Refining The Narrative Turn: When does story-telling become research?

Amanda Barusch

Abstract
The narrative turn has generated interest in several disciplines, along with a range of
methodological approaches that claim to represent narrative research. Some of these can only be
generously termed "research," while others give little more than a nod to "narrative." As
narrative research matures, its boundaries must be more clearly defined. This paper examines
definitional issues and proposes three criteria for good narrative research; arguing first, that inperson data collection should use appropriate initiating prompts while giving the story-teller
sufficient time and freedom to present a coherent narrative; second, that data analysis should
address not only the content, but also the form of the narrative; and third, that interpretation of
data should acknowledge the context of the story-telling, as well as its narrative intent. The
process of boundary definition will be further clarified by exploring the possibility of coauthorship between researcher and story-teller and the treatment of the researcher's own
narrative.

Citation: Barusch, A.S. (2012). Refining the Narrative Turn: When does story-telling become
research? Gerontological Society of American, Nov. 16, 2012, San Diego.

Introduction
French literary theorist, Roland Barthes, coined the term intertexuality to argue that each new
text is in conversation with all texts that have gone before. As an author I live in fear that I will
forget to acknowledge someone for a key insight or, worse, claim an idea as mine that was
presented by someone else. So let me offer a simple disclaimer here: few, if any, of the ideas I
intend to present are original. I am indebted to scholars I have never met and never read, as well
as those, like Catherine Reissman, whose work we all know has contributed a great deal to our
understanding of what is, and what is not, narrative research.
I hope this presentation will help clarify the boundaries of narrative research, and will limit
myself to these definition issues, noting that it will eventually be both interesting and necessary
to explore not just what is, but what is good narrative research.
What is Narrative?

Narratives are fundamental (some might say unique) to human life. As meaning-making
creatures, we look at the stars and see pictures; then we use those pictures to predict floods. As
Fisher (1984) put it, we are homo narrans, hard-wired to see meaning. This explains our
tendency to see pattern both where they are (the Nile floods when Sirius rises with the sun) and
where they are not (Salem witch trials, supersitions).
Narrative creates a cosmos out of chaos. The origins of the word will resonate for researchers
because, while its more recent root in Latin, narrare, means to relate, explain, accountmake
acquainted, that root finds its root in the Greek term Gno - to know (a lifelong urge for most
researchers to understand or know what is going on).
The narrative approach is perfectly suited to understanding the post-modern world. It is
especially relevant those of us who claim only limited confidence in objective reality and
universal truths.
Apart from that, its fun!

The Narrative Turn

Here, I will offer brief history of narrative analysis(relying heavily on Barbara Czarniawskas
work). In this history we can find approaches that will inform and enrich our research.
Some date the origins of narrative analysis in literature to hermeneutic studies of the Bible,
Talmud and the Koran monks, particularly those who took vows of silence, had plenty of time
for reading. The hermeneutic approach, as you are aware, takes the position that both whole and
part must be understood in order to master a narrative. This calls for an iterative analysis that
zooms from whole to part and back, a method familiar to most qualitative researchers.
Contemporary narrative analysis begins with the Russians, in particular with Vladimir Propps
1928 work, Morphology of the Folktale, which offered a detailed analysis of Russian folk tales.
Russian formalists and post-formalists like Mikhail Bakhtin continued the tradition. Bakhtin
introduced the notion of heteroglossia or multiple voices within a single narrative this too,
has implications for our analysis because, as you know very well, multiple voices can come from
a single narrator. (Our understanding of the self as multifaceted)
Another stream, of linguistic analysis dates to 19th century Europe and the semiotics of
Ferdinand de Saussure and his contemporaries.
The spread of narrative interest to humanities & social scientists is relatively recent, dating to
1970s when Historian Hayden White raised the claim that historians dont discover history, they
rewrite it ; likewise, Richard Harvey Brown spoke of a poetics for sociology (1977)
Walter R. Fisher (1984) pointed out centrality of narrative in politics; Donald Polkinghorne
(1987) did the same for psychology; Laurel Richardson (1990) for sociology; and Deirdre
McCloskey (1990) for economics. To the extent that by the 1990s narrative analysis had become
relatively common in the social sciences.

Perspectives on Narrative Research

Four perspectives inform narrative research in the social sciences:

1) First, we can view social theory, social policy and social work practice as a narrative
genre and thus as appropriate topics for narrative research;
2) Second, Foucault alerted us to the power dynamics involved in discourse/narrative,
calling upon us to challenge or at least identify dominant narratives this hearkens a bit
to Baktins notion of heteroglossia when we recognize and value multiple voices we
destabilize the authoritative hence narrative research is applied to bring forth the
narratives the voices of the vulnerable (in our case, vulnerable elders). An
understanding of power dynamics that also informs the process of data collection.
3) Jerome Bruner contrasted a narrative way of knowing, with a logico-scientific mode
For Bruner the narrative mode involves organizing human experience using the
assumption intentionality. In contrast to the view of underlying forces that people may or
may not be aware of, the narrative approach seeks to understand intentions (along with
causal attributions) so a narrative researcher may look at how people explain their own
motives, as well as how they approach the challenge of explaining why - This has
implications for how we collect stories and where we turn out focus.
4) Polkinghorn (1987) built on Bruners conceptualization, and drew our attention to the
elements of narrative: plot, events and actions, context and setting, and interpretations
and justification; all of which merit consideration in narrative research.

Defining Features of Narrative Research

Space for Tales (Narrative researchers observe and/or participation in the construction of
narratives. That is, we create (or we visit) a space for tales.) Some of us do this through
conversations with people we might call respondents.Some look at other spaces:
correspondence, emails, facebook postings, chat groups, policy documents.
In-person data collection uses initiating prompts and gives the story-teller sufficient time and
freedom to present a coherent narrative. We enable our respondents to tell their own stories, and
we dont interrupt to tell it for them. (forgive digression in a prescriptive mode)
Consistent with the literary tradition of reader response study we pay attention, not only to
what is told but to how it is received. We observe ourselves as close readers, recording and
taking into account moments of disbelief, empathy, involvement, identification.

Attention to Plot and Language (Data analysis addresses not only the content, but also the form
of narrative)
Catherine Reissman and Lee Quinny locate the qualities of good narrative research in the data
analysis process, arguing that it requires: detailed transcripts, as well as analysis that addresses
language, narrative form, and purpose.
Borrowing from the hermeneutic tradition, analysis of data attends to the whole and to the parts
to the plot and the language.
Plot: we look for consistencies, inconsistencies, impossibilities (I have found it helpful to seek a
respondents help in constructing a timeline of complex events)
In looking a language we can consider:
Words as unit of analysis a look at vocabulary what words, for instance, older
adults use when referring to death Consider: Euphemisms, Profanity,
Exclamations

 Clauses or stanzas we tend to go here naturally, to sentences or clauses

notice Invitations (you know) and passive constructions I was involved.. the
use of metaphor

Interpretation of data acknowledges the context of the story-telling, as well as its narrative
intent
Context and setting are important (and often neglected) elements in narrative research.
Acknowledging the context involves noting, not just where the story is told, but also
interpersonal dynamics were present. (See, for instance: the guarded subject)
Narrative intent has two aspects:
First, we must ask why the story is being told. What is the motivation of the teller? This will
shape what is told.
Second, human narratives are marked by intention, a sense of purpose, a narrative quest. We
seek to describe it and at the same time, must query the coherence and integrity of a narrative,
which can get dicey.
The nature of the relationship between respondent and researcher is, or can be, particularly close,
an exchange of secrets. How do you manage differences of interpretation? What if your
interpretation might be offensive to your respondent?

Narrative Research Processes (connecting practice & research)

This diagram offers a quick overview of the process of narrative research, with a framework
developed by Barbara Czarniawska. Often narrative researchers stop after the fourth step,
providing an interpretation or even a simple summary of what the narrative says. But the
subsequent steps all provide opportunities to extend and deepen our analysis.

Ethical Considerations in Co-Authorship

Authorship represents one of the few clear boundaries in the current practice of narrative
research. We, the academics, author the texts. Any questioning tends to revolve around which
academic will be first, which academic will be included. Only recently have I begun to ask
whether the story-teller herself might participate as author of her narrative.
This arose when I found myself seriously questioning the veracity of a narrative. In a series of
three long interviews the story kept changing and my discomfort with the power dynamics of the
interviews grew. The respondent struggled to interpretation her experiences and I struggled with
inconsistencies in the narrative she was so eager to present. When I sat down to write I simply
couldnt. At first, I thought it was because facts were garbled, but eventually I realized that she
and I differed in our interpretations and without her collaboration I risked distorting her
narrative.
What to do when blocked? Start over. I have received ethics approval for a project in which I
will co-author stories with parents of transgendered young adults. I did this to challenge the
power dynamic so often present when the authoritative researcher presumes to author a
respondents tale. In the process so far, several ethical considerations have arisen:

Privacy concerns for persons mentioned

Nature & expectations regarding authorship
Differences in interpretation

This project is a work in progress, and I am sure other issues (ethical and otherwise) will arise as
it proceeds.

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