REGIONAL MARITIME UNIVERSITY

ACCRA GHANA
FACULTY OF MARITIME STUDIES
PORT AND SHIPPING DEPARTMENT
------------------------------------------SHIP MANAGEMENT I
TEACHING SYLLABUS
OBJECTIVE ONE: TYPES OF SHIPS
1

Presents and describes the design and construction of various types of ships with particular reference
to suitability for cargoes and trades: Dry bulk carriers, Tankers, Container ships, Ro-Ro ships,
General cargo ships, Reefer ships, Multi-purpose vessels, Combination carriers, etc.

OBJECTIVE TWO: CARGO TYPES

1

Presents and describes various types of cargoes in general: Break bulk cargo, Unitized cargo, Reefer
cargo, Obnoxious cargo, Livestock, Dangerous cargo, Passenger, etc.

OBJECTIVE THREE: CARGO HANDLING GEARS

1
2
3

Presents and describes the various types of ship borne cargo handling gears
Lift-on/lift-off, Roll-on/Roll-off, Sucking, Grabbing
Derricks, union purchase, swinging derricks, heavy lift derricks, cranes, conveyor systems, pipeline
systems

OBJECTIVE FOUR: TERMINOLOGY OF MEASUREMENTS

1
2
3
4

Dimensions: displacement, deadweight, size, TEUs, etc.

Tonnage (gross, net)
Cubic capacities
Suez and Panama canal tonnage size

OBJECTIVE FIVE: METHODS OF REGISTRATION AND CLASSIFICATION

1
2
3
4

Vessel registration
Classification
Certification
crewing

TYPES OF SHIPS

It is important to describe the different kinds of ships that are in common use, their employment,
the kind of equipment that can be found on board them and the criteria employed by shipowners
in deciding what sort and size of vessel to buy. It is further important to understand the different
ways of describing a ships size and dimensions so that one vessel may be compared against
another or the suitability of a vessel for a particular trade may be assessed.
Ships are employed either as liners or as tramps. What defines a ship as a liner is that it trades
according to a schedule, between two designated areas and its cargo is made up of very many
different consignments from numerous shippers, generally manufactured or semi-manufactured
goods. Freight rates are usually published in a tariff and may vary according to the commodity.
The normal document covering the contract of carriage will be a Bill of Lading.
On the other hand, the name tramp refers to the manner in which such a ship trades where the
market takes it. Its cargo is usually all-one commodity (although there may be different grades)
generally a raw material, and there is normally only one shipper. The contract of carriage will be
a Charter Party and this can be on a voyage basis when the charterer pays so much (freight) per
ton of cargo for an agreed quantity (usually a full cargo) from one place to another. Alternatively,
the contract can be a Time Charter when the ship charterer pays an agreed sum (hire) per day for
the use of the ship for an agreed period which can be just a few weeks, or months, or years
even the whole life of the ship. In either case, the rate of freight or hire will be freely negotiated
and its level will depend upon the strength or weakness of the shipping market at the time.
Although in the past tramps tended to be mainly general purpose ships, the situation today is one
of a high degree of specialization.
Ships can be divided into three main categories:
Dry Cargo
Tankers
Miscellaneous
DRY CARGO
Dry cargo, as the name suggests are designed to carry dry, non-liquid cargo, and can be further
subdivided into:
- Bulk carriers
- Multipurpose
- Container ships
- Ro-Ro ships
BULK CARRIERS
Bulk carriers, sometimes called bulkers, are the unsophisticated travelling boxes of the oceans.
They are single deck ships designed to carry homogenous unpacked dry cargoes such as sugar,
cereals, ores etc. They range in size from the smallest coaster of about 250 tons deadweight up to
the largest ore carriers of more than 250,000 tons deadweight. Access to the generally

unrestricted holds is by way of hatches of the largest size, commensurate with the vessels
structural integrity, to allow for rapid loading and discharge of cargo. They are primarily
designed for the carriage of bulk cargoes, such as ores, grains, coal, fertilizers and so on, and
consequently the holds are constructed to be self-trimming, i.e. shaped in such a way that when
loaded into the holds the cargo will trim itself evenly over the area of the hold without resorting
to extensive manual labour to achieve this. The large hatchways also facilitate cargo handling,
hopper sides and wing tanks.
Such even distribution is necessary for two reasons. First to ensure maximum utilization of the
ships holds. Were the ship to be loaded through a small hatch, the cargo would adopt a conical
shape. The shape of that cone would be dictated by the natural angle of repose of the material
concerned. Angle of repose differs widely from commodity to commodity on this scale in just the
same way as one observes the way simple substances behave such as in a domestic kitchen; quite
different shapes are formed when pouring out, say, sugar, flour, lentils etc. In most cases it will
be easy to visualize the point of a cone of cargo protruding through the hatchway long before the
hold is full.
The second reason for trimming the cargo across the whole of the hold is one of safety. Even
distribution of cargo is always important not only to ensure that the ship rides on an even keel
but also to avoid uneven stresses in the structure of the ship.
The first requirement of a self-trimmer is the largest hatch size commensurate with safe
construction. This allows for the loading appliance to spread the cargo evenly. Self-trimming
does not entirely apply to loading because grabs are almost invariably used to discharge such
ships and grabs would not be able to reach right into the angle between the vertical side of the
ship and the bottom of the hold. This is overcome by constructing a sloping section at an angle of
about 45 running fore and aft for the whole length of the hold. This trims the cargo into the
square of the hatch within reach of the grab, thus minimizing the amount of hand shoveling to
just the last few tons. That sloping section serves a second purpose in that it houses ballast spaces
which can be filled with water in order to take the ship more deeply into the water for safetys
sake when the ship is sailing without cargo.
COMBINATION CARRIERS
Some shipowners find the bulk carrier too limited in the number of trades in which it can engage;
for these the naval architects produced several variations. The first idea took advantage of the
small amount of space needed for iron ore which could allow for a considerable amount of
additional capacity and still be within more or less the same overall dimensions as a bulk carrier.
That spare space was designed as tankage and so the ore/oil carrier came into being. This enables
the shipowner to work in whichever trade ore or oil which shows the best return at any one
time. Occasionally, the dual role allows the owner to overcome the bugbear of any specialized
ship, the long return ballast passage, by loading one way with ore and then only a short ballast
run top load another way with oil, or vice versa.
As designers learnt more about the behavior of large ships, helped sadly by some tragic
casualties it became possible for bulk carriers to trade with some holds empty without the risk of

the ship breaking up and thus was designed and built the OBO Ore/Bulk/Oil carrier. An
interesting combination carrier to emerge took into consideration the basic problem of
international shipping which is that so much trade needs different types of ships for exports (raw
materials) from imports (manufactured goods). The Con-Bulker (Container/Bulk Carrier) met
this problem head on. It took no great breakthrough in design techniques, simply commercial
foresight and some container fittings in the bottom of the holds and on the deck of an otherwise
normal bulk carrier. The subsequent sophistication of the container trades has resulted in limited
use of these types today.
MULTIPURPOSE VESSELS
These vessels are the modern successors of the conventional cargo ships and designed to be
able to take bulk cargo, bagged cargo, containers and general cargo with equal ease and, if
necessary, at the same time. They exist with the narrow size range of 5,000 to 25,000 DWT. They
usually have two decks (tween decker), large hatches and with some of the cargo gear of
sufficient capacity to lift containers and other heavy pieces of cargo (30/35 ton SWL). These
types of vessels are being replaced by container or Ro-Ro vessels.
CONTAINER VESSELS
These vessels are designed to take containers only. Their holds are cellular, that is to say they
have vertical frames or guides into which the containers are slotted. They will be able to handle
containers of ISO dimensions, generally 20 or 40 feet in length. The size of the vessel will be
expressed by the number of twenty foot equivalent units (TEU) she will be able to carry. Many
small and medium-sized container vessels are self sustained i.e. they have cargo gear on board
with which they can load and discharge their containers.
All large container vessels cater for refrigerator-containers by supplying electric power outlets to
which may be connected the containers integral refrigeration compressor. Highly specialized
container ships for trades where there is a high demand for chilled cargo are equipped with
central refrigeration machinery which delivers cooled air to insulated containers through
portholes in the units although this system is now being phased out.
A feature of container ships is the arrangement of their holds. They are completely open hold
ships which mean that the hatches give access to the whole of the hold area, so that there is no
need for any stowage work and as the cell guides are erected in the holds no lashings are required
below decks. The hatch covers of the holds are either slab or pontoon type and are fitted out so as
to carry containers up to six or seven tiers high. Below deck, the boxes are secured by the
cellular arrangement but on the hatch covers they must be lashed in order to prevent movement.
The modern deep sea gearless container ship carries between 3,000 TEU and up to about 8,000
TEU. The largest vessels of about 8,000 TEU have dimensions of 347m LOA, 42.8m beam,
14.5m draft.
Some shipowners have introduced hatchless vessels. In one type of design the cell guides are
extended above main deck level so that on-deck lashing is also unnecessary. In another type there

is also a heightened and streamlined feature with a wave breaking device intended to keep
water away from the main deck of the vessel. In both cases the intention is to avoid the
additional labour and delay involved in removing and replacing hatch covers as well as the
tedious securing of the containers carried on deck.
RO-RO VESSELS
Ro-Ro vessels are suitable only for cargo which can be driven on/off the ship, such as cars,
lorries and cargo on trailers which can be either road trailers designed solely for shipborne use,
being loaded/unloaded in dockside terminals. Pure Ro-Ros are usually ferries but on certain
trades vessels which are part container vessel/part Ro-Ro can be found. The size of a Ro-Ro is
measured in lane metres, which indicate the total length of the marked parking lanes (3.5m wide)
available on board. Of importance is also the size of the entrance ramp, its length, width, height
of the openings leading into the hull and the total weight it can bear at any one time.
REFRIGERATED VESSELS
Refrigerated vessels are customarily known as Reefers. They have two or more decks and, as
the name implies, are basically ocean going deep freezers. Their holds are insulated, they have an
extensive compressor system with which they keep the temperature in the holds at the required
(cold) level; different cargo requiring different temperatures. They also have small hatches and
cargo gear designed to operate speedily, thus limiting the time the cargo is exposed to the
elements. The size of a Reefer vessel is usually expressed by the volume of the vessels holds
expressed in cubic feet or cubic metres.
TANKERS
This category encompasses any vessel designed to carry liquid cargoes and ranges from ULCC
(Ultra large crude carriers) of about 350/500,000 dwt down to the smallest estuarial tank barge.
Not only do these tankers carry crude oil but also, provided they are so equipped, are capable of
carrying clean (refined or semi-refined) petroleum products or a wide variety of other liquid
cargoes. In describing oil cargoes the term dirty refers to crude oil cargoes and clean refers to
refined or semi-refined products. It should be noted, however, that within the product trade itself
petroleum spirit, kerosene etc. are naturally described as clean whilst products at the other end
of the refining scale such as heavy fuel oil, are referred to as dirty.
Into the tanker category can also be placed the LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) such as butane and
the LNG (Liquid Natural Gas) such as methane carriers. All tankers are equipped with pumps by
which they discharge their cargoes. They are also equipped with sophisticated cargo tank
cleaning apparatus. Unlike dry cargo ships, where all that is needed to clean the cargo holds is a
pressure water hose and brooms, liquid cargo tanks need elaborate cleaning. In the case of oil
tankers, to avoid the risk of explosion it is important to reduce the oxygen and the oil vapour
content of the tanks before cleaning takes place. This is done by pumping inert gas (usually the
exhaust gases from the main engine) into the holds prior to the commencement of cleaning. Most
modern crude oil tankers employ a crude oil wash system which also eliminates the need to
dispose of large quantities of dirty ballast. In the case of chemical tankers, cleaning can even be

more complicated in some cases steam being necessary. Other equipment which can be found
are cargo heating coils, needed when the cargo becomes too viscous to pump or even solidify at
ambient temperatures. The other piece of equipment found on tankers is a crane or derrick for
handling the loading/discharging hoses, and is found by the cargo manifold amidships.
MISCELLANEOUS VESSELS
These cover everything else that floats except warships and private yachts. The participants in
this filed are:
TUGS
Ranging from the large ocean going salvage tugs which are also used to tow oil rigs around the
world, to the small harbor tugs the power of these tugs can either be expressed by the brake horse
power (bhp) of their engines or (more usually) by the bollard pull they can exert.
OIL RIGS
These are seldom self propelled, used in off-shore oil fields. They are usually divided into two
categories, drilling and production platforms.
OFF-SHORE VESSELS
These are easily recognized by their large flat cargo carrying platform aft built specifically to
service oil rigs. The more powerful vessels are described as Anchor Handling vessels and as such
can sometimes double as tugs.
CRUISE/PASSENGER LINERSv
These are glamour vessels of the oceans nowadays designed with short 7-14 days voyages in
mind with as many ports of call as possible inserted into the schedule. They are usually of a very
shallow draft, which enables them to enter or get as close as possible to as many exotic ports as
possible.
FERRIES
These are designed to ply between the same two ports as quickly as possible and as often as is
economically viable. They are almost all Ro-Ros and are designed for the rapid
loading/unloading of the passengers, cars and lorries. They range in size from the super ferries
with facilities which would not shame a cruise liner down to the humble cross river or harbor
ferry.
OTHERS
Several other names are used to describe types of ships, often the name relates to size or
employment limitations. Some examples are:

Laker This vessel is capable of trading into the Canadian/USA Great Lakes where there is a
beam restriction in the St. Lawrence Seaway locks of 23.15m and a draft restriction of 26ft fresh
water (up to about 30,000dwat part loaded because of the draft limitation to about 19,000 dwat).
Panamax A large vessel capable of transiting the Panama Canal where there is a beam
restriction of 32 metres and a draft of about 12 metres fresh water (variable) (about 70,000 dwt
part loaded to about 55,000 dwt because of the draft limitation).
Aframax This is now loosely applied to tankers just under 80,000dwt. Its origins go back to a
committee formed at the behest of the major oil companies called Average Freight Rate
Assessments (AFRA). These rates were used for a variety of purposes even including long term
contracts in which the Parties agreed to relate the freight rate to the current AFRA in some way.
One category of size for which an AFRA was calculated was 45,000 to 79,999 and there was a
big drop in rate after that for the 80,000 to 159,999 size. It was therefore sensible for owners
having ships built of around 80,000 to ensure that, in fact, they did not exceed 79,999. The panel
still exists but is now independent of the oil companies and it calculates AFRAs commercially
for anyone wishing to use the service.
Suezmax This is a large tanker capable of transiting the canal fully loaded where there is a
draft restriction of about 17 metres salt water, increasing to 21 metres by 2010 (less than about
150,000dwt).
Capsize This is a bulk carrier too large to transit the Suez Canal and thus compelled to round
the Cape of Good Hope (about 150,000dwt upwards).
VLCC This is a very large crude carrier, a crude oil tanker of between about 200,000 and
300,000dwt.
ULCC Ultra Large Crude Carrier, a crude oil tanker in excess of about 300,000dwt.
SHIP MANAGEMENT
Having reached a decision on the type and size of ship as well as the trade to be engaged in, the
owner must then consider how the ship will be managed. The job of the ship manager is simple;
to translate the owners ideas into reality so that the vessel can perform the tasks set by the owner
efficiently, safely and profitably.
In some cases ship management will be carried out by the shipowners own organization, and in
others an independent organization will be employed under contract. In either event the functions
are basically similar.
Ship management includes registration and documentation of the ship as required by national
and international authorities; it covers crewing, victualling, stores, spare parts, maintenance and
repairs; it extends to arranging insurance and the handling of claims and recoveries; it includes
the appointment of surveyors and a host of other tasks designed to keep the ship running

properly. In short, it is the ship managers responsibility to ensure that the ship is tight, staunch
and strong, and in every way fitted for the voyage.
CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FACTORS DETERMINING TYPE OF EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
The factors determining the type of cargo equipment required to move containers in a container
terminal include the following:
1. Space availability
2. Expected volume of traffic, which is based on historical data and traffic forecasting
3. Distance to travel within container yard
An analysis must be made of the various operating systems i.e. comparing the costs of using
straddle carriers, rubber-tyred gantries etc. in the case of a container terminal. Once the method
of operation has been determined, the type of equipment and its specification can be defined. The
choice of equipment will now depend on:
i)
Availability i.e. delivery time
ii)
Specifications
iii)
Cost
iv)
Performance
v)
Ease and cost of maintenance
vi)
Financing/leasing arrangements
vii)
Warranties
The choice of equipment will largely depend on the application that the machine is required for.
A decision can only be made after an analysis is made with respect to the available stacking
areas, the volume of traffic and flexibility required. Safety and ease of handling are other
considerations. Environmental aspects of the machinery need to be studied when choosing the
equipment.
CONTAINER TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
1. THE CHASSIS SYSTEM
The chassis system or wheeled operation is a system whereby an import container, when
discharged from a ship, is placed directly on to a highway chassis and moved by a terminal
tractor to a place in the marshalling area.
ADVANTAGES OF THE WHEELED SYSTEM

There is ready access to every container in the container yard at all times.
Container damage is kept to a minimum.
The draymans turnaround time is also reduced to a minimum.
Few personnel are required to operate the container yard.
The only equipment required by the terminal operator is a fleet of tractors to move the
chassis and containers to and from the ships side.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE WHEELED SYSTEM

When both ship and gate operations are using the container yard, the resulting congestion
can cause conflict and loss of production in both operations.
Much land is needed.
The container yard needs constant monitoring to update container locations.

2. STRADDLE CARRIER
The straddle carrier has the ability to lift vertically and to travel horizontally with the container,
providing the user with flexibility and versatility; it can stack three or four high. It is also able to
straddle railcars to load or unload containers and move them.
Straddle carrier could also be called shuttle carrier. However, the shuttle carrier cannot lift a
container over another. It is designed to pick up a container and travel with it at high speed.
ADVANTAGES OF THE STRADDLE CARRIER SYSTEM

Only one piece of equipment is needed for transporting and stacking the container
Land utilization is reasonable compared to the chassis system
No problem of inadequate chassis supply
Because ship-to-shore cranes place the containers on to the ground instead of a trailer, the
cranes are able to operate at maximum capacity

DISADVANTAGES OF THE STRADDLE CARRIER SYSTEM

Maintenance costs may be high

Operators need to be well disciplined to maintain traffic control
Above average damage may occur to sides and roofs of containers

3. RUBBER TYRED GANTRIES (RTGs)

This machine operates along a lane of containers that may be stacked three, four or five high and
up to seven rows wide. The machine can be moved from one lane to another by stopping it at a
specific point at the end of the lane; with the wheels turning through 90 degrees it allows the
machine to move to the similar location at the chosen lane where the wheels are returned to the
original alignment. The RTG does not travel while holding a container. It rather lifts the
container to transfer it between the trailer and the stack.
In the RTG method of operation, the import container is discharged from the vessel to the
stevedores chassis (bombcart). The unit is then towed to the appropriate RTG, which will
remove the container from the bombcart and place it into storage. The export container is taken
from the stack by the RTG and placed on to the bombcart. The container is then towed to the
crane for loading to the vessel.

A machine similar to the RTG is the Rail Mounted Gantry (RMG). As the name implies, this
machine runs only on rails. This could be a lane of containers in the container yard or it could
straddle the on dock rail tracks. The machine is more stable than the RTG and can be designed
to handle containers outside of its legs but limited to a given area of operation.
ADVANTAGES OF THE RTG

Land is better utilized compared to the chassis system

The equipment used to move the containers within the container yard costs less than the
straddle carrier system

DISADVANTAGES OF THE RTG

Accessibility to a container becomes more difficult as stacking density increases

The new RTG is an expensive machine
Busy periods cause a shortage of machines to meet all operations
The RTG cannot travel with a container attached
More labour is needed than with the straddle carrier system

4. TOP-PICK OR TOP-LIFT TRUCK (TLT)

The top-pick, also known as top-lift or top-rack is a heavy-duty top lifting truck. It is economical
for operating within a small container yard. With the top-lift spreader it is capable of stacking
fully loaded containers four high. The machine can be used to carry containers between the
ships side and the container yard, but it is better used in conjunction with tractors and bombcarts
as in the RTG system.
A variant to this machine is the Reach Stacker which is quite versatile with superior capacity,
efficiency and safety. It is capable of reaching across a container to place or recover another in
the adjacent row. It can be used at rail sidings where it can reach across a bombcart to the railcar
beside it.
Maneuverability under loaded condition the top-lift truck can work well within a 15-metre wide
aisle (passageway) stacking or retrieving loaded containers. The reach stacker can do the same,
but may not be able to offer the second row capability. The true second row reach stacker would
need a 16-metre aisle thus reducing the storage capacity of the container yard.
ADVANTAGES OF THE TOP-PICK TRUCK

The machine is versatile, can travel anywhere, and by replacing the spreader beam with
forks, it can be used to handle other cargoes
It is comparatively inexpensive and easy to service

DISADVANTAGES OF THE TOP-LIFT TRUCK

The wheels place heavy stresses upon the surface of the container yard
More space between the container blocks is needed than with an RTG to allow the
machine to manoeuvre
Containers are not so easily selected by number because of the size of the storage blocks

5. YARD TRACTOR
This is also known as yard hustler. It is versatile and used extensively in multipurpose
terminals for moving other cargoes.
6. DOCKSIDE CONTAINER GANTRY CRANE
This is faster to handle the increased volumes of containers being carried. It is higher because of
the increased height of vessels and of their on-deck stowage. The booms are longer to be able to
extend across the modern ship.
CARGO GEARS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.

Collar chain sling (general purpose chain with good wear and shock-absorbing qualities).
Wire cargo net (general purpose cargo net of sturdy construction).
Cargo board (spreader for lifting loose cargo stacked on cargo boards).
Drum/can hooks (these can lift up to six drums at a time).
Pipe sling (available in various effective working lengths and SWLs).
Rope net (general purpose rope mesh net for loose cargoes).
Vehicle lifting spreader (spreader with wire mesh nets, for handling cars and 2- or 2-axle
lorries quick and simple to operate).
Twin roll lift unit (for lifting two paper reels at a time).
Wire belt sling (flexible steel sling, in various widths and alternative end fittings).
4-leg chain sling (general purpose sling fitted with C hooks or sling hooks).
Unit lift (spreader for lifting pallets up to 5 t gross weight).
Rope sling (available in various lengths and SWLs).
Rope snotter (available in various lengths and SWLs).
Rope canvas sling (canvas base about 2.5 x 1.0 m, stitched to rope sling).
Srevedores pallet (standard dock pallet, 1.8 x 1.2 m, with four lifting eyes and 2-way
fork entry).
Balanced C hooks (heavy lift unit, particularly for lifting coils of steel up to 20 t gross
weight).

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF SHIP TYPES

BULK CARRIERS (BULKERS)

Single deck ships designed to carry homogeneous unpacked dry cargoes

Holds are constructed to be self-trimming i.e. constructing a sloping section at an angle of

45 running fore and aft for the whole length of the hold so that when loaded into the
holds the cargo will trim itself evenly over the area of the hold without resorting to
extensive manual labour to achieve this.
Other structural features include upper wing tanks used for ballast, transverse web
frames, strengthened inner bottom to withstand the impact of loading, double bottom
having plate floor with longitudinal as well as continuous and intercoastal side girders,
and large hatchways to allow for rapid loading and discharge of cargo.
Medium and smaller bulk carriers of 20,000 to 40,000 dwt are known as handy-size.
They often carry gears i.e. derricks or cranes mounted on deck to load and discharge the
vessel to enable them trade to places where shore facilities are inadequate. Larger sizes
range up to 250,000 dwt.

CONTAINER VESSELS

Designed to take containers. The hull structure is either a single hull with heavy web
frames and cantilevers or a double hull.
Holds are cellular i.e. having vertical frames or cell guides into which containers are
slotted. With cell guides, container lashing is not required below deck.
The hatch covers are either slab or pontoon type fitted out to carry containers up to six
or seven tiers high.
Hatchways are as large as possible covering up to 80% of the breadth of the main deck.
Medium and small container vessels are self sustained i.e. having cargo gear on board.
Large container vessels have electric power outlets to which containers integral
refrigeration compressors are connected.
Large container vessels are equipped with central refrigeration machinery which
delivers cooled air to insulated containers through portholes in the units.

TANKERS

Tankers are equipped with pumps and pipeline arrangements by which they discharge
their cargoes.
They are equipped with heating coils, used when the cargo becomes too viscous to pump
or even solidifies at ambient temperature.
They are equipped with sophisticated cargo tank cleaning apparatus.
Some tankers are equipped with crane or derrick for handling loading/discharging hoses.
Tank section is divided by twin longitudinal bulkheads into port, starboard and centre
tanks.
Other tankers are equipped with crude oil wash machines.
Other structural features include longitudinal to strengthen the main deck and the outer
bottom, transverse web, centre girder, stringers, stiffeners, docking brackets, etc.

COMBINATION CARRIERS

Designed and built to accommodate a number of trades in which it can engage e.g. OBO
carriers.
Con-bulker (Container/Bulk Carrier), another type of combination carriers is designed
with container fittings in the bottom of the holds and on the deck.

MULTIPURPOSE VESSELS

Designed and constructed to take bulk cargo, bagged cargo, containers and general cargo
with equal ease and even at the same time.
They usually have two decks, large hatches and some cargo gears of sufficient capacity to
lift cargo.
Narrow size range between 5,000 and 25,000 dwt.

ORE CARRIERS

Designed and constructed to carry ore.

Cargo holds smaller in size because of the density of the ore occupying only the bottom
half of the hold making the ship very stiff. The largest ore carrier is about 250,000 dwt.

TERMINAL OPERATIONS AND OPERATIONS PLANNING

The operations management of a container terminal is responsible for coordination of all
activities not only related to long term planning for installation, equipment, and manpower but as
well for short-time planning and daily routine as effective control points for the benefit of the
port. While long term planning has to include political, economic, and infrastructural aspects and
thus will be added to quite a large number of determinants for planning the short term planning
concentrates on the daily terminal operation and coordinates the needs of manpower and
equipment in the different working areas of the terminal.
TASKS OF CENTRAL OPERATION DISPOSITION
The terminal organization plan splits the working areas of the unit into ships operation
department, yard control department, and the CFS department. Workforce and machinery in
those departments are partly interchangeable and therefore the daily work load of the different
departments must be coordinated and controlled by the central disposition.
The central disposition will collect the work loads of all operational departments and make out a
final result of the ports work load per shift. An overhang of manpower in one operational
department may now be shifted to another department which has manpower shortage. The need
of additional machines will be covered by shifting machines from other operational areas or even
by leasing machines.

SHIPS OPERATION DEPARTMENT

The ships operations department is in charge of the operational pre-planning on the basis of
optimum allocation of the available resources to guarantee a quick and economical dispatch of
the vessel. The ships dispatch pre-planning can be separated into three basic areas:
1. Overall ships planning
2. Full day planning
3. Shift planning
KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
INTRODUCTION
The efficiency of port is important because the cost of the ships and the goods at ports determine
the major part of the maritime transport chain. According to several studies, it is admitted that
two-thirds of the total maritime cost are incurred in ports, mainly wharfage, handling, and
storage operations. However, cost not only includes the port dues and the price invoiced by
agents for the operations, but also the time in ports and the quality of services. This means that
the responsibility of the manager of the port is two-fold: flexibility to smooth operations as
much as possible; and forecasting and planning to prepare for the future by good planning.
Despite the fact that more and more ports all over the world have engaged in a process of
privatization, the port authority is still involved in the control of efficiency because the survival
of the port in a competitive market or the economy of the country in case of monopoly, are
determined by efficiency. Efficiency is the key word of terminal management. Whatever the
status of the port, the operator and/or the port authority must have objective information on the
actual situation on which to base decisions. For this reason, it is important to create tools to
continually measure the evolving situation at the terminal, to assess performance and enable
timely decisions to improve productivity, heighten service levels and inform investment
decisions these tools are the performance indicators. Performance indicators measure
efficiency.
Performance indicators are tools created to continually measure evolving
situations/efficiency at the port/terminal to assess performance and enable timely decisions
to improve productivity, heighten service levels and inform investment decisions. Such a
control instrument or better management information system is nowadays an absolute necessity
for port management due to the complexity and large variety of different activities in the port
industry.

DEFINITIONS
WHAT IS PORT PERFORMANCE?
PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE
Physical performance is the output of the existing facilities. The performance of the port can be
calculated as a whole or the performance for each kind of facility (berth, specialized berth, yard,
crane, shed, storehouse, labour force, etc.).
FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
Financial performance is the contribution of each category of services provided
QUALITY PERFORMANCE
Quality performance is becoming a more important factor of competition than price. Reliability,
flexibility, application of rules, time spent resolving conflicts and arguments are included in the
quality of service, as well as the handling capacity. Quality performance denotes the ability to
solve problems.
WHAT IS AN INDICATOR?
An indicator is a tool of measurement of the performance. The indicators are always quantified
as mathematical formulas in order to be objective and calculated in a harmonized way. From the
above, it is clear that the quality of the indicators depends on the reliability of the information.
The description of the indicators will, therefore, be linked with the kinds of information we need
and the problems we may meet when collecting the data. These indicators exist for all the
operations and for any kind of cargoes or yards.
Though a port is a whole, when analyzing the efficiency of a port we are obliged to separate the
activities and measure their efficiency separately to determine the strengths and weaknesses of
the port. This analysis of the indicators will be followed by the methodology for estimating the
maximum capacity of the ports facilities and the ways to upgrade it thanks to the use of the port
performance indicators.
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR THE BERTHS
The berths serve the ships. The first function of a port is to receive ships and provide them with
services such as shelter, piloting, tugging, and mooring facilities. The performance indicators for
the berth are mainly necessary for the planning departments and for the harbor master who is in
charge of locating the ships. A lack of berths results in waiting time for the ships but an over-

capacity of berths is a waste of capital. Therefore, the output, service and utilization ratios are
explained from the planning and the commercial aspects.
BERTH OUTPUT INDICATORS
The berth output indicators are very useful for the terminal planner because they show the
evolution of the performance of each berth and determine the terminal capacity. The berth
throughput indicator is the total number of TEUs or units handled on one berth in a stated
period (usually a year). For containers, BT = total TEU/one year on the berth concerned.
SOURCE AND RELIABILITY OF THE DATA
The general statistic tables of the terminal are the main source. This should be generally
available, but it is necessary to check carefully the following difficulties that we meet when we
analyze the actual situation:
CONTAINERS
TEU (20 foot equivalent units):
Conventionally, one 40ft container is equivalent to two 20ft containers.
When the total tonnage handled includes the containers, the weight of the loaded boxes
includes the tares of the containers fully loaded and empty.
BERTH
The berth must be identified. The simple case is one ship for one berth but there are many other
cases, such as:
Ports are not homogeneous. There are berths of 150, 200, 250 or 300 metres according to
the traffic they are dedicated to or according to the date of their construction.
Consequently, two small ships can be operated on the same berth or, inversely, one long
ship can be berthed along two short berths.
The case of the lighterage (timber logs or handling on the both sides of the vessel) the
ship is berthed along one berth but the lighters operate on another one.
Two ships can be double-banked along the same berth.
Many other cases can be seen in ports your experience will show it.
DOUBLE COUNTING
Some operations imply a double handling of the commodities:
The transshipment (mainly containers) are registered twice, and

The shifting from one hold to the other (via the quay only) are counted twice

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULTS

Some indicators can be calculated separately to evaluate the weight of each influencing factor in
the present situation. For example, Direct Delivery Ration = TEU directly delivered/total TEU
handled; Average Shipload = Total TEU handled/number of ships berthed.
BERTH SERVICE INDICATORS
The service indicators are useful for the shipowners and the shippers because the turnaround time
the ships spend in ports is paid by the shipowner and also by the shipper (especially in the case
of chartered ships because he has to pay demurrage).
DEFINITIONS
The turnaround time is the time spent in the port by all the vessels calling in a specific period. It
includes:
WAITING TIME (WT)
This is delay between the ships arrival in port and its tying up at the berth.
Average WT Ratio = cumulated time for waiting (in hours)/total number of ships.
It can be calculated for a specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole port or calculated
for a type of vessels as well.
TIME AT BERTH OR SERVICE TIME (ST)
This is the time the ship stays berthed (between the berthing and the departure time).
Average ST Ratio = cumulated service time/total number of ships.
It can be calculated for a specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole port or calculated
for a type of vessel as well. ST includes the working time for operations and the idle time.
TIME IN PORT (PT) OR TURN-ROUND TIME
This is the time that the ship spends in the port from the arrival in front of the port up to the
departure after leaving the limits of the port.
Average PT Ratio = cumulated WT + ST/total number of ships.
For commercial reasons it is very frequently calculated as the following ratio:
Grade of waiting = cumulated WT/cumulated ST.

Indeed, the comparison of the waiting time with the service time provides good information
about what is acceptable to shipowners. They usually accept a 10% rate for bulk and general
cargo vessels. Beyond this rate, they consider the port as a low quality one. For Ro-Ro and
container ships, shipowners usually do not accept any waiting time. It can be calculated for a
specific berth or terminal or calculated for the whole port or calculated for a type of vessel as
well.
SOURCE AND RELIABILITY OF THE DATA
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULTS
Factors influencing the berth service indicators results include:
Topographic and geographic factors including estuary port, tide time, locks, weather etc.
Operational factors including port congestion, unavailability of berths, priorities of other
ships, unavailability of pilots or tugs etc.
BERTH UTILIZATION INDICATORS
Berth utilization indicators indicate the actual intensity of use of the berths. The definitions are
given as:
1. Berth occupancy ratio shows the level of demand for services.
Berth occupancy ratio = service time hrs in a year or other period
2. Berth worked time ratios show the number of hours that the ships are effectively
operated. It gives indication about the quality of services to ships.
Berth worked time ratio = time worked service time
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULTS
The factors influencing the berth utilization indicators results can include the following:
The quality of the handling operations.
The opening hours of the port
The social climate.
The weather.
HANDLING OUTPUT INDICATORS
1. SHIP OUTPUT
Ship output indicators measure the rate at which cargo is handled to and from a vessel. They are
clear indicators of how good the cargo handling operations are.
There are three ship output (SO) indicators:

WSO TEU per ship worked hour = TEU handled worked hours
BSO - TEU per ship at berth = TEU handled service hours
PSO TEU per ship hour in port = TEU handled hours in port
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULT
The ship output depends on the handling methods at the quay and, therefore, the means
mobilized for the handling labour force i.e. number of gangs and equipment.
2. GANG OUTPUT
The ship output depends, among other things, on the number of gangs used for the handling and
the efficiency of the gangs. Therefore, the gang includes not only workers but also the handling
equipment for ship to shore operations and quay transfer operations.
Formula: Average output per gang per hour = TEU handled (gang hours worked)
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RESULT

The gang production depends more on the quality and capacities of the equipment used
than on the number of workers.
All other factors being constant, experience demonstrates:
- Quay handling equipment always more efficient than the ship handling equipment
- To operate old ships is always more time-consuming than new ones
- An overstaffed gang does not increase the output
- The social climate and the incentive policies

CALCULATIONS
The M/V UNCTAD arrived off port Rapid at 19:30hrs on Thursday, 10th October to discharge
2180 tonnes of general cargo and to load 1440 tonnes of tea, coffee, sisal and forest products. No
berth was vacant, and the vessel was instructed to anchor and await a berth. A berth eventually
became available at 01:30hrs on Saturday, 12th October, and the vessel berthed at 04:30hrs.
Discharge operations commenced at 06:00hrs and proceeded on a 2-shift basis (each shift of
7hrs duration, plus overtime when required) until loading was completed at 19:30hrs on
Monday, 21st October.
The working details were as follows:

SHIP REGISTRATION
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS) requires every ship
to sail under one flag in accordance with Article 92, and also confers a right to every State,
whether littoral or land-locked, to have ships flying its flag in accordance with Article 91. In
exercising this right, a State must assume the obligation of making sure that the ships are subject
to its effective jurisdiction and control, according to Article 94 which states the duties of the flag
State. This also is to say that the flag State may offer a conducive environment for ship operators,
for example in the following areas:
Fiscal regime e.g. exemption of tax, foreign exchange controls etc.
Legal regimes e.g. limitation of liability, mortgage laws, litigation laws etc.
Ownership requirements.
Bilateral and multilateral agreements which accord special rights to its ships e.g. cargo
sharing, taxation, right of entry etc.
Manning requirements e.g. nationality, recognition of certificates, manning scale, wage
scales etc.
It further means that the State must ensure that:
The ship is subject to its exclusive jurisdiction on the high seas
It has jurisdiction under its internal law over each ship and its master, officers and crew in
respect of administrative, technical and social matters concerning the ship (Article
94(2b).
In pursuance of this obligation the flag State has laws and regulations covering standards of
construction, equipment and survey of its ships; the manning of ships, labour conditions and the
training of crews; safe navigation of ships; reduction and control of marine pollution;
investigation of casualties involving its ships.
The United Nations Convention on Conditions for Registration of Ships which was adopted,
but yet to enter into force, was intended to fill the vacuum left by UNCLOS. It is intended to lay
down the obligations that a flag State has to assume in relation to the registration of ships in that
State. Its main provisions are:
a) It applies only to self-propelled sea-going ships of 500 GRT and above which are used in
international seaborne trade for the transport of goods or passengers.
b) The flag State must have an adequate and competent maritime administration and shall
implement applicable international rules and standards (e.g. those of the IMO and the
ILO).
c) Owners or operators are adequately identifiable for the purpose of ensuring their full
accountability.

d) A State of registration has an option to comply with either the provisions on ownership or
manning (or with both:
Ownership A flag State must provide in its laws and regulations appropriate provisions
for participation by that State or its nationals as owners of ships flying its flag or in the
ownership of such ships and for the level of such participation.
Manning A State of registration shall observe the principle that a satisfactory part of
the complement consisting of officers and crew of ships flying its flag be nationals or
persons domiciled or lawfully in permanent residence in that State, either on a ship,
company or fleet basis.
e) A State of registration must ensure that the ship-owning company or its subsidiary
company or its principal place of business is established within its territory. Otherwise
there must be a representative or management person who shall be a national of that State
f) A State may register vessels chartered in by a charterer in that State in conformity with the
Convention.
TYPES OF SHIP REGISTRIES
There are, broadly speaking, four types of registries, viz:
a) The traditional or closed registries These generally have more stringent criteria for
ownership i.e. only citizens and companies incorporated in the country can qualify.
b) The open registries These are established as a service to the international shipping
community. Examples are Liberia and Panama.
c) The off-shore or international registries These registries are set up by the countries
with traditional registries to stem the exodus of ships from their original registries. These
are designed to lower the operating costs of owners and some are also designed to attract
foreigners. Examples are the Norwegian, Danish and German international registers.
d) The dual or bareboat registries These registries allow bareboat chartered ships to be
registered. Examples are Germany, Australia, Liberia and the Philippines.
WAYS THAT NATIONAL GOVERNMENT CAN ASSIST ITS OWN NATIONAL FLEET
1. Purchasing loans at a low rate of interest
2. Assistance with social security payments for the crews
3. Preference for the national fleet for government cargoes and for cargoes controlled by the
major industrial concerns in the country
4. Exclusive employment of national flags in certain protected trades (such as coasting)
5. Advantageous taxation schemes so that profits gained from ship-owning activities bear
little or no tax
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON TONNAGE MEASUREMENT OF SHIPS, 1969
This Convention was adopted in June 1969 and entered into force in July 1982.

ARTICLE 2: DEFINITIONS
International voyage means a sea voyage from a country to which the present
Convention applies to a port outside such country, or conversely.
Gross tonnage means the measure of the overall size of a ship determined in accordance
with the provisions of the present Convention.
Net tonnage means the measure of the useful capacity of a ship determined in
accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.
New ship means a ship the keel of which is laid, or which is at a similar stage of
construction, on or after the date of coming into force of the present Convention.
Existing ship means a ship which is not a new ship.
ARTICLE 5: FORCE MAJEURE
1. A ship which is not subject to the provisions of the present Convention at the time of its
departure on any voyage shall not become subject to such provisions on account of any
deviation from its intended voyage due to stress of weather or any other cause of force
majeure.
2. In applying the provisions of the present Convention, the Contracting Governments shall
give due consideration to any deviation or delay caused to any ship owing to stress of
weather or any other cause of force majeure.
ARTICLE 7: ISSUE OF CERTIFICATE
1. An International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall be issued to every ship, the gross and net
tonnages of which have been determined in accordance with the present Convention.
2. Such certificate shall be issued by the Administration or by any person or organization
duly authorized by it. In every case, the Administration shall assume full responsibility
for the certificate.
ARTICLE 8: ISSUE OF CERTIFICATE BY ANOTHER GOVERNMENT
1. A Contracting Government may, at the request of another Contracting Government,
determine the net and gross tonnages of a ship and issue or authorize the issue of an
International Tonnage Certificate (1969) to the ship in accordance with the present
Convention.
2. A copy of the certificate and a copy of the calculations of the tonnages shall be transmitted
as early as possible to the requesting Government.
3. A certificate so issued shall contain a statement to the effect that it has been issued at the
request of the Government of the State whose flag the ship is or will be flying and it shall

have the same validity and receive the same recognition as a certificate issued under
Article 7 (issue of certificate).
4. No International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall be issued to a ship which is flying the
flag of a State the Government of which is not a Contracting Government.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Tonnages are the actual weights of the ship and its cargo.
2. Light displacement tonnage is the actual weight of the vessel as constructed and afloat
excluding fuel, stores, crew, etc.
3. Total displacement tonnage is the light displacement tonnage plus the weight of all fuel,
stores, lubricants, crews effects and everything else that makes the ship ready to go to
sea.
4. Deadweight cargo capacity (DWCC) is the weight of cargo that can be carried by the
ship when fully loaded to the summer loadline.
5. Deadweight all told (DWAT) is the total weight of a fully loaded ship i.e. DWCC plus
total displacement.
6. Gross tonnage is the internal cubic measurement of all the enclosed spaces within the
ships hull and superstructure.
7. Net tonnage is the gross tonnage less those spaces such as engine room and crew
accommodation that cannot be used for commercial i.e. revenue earning purposes.