Sr.

No

Topic

Introduction

Pa
ge
No
1

Defining Hybrid

Hybrid Potential

Hybrid
Realizing the
Promise
Hybrid
Components

How Hybrids Work

38

47

Degrees
of
Hybridiza
Tomorrows Hybrid

Conclusion

63

20

60

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is indeed a matter of great pleasure and privilege to be able to present this project on the
HYBRID VEHICLES the latest technological advancement in automobile sector

The completion of seminar work is a milestone in a student s life and its execution is
inevitable in the hands of my guides. I am highly indebted for our FACULTY. From our
college

for their invaluable guidance and appreciate them for being an inspiration for us

to carry out the successful completion of submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
of the degree

of bachelor of engineering in mechanical engineering in the privileged college

of Marwar Engineering College & Research center.

I am immensely indebted to Er Ankur Sankhla

for his continous guidance and help. I am also

thankful to Mr Madan Singhji for giving me this valuable guidance for preparing the seminar
I also express our profound thanks to H.O.D Er K.N. Bhandari of Mechanical Engineering
Department . It is due to their enduring efforts, patience and enthusiasm, which has given a
sense of direction and purposefulness to seminar and ultimately made it a success.

Finally I sincerely thank to all those who have rendered their valuable service either directly or indirectly and
helped me for making the seminar successful.

INTRODUCTION
The world started down a new road in 1997 when the first modern hybrid
electric car, the Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. Two years later, the United
States saw its first sale of a hybrid, the Honda Insight. These two vehicles,
followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, marked a radical change in the type of
car being offered to the public: vehicles that bring some of the benefits of
battery electric vehicles into the conventional gasoline powered cars and
trucks we have been using for more than 100 years. In the coming years,
hybrids can play a significant role in addressing several of the major problems
faced by the United States and the world today: climate change, air pollution,
and oil dependence. Whether this new technology delivers on its promise
hinges on the choices automakers, consumers, and policymakers make over
the coming years. Poor choices could result in hybrids that fall short even of
what conventional technology could deliver on fuel economy, emissions, or
both.
If they are designed well, these hybrids can equal or better the utility,
comfort, performance, and safety weve come to expect, while saving us
thousands of dollars at the gas pump.

DEFINING HYBRIDS
Hybrids have been defined in a variety of ways, few of which help in
determining whether a particular model realizes the technologys potential.
The checklist in Table ES-1 (see page 2) provides a reasonable method for
evaluating which cars and trucks are hybrids and for differentiating among
them based on their technologies. In general, hybrids with more checkmarks
do more to provide energy security and less to harm the environment than
those with fewer checkmarks. However, the most effective way to gauge a
hybrids energy security and environmental performance will be to evaluate
their fuel economy and emissions performance directly on the road.1 On this
checklist, the Insight and the Civic Hybrid each receives three checkmarks
and are thus considered mild hybrids. With four checkmarks, the Prius is a
full hybrid. A vehicle that receives five checkmarks is a plug-in hybrid,
none of which are yet available in the United States. If a vehicle has only one
checkmark it is actually just a conventional vehicle. Two checkmarks qualifies
a vehicle as a muscle-hybrid, a vehicle that uses hybrid technology to increase
power and performance instead of significantly increasing fuel. economy
leading to an expensive vehicle with very low cost-effectiveness. As more
vehicles enter the market, this checklist can be used to evaluate
the hybrids automakers offer.

The Technologys Potential

The Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Prius are good examples of the current
potential of hybrids but theyre just start. More technology is ready to be put
to work and not only for compact
cars. This study provides a broader picture of how hybrid technology could
transform the whole passenger fleet both within this decade and into the
next. A fleet of cars and trucks that takes full advantage of hybrid and other
advanced technologies could reach an average fuel economy of 60 mpg, as
Figure ES-1 shows. Even conventional technologies could boost the passenger
vehicle fleet average up to 40 mpg. And all the hybrids examined
in this study can meet todays most stringent standards for tailpipe
emissions2 (excluding the zero-emissions standard). The studys key findings
are outlined below.
A fleet of passenger cars and trucks using conventional technology has the
potential to reach a fleet average of 40 mpg. The average vehicle in this fleet
will cost about $1,700 more in the showroom, but will save consumers $3,800
at the gas pump over the vehicles 15-year life for a net savings of $2,100.

A fleet of mild hybrids can reach nearly 50 mpg, with a retail price increase
of about $2,900 by using advanced technologies available to automakers
within this decade.3 Lifetime gasoline savings will amount to $4,700,
producing a net savings of $1,500 for the average driver when the cost of
battery replacement mis included.4 Mild hybrids that use more moderate

technology or smaller motor/battery systems will achieve lower fuel economy

and will be less cost effective.

Does this vehicle...

Conventiona
l Vehicle

Shut off the engine at stop-

Muscl

Mild

Full

Plug-

Hybrid

Hybrid

in

Hybrid

Hybri
d

lights
and in stop-and-go traffic

Use regenerative braking

and operate above 60 volts

Use a smaller engine than a

conventional version with the
same performance

Drive using only electric power

Recharge batteries from the

wall
plug and have a range of at
least
20 miles on electricity alone

Full Hybrid
Today's Average

Mild Hybrid

Conventional Gasoline

30

40

50

Passenger Vehicle Fleet

Average Fuel Economy

Full hybrids using advanced technology are the key to a passenger car and
truck fleet that approaches an average of 60 mpg. The average price increase
for such vehicles is about $4,000 and the owners will save nearly $5,500 on
gasoline over the life of the vehicle. Including battery replacement,
consumers would see an average net savings of $900. Plug-in hybrids would
realize even greater energy security and environmental gains, but with higher
costs and lower net consumer savings.

60

 Using the advanced technologies available today is a key step to ensuring

cost-effective hybrid options with good performance. If an automaker simply
adds an electric motor and battery to the typical car or truck on the road
today, the resulting vehicle will be more expensive and will not perform as well
as the hybrids evaluated in this report. In achieving higher fuel economy,
future hybrids will not sacrifice safety. In fact, drivers of SUVs and pickups
will be safer: battery placement in practical hybrid designs create a lower
center of gravity, making SUVs and other tall vehicles less likely to tip over.
And since they will be lighter, but just as strong as today, they will pose less
danger to others during collisions, while keeping the SUV driver and
passengers safe.

Hybrid Vehicles: Filling the Gap

This study emphasizes the role hybrids must play in our efforts to limit the
contribution our cars and trucks make to US oil dependence, global
warming, and local air pollution. In the short term, conventional
technologies could quickly raise the average fuel economy of the passenger
fleet to 40 mpg. Over the long term, we will have no choice but to adopt
hydrogen fuel cells and other alternative
fuel approaches. But these technologies will not be ready to replace the
internal combustion
engine in most new cars and trucks for over a decade. Considering the slow
turnover of the passenger vehicle fleet, this leaves a significant gap of ten to
twenty years after the gains from conventional

technology peak and before the promise of fuel cells will be fully realized.
During that period, rising travel and increased car ownership will continue to
drive us to import more and more oil from politically unstable countries and
to

add to global average temperature increases of 2.5 to 10.4oF by the end of the
century. And the gains we will have made in air quality will begin to turn
around due to rising travel and car ownership. By filling this technological gap
with well designed hybrid vehicles, passenger vehicle oil consumption and
global warming emissions from cars and trucks can be reduced to below 1990
levels even before fuel cell technology makes its full impact. As hybrids move
into the marketplace, offering consumers additional choices, they also assure
us that fleet average fuel economies of 50 to 60 mpg can be achieved by the
end of the next decade. At the same time, growing hybrid sales will bring
down the cost of future hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, since they share many
technologies, such as electric motors, power electronics, and energy storage.

Realizing the Promise

The role that hybrid vehicles can play is clear, but their success at filling
this role is not guaranteed.
Two key things are necessary to ensure that that they live up to their promise:
1. Hybrids with the best possible conventional and electric technology need to
be made available to the

public.

2. Production and sales of these hybrids need to reach mass-market levels in

the hundreds of thousands per year. These keys are in the hands of
automakers, governments, and consumers.

GOVERNMENT

A,B
AUTOMAKERS
CHOICE

CONSUMERS
CHOICE

Automakers hold the first key. With most of the necessary hybrid and
conventional technology in
their hands, they will be responsible for building the best possible hybrid
vehicles and sending them to the showrooms. Automakers that try to graft
hybrid technology onto todays conventional vehicles will end up producing
expensive, lowperformance vehicles better left in the research lab. The
resulting lemons could tarnish the image of hybrid technology and discourage
consumers. Automakers that take the practical approach of putting the best
available technology to work will provide consumers with no compromise
vehicles. And theyll garner a profit as the vehicles reach massmarket
production levels. By leading the industry, these automakers will create a
sound footing for future profitability and a solid image of environmental and
corporate responsibility. Automakers also hold some responsibility for helping
hybrids to reach mass-market levels. They will need to support hybrid sales
by aggressively educating dealers, service personnel, and consumers about
their products. But unless education and advertising campaigns are backed
up with the good products, they will simply be false attempts at capturing a
green image. But automakers cant do it alone.

Government at all levels must act to help hybrids sell well during this
decade if automakers are to reach the economies of scale necessary for

hybrids to become profitable. A variety of tools can provide this support, such
as regulations, including fleet purchase requirements, tax credits and other

financial or nonfinancial incentives, and education programs. All these

measures must be carefully crafted to assure that they provide support to
hybrids in proportion to the energy security and environmental gains they
offer. And they must acknowledge the extent to which hybrids help pave the
way for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

Consumers also have a part to play in ensuring that hybrid sales reach massmarket levels. Assuming government and industry do their parts, this should
not be a challenging task. Recent market studies indicate that at least 25% to
30% of con-sumers are already interested in purchasing a hybrid instead of a
conventional vehicle. When they do, they will find themselves saving money
over the life of their hybrid even as they do their part to reduce oil dependence
and their impact on the environment.

THE ROLE OF HYBRID VEHICLES

The world started down a new road in 1997 when the first modern hybrid
electric car, the Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. Two years later, the United
States saw its first sale of a hybrid, the Honda Insight. These two vehicles,
followed by the Honda Civic Hybrid, marked a radical change in the type of
car being offered to the public: vehicles that bring some of the benefits of
battery electric vehicles into the conventional gasoline-powered cars and
trucks we have been using for more than 100 years. While hybrids are not as
clean and efficient as vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells or solely by
batteries, they offer both lower emissions than todays conventional vehicles
and dramatically higher fuel economy. And they provide a steppingstone to

zero emission vehicles. Today, four years after their introduction, many of us
know something about hybrids, but many of our questions remain
unanswered:

What exactly is a hybrid vehicle? How good will hybrids fuel economy and
environmental performance be? How fast will they go? What will they cost?
Will people buy them? And where do you plug them in? The answer to the last
question is simple: you dont have to! (For some this will be a disappointment,
for others, a relief.)1 The answers to the other questions are more complicated.
This report provides some of those answers.

Why Hybrids?
The primary importance of hybrid technology for cars and trucks is its
potential to increase fuel economy dramatically while meeting todays most
stringent tailpipe emission standards (excluding the zero emission vehicle
standard). At the same time, the performance of hybrid vehicles can equal or
even surpass that of most conventional vehicles. Moreover, hybrids can play a
critical role in helping bring the technology of motors, power electronics, and
batteries to maturity and in reducing their cost. Such changes are vital to the
success of future hydrogen fuel cell and other zero emission vehicles. Thus
hybrids could be a key element in US strategies to address our growing energy
insecurity and environmental problems. Whether hybrids live up to their
potential hinges on automakers and governments embracing them as one
means of moving toward a secure energy future and a healthier environment.

Oil Dependence and the Environment. The size of our oil dependence
and its rate of growth, as well as the environmental problems that are its
consequence, require an immediate response. This calls for both changes in
conventional technology and a longer-term investment in hybrid vehicles,
hydrogen fuel cells, and alternative fuels. As the earth continues to warm, we

face a great risk that the climate will change in ways that threaten our health,
our economy, our farms and forests, beaches and wetlands, and other natural

habitats. Cars and trucks are also major contributors to air pollution.
Regulations have helped clean up passenger vehicles over the past three
decades. However, rising demand for travel and increased vehicle ownership
will outpace even the standards on the books through this decade. Cars and
trucks will need to clean up their act even more if we are to eliminate the
threat air pollution poses to public healthespecially to our children and the
elderly. Finally, producing and distributing the gasoline that went to fuel our
cars and trucks in the year 2000 resulted in the emission of 848,000 tons of
smog-forming pollutants and 392,000 tons of benzene-equivalent toxic
chemicals, in addition to the pollutants emitted from the tailpipes of vehicles.4
Altogether, cars and trucks are the largest single source of air pollution in
most urban areas.

As with US oil use and global warming emissions, upstream air pollution is
expected to continue to rise significantly over the next two decades, posing
the greatest health threat to children, the elderly, and other vulnerable
members of our population (Table ). The situation is urgent, but not hopeless.
A range of technological approaches can help us break free of our oil habit
and protect our health and livelihood against the environmental problems
associated with vehicle use. Hybrid technology is one of the most promising.

Investing in Our Future. No single silver bullet can solve the problems
posed by our use of cars and trucks. But if we choose now to invest in a
variety of solutions, ranging from near to long term, together they could
eliminate the use of oil for transportation. Hybrid technology can fill the
midterm gap between immediate improvements to conventional vehicle fuel
economy and the long-term hope offered by hydrogen fuel cells and
alternative fuels.

Conventional Fuel Economy Technology.

The quickest and most effective way to limit oil dependence during the next
10 to 15 years is to improve the fuel economy of gasoline-fueled cars and
trucks. Analysis of existing and emerging technologies based on reports by
the National Academy of Sciences, researchers at MIT, and others indicates
that conventional fuel economy technology can enable conventional cars and

trucks to reach an average of 40 miles per gallon before the middle of the
next decade (DeCicco, An, and Ross 2001, Friedman et al. 2001, NRC 2002,
Weiss

et al. 2000). Moreover, this can be done cost effectively. With more efficient
engines, improved transmissions, and better aerodynamics and tires,
automakers could reach a fleet

average of 40 mpg over the next ten years. At that rate of implementation,
passenger vehicle oil use would stop growing by 2007, stabilizing at todays
level through 2020 (Figure 1). This would save consumers billions of dollars
every year, effectively paying us to reduce our oil habit and our impact on the
environment (Friedman et al. 2001). Conventional fuel economy technologies
are thus a good short-term investment in energy security and the
environment. But if we stopped there, after 2020 increases in the number of
miles traveled and the number of vehicles on the road would begin to

overwhelm the fuel economy improvements and oil use would again rise.
Thus a long-term investment strategy is necessary.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells.

Hydrogen fuel cells and alternative fuels are the most promising technologies
in the long run, since they could virtually eliminate oil use in cars and trucks.
But they are not yet available and are unlikely to reach significant market
penetration for 10 to 15 years. Moreover, while these technologies will shift us
off oil, they will not make as rapid progress toward eliminating cars and
trucks global warming emissions. For example, during the first decades after
fuel cells are introduced, the hydrogen they use is likely to be produced from
natural gas. This will result in lower, but still substantial emissions of global
warming gases. Todays vehicles stay on the roads an average of 15 years, so
waiting 10 to 15 years for hydrogen fuel cell or other alternative fuel
technologies would mean locking ourselves into a path of increased oil
dependence and environmental problems for the next 20 to 30 years, as
Figure 2 shows. Since hydrogen fuel cells are not yet right around the corner,
the best solution in the very near term is to bring more advanced
conventional technologies to the marketplace. At the same time, we will need
to prepare for the long term by investing in developing and demonstrating
hydrogen fuel cells and alternative fuels. But thats not enough. This scenario
leaves a
gap of ten or more years without significant progress in reducing our oil
dependence. While thats not a good prospect, the consequence for climate
change. is worse, since the severity of global warming is a function of

cumulative global warming gases. Every ton of global warming gas that could
have been avoided is another ton that will remain in the atmosphere for the
next 100 years.

Since hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are likely to deliver only modest global
warming emission savings by 2030, another technology is needed as the
gains from conventional technology level off in the next decade.

Hybrid Vehicles.
With their recent entrance into the market, hybrids are poised to serve a key
role in pushing down oil demand and global warming emissions from cars
and trucks through the next two decades. They offer a solid midterm strategy
of investment in energy security and the environment, filling the temporal gap
between conventional technology and hydrogen fuel cells (Figure 3). Hybrids
can also serve as an insurance policy for regulators contemplating significant
increases to fuel economy standards over the next decade. While a 40-mpg
fleet could be reached with existing conventional technology, hybrid vehicles

provide additional assurance of reaching that goal, since they promise fuel
economy levels as high as 50 to 60 mpg. Further, they open the door to fuel
economy standards of 50 mpg or higher by the end of the next decade. In
addition, hybrid vehicles can mitigate the risk of delays in hydrogen fuel cell
development and market success. Theyll also help ensure the success of fuel
cell vehicles by bringing down the costs of the technologiesmotors,
batteries, and power electronicsthat the two share. And theyll help pave
the way by acquainting consumers with electric drive technology. Given the
necessity of continuing to reduce oil use and global warming emissions over
the coming decades, hybrids are a key interim step, taking over where
improved conventional technologies leave off

and before fuel cells can fulfill their promise. The Gee-Whiz Factor. In
addition to the logic of hybrids as a key part of investing in energy security

and the environment, other factors, such as consumer and automaker

choice, could prove crucial to their success.

Consumer Choice. Despite automakers claims to the contrary, consumers

are showing interest in having an option to buy cars and trucks with better
fuel economy. A consumer preference study

found that 30% of the more

than 5,000 recent new-vehicle buyers they surveyed would definitely consider
a hybrid for their next purchase. An additional 30% showed strong
consideration. The primary reason people noted for considering a hybrid was
their concern about high fuel prices .A second study,

performed as part of

larger study on hybrids by the Electric Power Research Institute, found that
25% of the 400 potential car and truck buyers surveyed would purchase a
hybrid vehicle instead of a conventional vehicle when given information on the
potential costs, savings, and performance of the hybrid . Clearly, consumers
want automakers to provide them with hybrid vehicles as additional. choices
when they step into the showroom.

Automaker Choice. Only Toyota and Honda have so far offered hybrids for
sale in the US market. Both are likely to offer more models very soon, as are
most other automakers. Ford intends to enter the market with a hybrid SUV
using a design similar to the Prius. GM and Daimler- Chrysler are expected to
offer hybrids in 2004 or 2005. These new vehicles will help build the hybrid
market, bringing in consumers interested in pickups or SUVs as well as those
who want compact and family cars. But if some of the automakers choose to
offer vehicles with hybrid nameplates just to capitalize on the gee whiz

factor or the green image of hybrids, much of the potential benefits from
hybrid technology will be lost. Automakers have a responsibility to society and

consumers to market hybrids that provide the dramatic improvements in

fuel economy the technology promises, along with substantially cleaner
tailpipe emissions. And consumers must hold them to it, by putting their
dollars where they will do the most good. Chapter 2 provides a checklist for
determining whether a vehicle is a hybrid and what kind of hybrid it is.
Chapter 3 evaluates how much environmental benefit is provided by a variety
of hybrid designs.

A New Road
The next decade may see a revolution in which the automobile industry offers
consumers more choices than ever before. But predicting the exact role hybrid
vehicles will play in transportations future is beyond the scope of this report.
Instead, the following chapters explore the questions outlined above: What
exactly is a hybrid vehicle? What kind of fuel economy, cost, and vehicle
performance can we expect from hybrids? And what will it take to help ensure
that hybrids live up to their promise?

HEV Components
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is an optimized mix of various components.
View a typical hybrid configuration in the diagram below and learn more
about the various HEV components by following the links below.

HEV Drivetrain Components:

Electric traction motors/controllers

Electric energy storage systems, such as batteries and ultracapacitors

Hybrid power units such as spark ignition engines, compression

ignition direct injection (diesel) engines, gas turbines, and fuel cells

Fuel systems for hybrid power units

Transmissions

To help reduce emissions and improve vehicle efficiencies, these systems and
components are being improved through research and development.

Emission control systems

Energy management and systems control

Thermal management of components

Lightweight and aerodynamic body/chassis

Low rolling resistance (including body design and tires)

Reduction of accessory loads

HEV Motors/Controllers
Motors are the "work horses" of Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) drive systems.
In an HEV, an electric traction motor converts electrical energy from the
energy storage unit to mechanical energy that drives the wheels of the
vehicle. Unlike a traditional vehicle, where the engine must "ramp up" before
full torque can be provided, an electric motor provides full torque at low
speeds.
This characteristic gives the vehicle excellent "off the line" acceleration.
Important characteristics of an HEV motor include good drive control and
fault tolerance, as well as low noise and high efficiency. Other characteristics
include flexibility in relation to voltage fluctuations and, of course,
acceptable mass production costs. Front-running motor technologies for HEV
applications include permanent magnet, AC induction, and switched
reluctance motors.

HEV Batteries
Batteries are an essential component of HEVs. Although a few production
HEVs with advanced batteries have been introduced in the market, no
current

battery technology has demonstrated an economically acceptable

combination of power, energy efficiency, and life cycle for high-volume
production vehicles.
Desirable attributes of high-power batteries for HEV applications are highpeak and pulse-specific power, high specific energy at pulse power, a high
charge acceptance to maximize regenerative braking utilization, and long
calendar and cycle life. Developing methods/designs to balance the packs
electrically and thermally, developing accurate techniques to determine a
battery's state of charge, developing abuse-tolerant batteries, and recyclability
are additional technical challenges.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive,
safe, and reliable. A recycling infrastructure is in place for them. But low
specific energy, poor cold temperature performance, and short calendar and
cycle life are still impediments to their use. Advanced high-power lead-acid
batteries are being developed for HEV applications.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
Although nickel-cadmium batteries, used in many electronic consumer
products, have higher specific energy and better life cycle than lead-acid
batteries, they do not deliver sufficient power and are not being considered
for HEV applications.
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical

equipment, offer reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities.
Their components are recyclable, but a recycling structure is not yet in place.
Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead acid

batteries and are safe and abuse-tolerant. These batteries have been used
successfully in production electric vehicles and recently in low-volume
production HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are
their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures,
the need to control losses of hydrogen, and their low cell efficiency.
Lithium Ion Batteries
The lithium ion batteries are rapidly penetrating into laptop and cell-phone
markets because of their high specific energy. They also have high specific
power, high-energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low
self-discharge. Components of lithium ion batteries could also be recycled.
These characteristics make lithium ion batteries suitable for HEV
applications. However, to make them commercially viable for HEVs, further
development is needed similar to those for the EV-design versions including
improvement in calendar and cycle life, higher degree of cell and battery
safety, abuse tolerance, and acceptable cost.
Lithium Polymer Batteries
Lithium polymer batteries with high specific energy, initially developed for
EV applications, also have the potential to provide high specific power for
HEV applications. The other key characteristics of the lithium polymer are
safety and good cycle and calendar life. The battery could be commercially
viable if the cost is lowered and higher specific power batteries are
developed.

HEV Spark Ignition Engines

A spark ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cyclemost gasoline engines run
on a modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture,
which is combined prior to entering the combustion chamber. Once in the

combustion chamber, the mixture is compressed, then ignited using a spark

plug (spark ignition). The SI engine is controlled by limiting the amount of air
allowed into the engine. This is accomplished through the use of a throttling
valve placed on the air intake (carburetor or throttle body).
Advantages

A century of development and refinement: For the last century, the SI

engine has been developed and used widely in automobiles. Continual
development of this technology has produced an engine that easily
meets emissions and fuel economy standards. With current computer
controls and reformulated gasoline, today's engines are much more
efficient and less polluting than those built 20 years ago.

Low cost: The SI engine is the lowest cost engine because of the huge
volume currently produced.

Disadvantages
The SI engine has a few weaknesses that have not been significant problems
in the past, but may become problems in the future.

Difficulty in meeting future emissions and fuel economy standards at a

reasonable cost: Technology has progressed and will enable the SI engine
to meet current standards, but as requirements become tougher to meet,
the associated engine cost will continue to rise.

Throttling loss lowers the efficiency: To control an SI engine, the air

allowed into the engine is restricted using a throttling plate. The engine

is constantly fighting to draw air past the throttle, which expends

energy.

Friction loss due to many moving parts: The SI engine is very complex
and has many moving parts. The losses through bearing friction and
sliding friction further reduce the efficiency of the engine.

Limited compression ratio lowers efficiency: Because the fuel is already

mixed with the air during compression, it will auto-ignite (undesirable
in a gasoline engine) if the compression ratio is too high. The
compression ratio of the engine is limited by the octane rating of the
engine.

Typically, 80% of the combustion energy is wasted as heat.

HEV Compression Ignition Direct Injection Diesel Engines

Progress continues to advance the compression-ignition direct-injection
(CIDI) engine, (more commonly called the diesel engine), which has the
highest thermal efficiency of any internal combustion engine. Challenges to
improvements include a lower specific power than the gasoline engine;
significant particulate matter and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust; and the
noise, vibration, and smell of the engine.
Recent advancements in high-speed automotive diesel engines, which
address some of these shortcomings, have made them nearly ideal candidates
for HEV applications. These advancements include high-pressure direct fuel
injection, low oxides of nitrogen catalysts, and sophisticated electronic
controls. With a thermal efficiency upwards of 40% and well-understood
maintenance, reliability, manufacturing, and operating characteristics, the
high-speed CIDI engine shows great promise as a near-term hybrid power
unit.

HEV Gas Turbine Engines

The gas turbine engine runs on a Brayton cycle using a continuous
combustion process. In this cycle, a compressor (usually radial flow for

automotive applications) raises the pressure and temperature of the inlet air.
The air is then moved into the burner, where fuel is injected and combusted
to raise the temperature of the air. Power is produced when the heated, highpressure mixture is expanded and cooled through a turbine. When a turbine
engine is directly coupled to a generator, it is often called a turbo generator or
turbo alternator.
The power output of a turbine is controlled through the amount of fuel
injected into the burner. Many turbines have adjustable vanes and/or
gearing to decrease fuel consumption during partial load conditions and to
improve acceleration.
Advantages

The turbine is light and simple - The only moving part of a simple
turbine is the rotor. A turbine has no reciprocating motion, and
consequently runs smoother than a reciprocating engine.

A turbine will run on a variety of fuels - Any combustible fuel that can
be injected into the airstream will burn in a turbine. A turbine has this
flexibility because the continuous combustion is not heavily reliant on
the combustion characteristics of the fuel.

A turbine produces low levels of emissions - Because of its multi-fuel

capability, a fuel which burns completely and cleanly can be used to
reduce emissions.

Disadvantages

The turbine engine has a few drawbacks, which have prevented its widespread
use in automotive applications:

Turbine engines have high manufacturing costs - Because of the

complicated design, manufacturing is expensive.

A turbine engine changes speed slowly - A gas turbine is slow to respond

(relative to a reciprocating engine) to changes in throttle request.

A gas turbine is less suitable for low-power applications - At partial

throttle conditions, the efficiency of the gas turbine decreases.

A turbine requires intercoolers, regenerators, and/or reheaters to reach

efficiencies comparable to current gasoline engines - This adds
significant cost and complexity to a turbine engine.

HEV Fuel Cells

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction that
combines hydrogen with oxygen in ambient air. Pure hydrogen, or any fossil
fuel that has been "reformed," can be used to produce hydrogen gas. Methanol
is a common fuel choice. For the most part, the fuel cell's only emission is
water vapor, giving it potential as the cleanest hybrid power unit alternative.
Efficient, quiet, and reliable, fuel cells are predicted to demonstrate energy
conversion efficiencies up to 50%; relatively high in comparison to the 20%25% efficiency of standard SI gasoline engines.
The choice of fuel for a fuel-cell-powered HEV has important implications for
required infrastructure, system accessories, efficiency, cost, and design.
Although its viability has been well-proven in the space program, as well as
in prototype vehicles developed by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and
industry partners, very high capital costs, large size, long start-up times, and
immature technologies make it a longer-term enabling technology for an HEV.

HEV Fuel Systems

The two primary fuels used in automobiles today are gasoline and diesel. The
infrastructure is in place to produce, refine, truck, or tank diesel and
gasoline. Many of today's HEVs, and the ones that will be available in the
near future, will use either gasoline or diesel to fuel the hybrid power units.
However, to ensure the security of our oil supply and to address increasing
environmental concerns associated with gasoline and diesel, alternative fuels
are very attractive. The opportunity for fuels such as biodiesel, natural gas
(CNG & LNG), ethanol, hydrogen, and propane to be used as alternative fuels
for vehicles is great. Many alternative fuel vehicles are already being used
effectively around the world. These fuels have the potential to be used in
HEVs as well.
The following graph shows the energy density for various fuels. The graph
does not take into consideration containment weight. For instance, the
energy density for hydrogen and compressed natural gas is much lower than
that of gasoline if the containment weight for the fuel is taken into
consideration. The containment weights are not taken into consideration in
the following graph due to the variability of manufacturer's containment
weight estimates.

HEV Transmissions
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can use a variety of transmissions, based on
the system design of the vehicle. Some transmissions are more efficient than
others, however, sometimes less efficient transmissions are used for a variety
of reasons. The four types of transmissions used in HEVs are:

Continuously variable transmission

Automated shifted manual transmission

Manual transmission

Traditional automatic transmission with torque converter

HEV Emission Control Systems

Automotive emissions contribute significantly to urban air quality problems.

HEVs can reduce this contribution significantly through increased fuel

economy, use of alternative fuels, and improved power unit and aftertreatment
technology.
A well-tuned spark ignition engine produces relatively low emissions.
Significant emissions occur when the vehicle is started and warming up.
During this time the engine must be choked to run properly. This creates
excess unburned fuel in the exhaust, which leads to hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide emissions. During normal driving, emissions are relatively low
because the air-to-fuel mixture is precisely controlled, allowing the catalytic
converter to effectively reduce emissions.
The diesel engine emissions are primarily nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
particulate matter (PM). NOx is produced because the engine is operated with
a lean air-to-fuel mixture. The high compression ratio of a diesel engine
(required because of compression ignition) creates much higher pressure and
temperature in the combustion cylinder. This lean mixture and high
temperature cause the higher level of NOx production. At high engine loads,
where more fuel is injected, some of the fuel burns incompletely leading to
the black smoke (PM) characteristic of a diesel engine.
The fuel cell produces water as emissions when operating on pure hydrogen.
Other types of fuel cells have reformers that convert methane to hydrogen,
then use the hydrogen. The reformer produces some emissions in the
conversion process, but overall emission levels are low.

HEV Energy Management and System Control

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two or more sources of on-board power.
The integration of the these power-producing components with the electrical
energy storage components allows for many different types of HEV designs. A

power control strategy is needed to control the flow of power and to maintain
adequate reserves of energy in the storage devices. Although this is an added
complexity not found in conventional vehicles, it allows the components to
work together in an optimal manner to achieve multiple design objectives,
such as high fuel economy and low emissions.
The biggest distinction between different hybrid designs is whether they are
parallel or series, or a combination of the two. In a parallel design, the
auxiliary power unit (APU) can mechanically drive the wheels; in a series
design the APU generates electricity and doesn't directly drive the wheels. A
third type combines the best aspects of both, and is sometimes called a
combined or a series/parallel design. A combined design allows the APU to
directly drive the wheels but also has the ability to charge the energy storage
device through a generator. The combined hybrid is a subset of the parallel
design since it can directly drive the wheels from the APU. The way the
hardware components are connected (parallel, series, or a combination of the
two) will be referred to here as the "hardware configuration" and the
management of the power flow among the components will be referred to as
the "control strategy" or more generally "energy management."
A secondary distinction between hybrids is charge-sustaining versus chargedepleting hardware configurations and control strategies. Charge-depleting
vehicles allow their batteries to become depleted and cannot recharge them at
the same rate they are being discharged. The common "range-extender" is a
charge-depleting vehicle unless the APU is larger than the average power load

of the vehicle over a given cycle. A charge-sustaining hybrid has an APU that
is adequately sized to meet the average power load, and if operated under the

expected conditions, will be able to keep adequate electrical energy storage

reserves indefinitely.
Control strategies for HEVs
The flexibility in HEV design comes from the ability of the control strategy to
manage how much power is flowing to or from each component. This way, the
components can be integrated with a control strategy to achieve the optimal
design for a given set of design constraints. There are many (often conflicting)
objectives desirable for HEVs. The primary ones are to:

Maximize fuel economy

Minimize emissions

Minimize propulsion system cost to keep the vehicles affordable to the

consumer market

Do all of the above while maintaining or improving on acceptable

performance (acceleration, range, handling, noise, etc.)

To achieve these objectives, the hardware configuration and the power control
strategy are designed together. The hardware configuration dictates to some
extent what control strategies make sense, but as you can see from the
following examples, there is still a wide spectrum of control strategies for
each hardware configuration.
Consumer appeal made possible through control strategies
Because hybrid control strategies open up so many energy management
possibilities, there is great potential for the control strategies and hardware

configurations to be customized for different market groups. There is even

potential for the car to adjust itself to maximize its ability to meet a driver's

expected driving behavior. A few examples are listed here to give a flavor of
some possibilities:

The car could be warmed up or cooled down while it's still in the garage
(based on a timer) to make the first few minutes of commute more
enjoyable and energy efficient.

For "lead-foot" drivers, the control strategy could always keep batteries
as close to fully charged as possible to allow maximum power for hard
accelerations and keep the APU running continuously to have full power
available on demand.

For people who drive their cars with maximum fuel economy in mind,
the vehicles would use their on-board components in such a way that
they would be operating in their highest efficiency regions as much of
the time as possible.

For people who normally drive long commutes, the vehicle could turn on
the APU before batteries are depleted in anticipation of extra on-board
power being needed.

For those who have a short, repeatable commute, the vehicle could
delay turning on the APU to allow the commuter to use only "wall
charged" electric energy except when driving longer trips.

Implementing energy management and control strategies

Before a control strategy is implemented, an HEV consists simply of hardware
components hooked up electrically and mechanically, with nothing telling
them what to do or when to do it. The control strategy brings the components

together as a system and provides the intelligence that makes the components
work together. The implementation does require other connections to control

the individual components, however, and the two classifications of

mechanical and electrical are explained in a little more detail here.

Mechanical Control: This includes mechanically controlled clutches,

throttles controlled by the accelerator pedal and dials on the dashboard,
and other controls activated mechanically by the driver from the car's
interior.

Electrical Control: With the increased use of on-board computers in

today's conventional vehicles, electrical controls will most likely be the
dominant means of implementing control strategies. This will be done
through software programs running on microchips that then activate
relays and other electromechanical systems to perform the desired
functions. These computing systems will most likely have multiple data
inputs measured on the current state of the vehicle (such as component
temperatures, battery voltage, current, and state of charge) as well as
the standard desired response requested by the driver (such as braking
and acceleration).

HEV Thermal Management

Just as conventional gasoline engines require a cooling system, HEVs need
proper thermal management of the power and energy storage units for
optimum performance and durability. The type of thermal management
system required will depend on the type of power and energy storage units
selected. In many cases, waste heat from these components can be used for
cabin air and other heating needs.

Batteries
Power Units
Exhaust Systems
Fuel System
Waste Heat Utilization
Batteries
The performance and life-cycle costs of electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid
electric vehicles (HEV) depend on the performance and life of their battery
packs. Each battery chemistry operates over a particular operating range to
achieve optimum life and performance. Temperature variations from module
to module in a battery pack could result in an un-balanced pack and thus
reduced performance. It is important to regulate battery pack operating
temperature because it affects performance (power and capacity), charge
acceptance (during regenerative braking), and vehicle operating and
maintenance expenses. Battery thermal management is critical for high-power
battery packs used in EVs and HEVs to maintain their battery packs within
the desired temperature range. To learn more go to the NREL battery thermal
management Web site.
Power Units
Fuel cells offer highly efficient and fuel-flexible power systems with low to
zero emissions for future HEV designs irrespective of the reformer. There are
a variety of thermal issues to be addressed in the development and
application of fuel cells for hybrid vehicles. For example, solid oxide fuel cells
potentially offer very high efficiencies and lower cost than PEM or phosphoric

acid cells, but run hotter. Isolation of this heat from the rest of the vehicle is
important not only for improved efficiency, but also passenger safety.
Reducing the

warm-up time of fuel cells via thermal management is important to achieve

quick power and minimal emissions. More standard power units such as
small diesel or spark-ignition engines also need proper cooling. For more
information on fuel cells go to DOE's Fuel Cell Program page.
Exhaust Systems
60% to 80% of emissions in an auto's typical driving cycle come from "cold
start" emissions, that is, pollutants that are emitted before the catalytic
converter is hot enough to begin catalyzing combustion products. The
National Renewable Energy Laboratory has shown that its patented variable
conductance insulation and phase-change heat storage material can be used
to keep the catalyst hot for more than 17 hours, yet allow heat to flow during
peak engine loads to prevent the converter from overheating. This would allow
95% of all auto trips to begin with a hot catalyst and little or no cold start
emissions. This is particularly important with many HEVs, since their power
unit may cycle on and off during a trip.
Fuel System
As emissions standards tighten and exhaust control technologies improve, the
issue of evaporative emissions becomes increasingly important. Thermal
management of fuel tanks is one approach to reducing these emissions.
Waste Heat Utilization
Heat recovered from any of the above sources can be used in a variety of
ways. For winter driving, heat recovery from HEV sources such as the power
unit exhaust, propulsion motors, batteries, and power inverter can

significantly improve cabin warm-up. Because of their small power units,

hybrid vehicles generally cannot supply enough heat to the cabin via the
conventional

coolant-to-air heat exchanger. Waste heat can also be converted into

electricity via thermoelectric devices
HEV Body/Chassis
Tomorrow's HEV's will contain a mix of aluminum, steel, plastic, magnesium,
and composites (typically a strong, lightweight material composed of fibers in
a binding matrix, such as fiberglass). To make these materials affordable and
durable, research is intensifying on vehicle manufacturing methods,
structural concepts, design analysis tools, sheet-manufacturing processes,
improved material strength, and recyclability. Since 1975, the weight of a
typical family sedan has decreased from 4,000 pounds to 3,300 pounds.
Researchers are working to reduce overall vehicle weight by yet another 40%
to 2,000 pounds. To achieve this, they must reduce the mass of both the outer
body and chassis by half, trim powertrain weight by 10%, and reduce the
weight of interior components.

Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the benefits of gasoline engines

and electric motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives,
such as improved fuel economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary
power for electronic devices and power tools

Some of the advanced technologies typically used by hybrids include

Regenerative Braking. The electric motor applies resistance to the drivetrain
causing the wheels to slow down. In return, the energy from the wheels turns
the motor, which functions as a generator, converting energy normally wasted
during coasting and braking into electricity, which is stored in a battery until
needed by the electric motor.

Electric Motor Drive/Assist. The electric motor provides additional power to

assist the engine in accelerating, passing, or hill climbing. This allows a
smaller, more efficient engine to be used. In some vehicles, the motor alone
provides power for low-speed driving conditions where internal combustion
engines are least efficient.
Automatic Start/Shutoff. Automatically shuts off the engine when the
vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed. This
prevents wasted energy from idling.

SOMETHING NEW UNDER THE HOOD.

From the outside, the Toyota Prius or the Honda Civic hybrid dont look much
different from a Toyota Echo or a conventional Honda Civic. (Hint, besides the
hybrid label on the back, the antennas of both hybrids sit at the center of the
roof s front edge). Looking under the hood doesnt help much either. They still
have an engine and some type of transmission along with several
unidentifiable metal boxes, wires, and other gadgets. The instrument panels
on the dashboard provide the clearest indication that these are hybrids. They
show power going into and out of the battery pack and when its the engine or
the motor that is driving the wheels. Its this sharing of driving power between
the electric motor and the engine that defines these vehicles as hybrids. Other
than that, they are in many ways the same as their conventional
counterparts.

Defining Hybrids
The hybrid vehicles on sale today are referred to as hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) or engine electric hybrid vehicles. That means they obtain driving power
from both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor powered by
batteries. Several other types of hybrid vehicles have reached the prototype
phase. For example, in the 1990s Chrysler combined a combustion engine
with a flywheel that stored mechanical energy and provided power to the
wheels (Lowell 1994). Currently, Ford and the US Environmental Protection

Agency are developing a hydraulic hybrid that uses an internal combustion

engine along with a hydraulic/nitrogen gas system that recovers braking
energy and can help launch a heavy-duty vehicle from a stop (McElroy 2002).

Many other hybrid variations could undoubtedly be envisioned, but the key to
success lies in creating a hybrid vehicle that provides consumers, at a
reasonable cost, the performance they seek along with improved fuel
economy and decreased emissions. So far, only hybrid electric vehicles meet
these criteria for success and have made it to market. The remainder of this
report is about hybrid electric vehicles and hereafter the term hybrid should
be understood to refer to hybrid electric vehicles.

Hybrid Electric Drivetrains. Just as combustion engines can be combined

with a variety of technologies to create hybrid vehicles, so too can hybrid
electric vehicles result from mixing and matching technologies. One major
variation depends on whether the hybrid electric uses a series drivetrain,
or parallel drivetrain, or a bit of both
Series Drivetrains. In a series hybrid electric vehicle, an electric motor is the
only means of driving the wheels (Figure 4). The motor obtains electricity
either from a battery pack or from a generator powered by an engine in much
the same way as a portable generator. A controller determines how power is
shared between the battery and the engine/generator set. The batteries in a
series hybrid are recharged both by the engine/generator set and by storing
some of the energy that is normally lost during braking (typically referred to
as regenerative braking). Series drivetrains are the simplest hybrid electric
configuration. Because the electric motor alone drives the wheels, no clutch or
complicated multispeed transmission is required. At the same time, the
engine, since it is not connected to the wheels, can operate at or near
optimum efficiency. This also opens the door to using unconventional engine

types such as gas turbine, Atkinson, or Stirling engines, rather than more
conventional gasoline engines. To gain the most advantage in efficiency from

using a small engine, series drivetrains typically use relatively large battery
packs. But batteries and motors cost more than engines for the same amount
of power, so series hybrids are generally more expensive than the parallel
hybrids described below. The generator needed to produce electricity from the
engine also adds to the cost. Series hybrids show to their greatest advantage
under slower operating conditions characterized by stop-and-go driving.
During high-speed and highway driving, the inefficiency of always
converting the mechanical power from the engine into electricity, storing
some of it, and then converting it back to mechanical power through the
motor takes its toll. For this reason, most of the series hybrids currently
under development are for buses or other heavy-duty urban vehicles.

Parallel Drivetrains. In a parallel hybrid electric vehicle, both the engine

and the motor can drive the wheels (Figure ). Both the Honda Insight and the
Honda Civic Hybrid are parallel hybrids. Parallel drivetrains are mechanically
more complicated than series drivetrains. For one thing, a transmission is

required to allow the engine to drive the wheels. Then there must be a
means of coupling the engine, motor, and transmission. Finally, the
controller necessary to make all these components work together is more
complex than in the series drivetrain. Parallel drivetrains use a smaller
engine than a conventional vehicle, though it is typically larger and
somewhat more expensive than the engine in a series drivetrain. As in series
hybrids, the batteries in parallel hybrids can be recharged through
regenerative braking.
Since parallel drivetrains typically use smaller battery packs, much of the
recharging can be done this way. In addition, the drive motor can be turned
into a generator during driving to recharge the batteries, in much the same
way alternators do in conventional cars. The smaller motors and battery
packs used in parallel drivetrains help keep down the costs of parallel hybrids
relative to series hybrids. But the necessity of transmissions and the need to
couple. will diminish as battery and motor costs come down over time,
Because the engine is connected directly to the wheels in parallel drivetrains,
these hybrids do not suffer the efficiency penalty series hybrids experience on
the highway. In the city, this same structure will reduce, not eliminate, some
of the efficiency benefits of a parallel drivetrain. As a result, parallel
drivetrains provide some advantages in both city and highway driving. One
special type of parallel hybrid uses a split drivetrain, in which the engine
drives one set of wheels, while an electric motor drives another (Figure ). This
can provide 4-wheel drive, although recharging the batteries by the engine is
then more complicated since it involves operating the front wheels in
regenerative braking mode while the engine is driving the rear wheels. At one

time, DaimlerChrysler planned to produce a Dodge Durango SUV with such a

system.

Series/Parallel Drivetrains. The Toyota Prius made popular a new concept

that combines many of the advantages of the parallel drivetrain with the
series drivetrains ability to maintain engine operation near its most efficient
operating point (Figure 7) (Inoue et al. 2000). Variations on this design
(Figure
8) have shown up in the Nissan Tino Hybrid, which was sold for a short
period in Japan, and is being incorporated into a hybrid vehicle developed by
Paice Corporation (Matsuo et al. 2000, Severinsky et al. 2002).
This series/parallel design is similar to the basic parallel drivetrain in that
the engine can drive the wheels directly. What makes the design unique is
that the engine can be effectively disconnected from the transmission and
operated in the same way as a series drivetrains engine/ generator set. As a
result, the engine can operate near optimum efficiency more often. During

lower-speed driving, the engine is disconnected from the demands of the

wheels and the

vehicle operates with many of the efficiency benefits of a series drivetrain.

During higher-speed driving, when the engine can power the wheels
efficiently, the inefficient energyconversion steps of the series drivetrain can
be avoided or minimized. The series/parallel drivetrain has the potential to
perform better than either the series or the parallel drivetrain. However, it
inherits some of the higher costs of the series hybrid because it needs a
generator and a larger battery pack.
The series/parallel drivetrain also inherits the mechanical complexity of
the parallel drivetrain, and be cause it combines the two drivetrains, it
requires more computing power to control the system.

DEGREES OF HYBRIDIZATION.
Hybrids have been traditionally classified by the amount of driving power
supplied by the electrical system and the amount supplied by the engine
(Figure ). For battery electric vehicles and hybrid electrics with large electrical
systems and very small engines, this definition works pretty well. It also
works relatively well for vehicles that do not have a downsized engine and
have simply added on a technology referred to as an integrated starter
generator: these are just conventional vehicles that can turn the engine off
when the vehicle is stopped.

Once regenerative braking is included or the engine is downsized, how to

classify the hybrid becomes less clear. What, for example, is the dividing line
between a mild hybrid, as most people call the Civic Hybrid, and a full hybrid,
as many call the Prius? More importantly, classification by the amount of
electrical system power does not necessarily indicate the level of
environmental performance of the hybrid, since improvements in fuel
economy correlate only weakly with the amount of electrical power onboard.1
A more informative way to classify hybrids is according to the discrete
technological steps that move them away from conventional vehicles and
provides a better indication both of how a particular model of hybrid will
operate on the road and of how well it measures up to the technology of a full
function electric vehicle. The amount of power supplied by the electrical
system can then become an important secondary factor for evaluation within
hybrid classes.
This method divides the space between conventional and battery electric
vehicles into five technology steps, each of which provides a step-increase in
similarity to a fuel cell or battery vehicles that are equipped with idle-off
technology are hybrids. Conventional vehicles can achieve idle-off using an
integrated starter-generator, a beefed up starter motor combined with an
alternator, while a hybrid would use a larger, full function electric motor.
Therefore, the inclusion of idleoff is not sufficient to distinguish a hybrid
from a conventional vehicle. In fact, a vehicle must also incorporate the next
two steps, regenerative braking and engine downsizing, to make the
transition from conventional vehicle to mild hybrid. electric vehicles and
helps indicate potential for improved environmental performance:
1. Idle-off capability

2. Regenerative braking capacity

3. Engine downsizing