on. The powers of i repeat with every fourth power.

EXAMPLE 7

Evaluating Powers of i
(a) i27 = i24 # i3 = 1i42

(b) i101 = i100 # i1 =

# i3 = 16 # i3 = - i
25
1i42 # i = 125 # i = i

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SECTION 1.3 Complex Numbers; Quadratic Equations in the Complex Number System

EXAMPLE 8

109

Writing the Power of a Complex Number in Standard Form

Write 12 + i23 in standard form.

Solution

Use the special product formula for 1x + a23.

1x + a23 = x3 + 3ax2 + 3a2 x + a3

NOTE Another way to find (2 + i )3 is

to multiply out (2 + i)2 (2 + i ).

Using this special product formula,

12 + i23 = 23 + 3 # i # 22 + 3 # i2 # 2 + i3
= 8 + 12i + 61- 12 + 1-i2
= 2 + 11i.

Now Work

PROBLEM

41

2 Solve Quadratic Equations in the Complex Number System

Quadratic equations with a negative discriminant have no real number solution.
However, if we extend our number system to allow complex numbers, quadratic
equations will always have a solution. Since the solution to a quadratic equation
involves the square root of the discriminant, we begin with a discussion of square
roots of negative numbers.

DEFINITION
WARNING In writing 1 - N = 1N i
be sure to place i outside the 1
symbol.

EXAMPLE 9

If N is a positive real number, we define the principal square root of N,

denoted by 1-N , as
2 -N = 2N i
where i is the imaginary unit and i2 = - 1.

Evaluating the Square Root of a Negative Number

(a) 1-1 = 11 i = i
(b) 1-4 = 14 i = 2i
(c) 1- 8 = 18 i = 212 i

EXAMPLE 10

Solving Equations
Solve each equation in the complex number system.
(a) x2 = 4

Solution

(b) x2 = - 9

(a) x2 = 4
x = ; 14 = ; 2
The equation has two solutions, -2 and 2. The solution set is { -2, 2}.
(b) x2 = - 9
x = ; 1-9 = ; 19 i = ; 3i
The equation has two solutions, - 3i and 3i. The solution set is {-3i, 3i}.

Now Work

PROBLEMS

49

AND

53

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WARNING When working with square roots of negative numbers, do not set the square root of
a product equal to the product of the square roots (which can be done with positive numbers). To
see why, look at this calculation: We know that 1100 = 10. However, it is also true that
100 = 1-2521 - 42, so
10 = 2100 = 41- 2521 - 42 Z 2 -25 2 - 4 =
c
Here is the error.

A 225 i B A 24 i B = 15i212i2 = 10i 2 = - 10

Because we have defined the square root of a negative number, we can now
restate the quadratic formula without restriction.

THEOREM

Quadratic Formula
In the complex number system, the solutions of the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are real numbers and a Z 0, are given by
the formula

x =

EXAMPLE 11

-b ; 4b2 - 4ac
2a

(9)

Solving a Quadratic Equation in the Complex Number System

Solve the equation x2 - 4x + 8 = 0 in the complex number system.

Solution

Here a = 1, b = - 4, c = 8, and b2 - 4ac = 16 - 4112182 = - 16. Using equation (9),

we find that
x =

- 1- 42 ; 2- 16
2112

4 ; 216 i
4 ; 4i
=
= 2 ; 2i
2
2

The equation has two solutions 2 - 2i and 2 + 2i. The solution set is 52 - 2i, 2 + 2i6.
Check: 2 + 2i: 12 + 2i22 - 412 + 2i2 + 8 =
=
2
2 - 2i: 12 - 2i2 - 412 - 2i2 + 8 =
=

Now Work

PROBLEM

4
4
4
4

+
-

8i + 4i2 - 8 - 8i + 8
4 = 0
8i + 4i2 - 8 + 8i + 8
4 = 0

59

The discriminant b2 - 4ac of a quadratic equation still serves as a way to determine the character of the solutions.

Character of the Solutions of a Quadratic Equation

In the complex number system, consider a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
with real coefficients.
1. If b2 - 4ac 7 0, the equation has two unequal real solutions.
2. If b2 - 4ac = 0, the equation has a repeated real solution, a double root.
3. If b2 - 4ac 6 0, the equation has two complex solutions that are not real.
The solutions are conjugates of each other.

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111

The third conclusion in the display is a consequence of the fact that if

b2 - 4ac = - N 6 0 then, by the quadratic formula, the solutions are
x =

- b + 4b2 - 4ac
-b + 2- N
- b + 2N i
-b
2N
i
=
=
=
+
2a
2a
2a
2a
2a

and
-b - 4b2 - 4ac
-b - 2- N
- b - 2N i
-b
2N
=
=
=
i
x =
2a
2a
2a
2a
2a
which are conjugates of each other.

Determining the Character of the Solutions of a Quadratic Equation

EXAMPLE 12

Without solving, determine the character of the solutions of each equation.

(a) 3x2 + 4x + 5 = 0

(b) 2x2 + 4x + 1 = 0

(c) 9x2 - 6x + 1 = 0

(a) Here a = 3, b = 4, and c = 5, so b2 - 4ac = 16 - 4132152 = - 44. The

solutions are two complex numbers that are not real and are conjugates of each
other.
(b) Here a = 2, b = 4, and c = 1, so b2 - 4ac = 16 - 8 = 8. The solutions are
two unequal real numbers.
(c) Here a = 9, b = - 6, and c = 1, so b2 - 4ac = 36 - 4192112 = 0. The solution
is a repeated real number, that is, a double root.

Solution

Now Work

PROBLEM

73

1.3 Assess Your Understanding

Are You Prepared?

Answers are given at the end of these exercises. If you get a wrong answer, read the pages listed in red.

1. Name the integers and the rational numbers in the set

6
b - 3, 0, 12, , p r . (pp. 45)
5

2. True or False Rational numbers and irrational numbers are

in the set of real numbers. (pp. 45)
3
. (p. 45)
3. Rationalize the denominator of
2 + 13

Concepts and Vocabulary

4. In the complex number 5 + 2i, the number 5 is called the
part; the number 2 is called the
part; the number i is called the
.
5. The equation x2 = - 4 has the solution set

6. True or False The conjugate of 2 + 5i is - 2 - 5i.

7. True or False All real numbers are complex numbers.
8. True or False If 2 - 3i is a solution of a quadratic equation
with real coefficients, then - 2 + 3i is also a solution.

Skill Building
In Problems 946, write each expression in the standard form a + bi.
9. 12 - 3i2 + 16 + 8i2

13. 12 - 5i2 - 18 + 6i2

10. 14 + 5i2 + 1 - 8 + 2i2

14. 1 -8 + 4i2 - 12 - 2i2

17. 2i12 - 3i2

18. 3i1 -3 + 4i2

21. 1 -6 + i21 - 6 - i2

22. 1 -3 + i213 + i2

25.

2 + i
i

29. a

23 2
1
+
ib
2
2

26.

2 - i
- 2i

30. a

23
1 2
- ib
2
2

11. 1 -3 + 2i2 - 14 - 4i2

12. 13 - 4i2 - 1 -3 - 4i2

15. 312 - 6i2

16. -412 + 8i2

19. 13 - 4i212 + i2

20. 15 + 3i212 - i2

10
3 - 4i
6 - i
27.
1 + i

13
5 - 12i
2 + 3i
28.
1 - i

23.

24.

31. 11 + i22

32. 11 - i22

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33. i23

34. i14

35. i-15

36. i-23

37. i6 - 5

38. 4 + i3

39. 6i3 - 4i5

40. 4i3 - 2i2 + 1

43. i711 + i22

44. 2i411 + i22

41. 11 + i23

42. 13i24 + 1

45. i6 + i4 + i2 + 1

46. i7 + i5 + i3 + i

In Problems 4752, perform the indicated operations and express your answer in the form a + bi.
47. 2- 4

48. 2 -9

49. 2 -25

50. 2- 64

51. 413 + 4i214i - 32

52. 414 + 3i213i - 42

In Problems 5372, solve each equation in the complex number system.

53. x2 + 4 = 0

54. x2 - 4 = 0

55. x2 - 16 = 0

56. x2 + 25 = 0

57. x2 - 6x + 13 = 0

58. x2 + 4x + 8 = 0

59. x2 - 6x + 10 = 0

60. x2 - 2x + 5 = 0

61. 8x2 - 4x + 1 = 0

62. 10x2 + 6x + 1 = 0

63. 5x2 + 1 = 2x

64. 13x2 + 1 = 6x

65. x2 + x + 1 = 0

66. x2 - x + 1 = 0

67. x3 - 8 = 0

68. x3 + 27 = 0

69. x4 = 16

70. x4 = 1

71. x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0

72. x4 + 3x2 - 4 = 0

In Problems 7378, without solving, determine the character of the solutions of each equation in the complex number system.
73. 3x2 - 3x + 4 = 0

74. 2x2 - 4x + 1 = 0

75. 2x2 + 3x = 4

76. x2 + 6 = 2x

77. 9x2 - 12x + 4 = 0

78. 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0

79. 2 + 3i is a solution of a quadratic equation with real

coefficients. Find the other solution.

80. 4 - i is a solution of a quadratic equation with real

coefficients. Find the other solution.

In Problems 8184, z = 3 - 4i and w = 8 + 3i. Write each expression in the standard form a + bi.
81. z + z
82. w - w
83. zz

84. z - w

Applications and Extensions

85. Electrical Circuits The impedance Z, in ohms, of a circuit
element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage V, in
volts, across the element to the phasor current I, in amperes,
V
through the elements. That is, Z = . If the voltage across a
I
circuit element is 18 + i volts and the current through the element is 3 - 4i amperes, determine the impedance.
86. Parallel Circuits In an ac circuit with two parallel pathways, the total impedance Z, in ohms, satisfies the formula
1
1
1
=
+
, where Z1 is the impedance of the first pathway
Z Z1 Z2

and Z2 is the impedance of the second pathway. Determine

the total impedance if the impedances of the two pathways
are Z1 = 2 + i ohms and Z2 = 4 - 3i ohms.
87. Use z = a + bi to show that z + z = 2a and z - z = 2bi.
88. Use z = a + bi to show that z = z.
89. Use z = a + bi
z + w = z + w.

and

w = c + di

to

show

that

90. Use z = a + bi and w = c + di to show that z # w = z # w.

Explaining Concepts: Discussion and Writing

91. Explain to a friend how you would add two complex
numbers and how you would multiply two complex numbers.
Explain any differences in the two explanations.
92. Write a brief paragraph that compares the method used to
rationalize the denominator of a radical expression and the
method used to write the quotient of two complex numbers
in standard form.
93. Use an Internet search engine to investigate the origins of
complex numbers. Write a paragraph describing what you
find and present it to the class.

94. Explain how the method of multiplying two complex

numbers is related to multiplying two binomials.
95. What Went Wrong?
as follows:

2 - 9 # 2 -9 = 2( - 9)( -9)
= 281
= 9
The instructor marked the problem incorrect. Why?

Are You Prepared? Answers

6
1. Integers: 5 -3, 06; rational numbers: b - 3, 0, r
5

2. True

A student multiplied 2- 9 and 2- 9

3. 3 A 2 - 23 B