Indian Geography

Name

India is the largest country in the Indian subcontinent, deriving

its name from the river Indus which flows through the north
western part of the country.

Location

Indian mainland extends in the tropical and subtropical zones

o from latitude 84' north to 376' north and
o from longitude 687' east to 9725' east.
The southernmost point in Indian territory, the Indira Point
(formerly called Pygmalion Point), is situated at 630' north in
the Nicobar Islands.
The country thus lies wholly in the northern and eastern
hemispheres.
The northern most point of India lies in the state of Jammu and
Kashmir and it is known as Indira Col.

Area and Boundaries

India stretches 3,214 km at its maximum from north to south

and 2,933 km at its maximum from east to west.
The total length of the mainland coastline is nearly 6,100 km
and the land frontier measures about 15,200 km.
The total length of the coastline, including that of the islands,
is about 7500 km. With an area of about 32,87,782 sq km,
India is the seventh largest country in the world, accounting
for about 2.4 per cent of total world area.
Countries larger than India are Russia, Canada, USA, China,
Australia and Brazil.
In terms of population, however, India is second only to China.
India's neighbours in the north are
o China (Chinese Tibetan Autonomous Region), The
boundary between India and China is called the Mac
Mahon Line.
o Nepal
o Bhutan.
o Pakistan to west
o Myanmar to the east
o Bangladesh forms almost an enclave within India.
o Afghanistan is another close neighbour of India towards
northwest.
The country is shaped somewhat like a triangle with its base in
the north (the Himalayas) and a narrow apex in the south
(Kanyakumari).
South of the Tropic of Cancer the Indian landmass tapers
between the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in
the west.
The Indian Ocean lies south. The Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea are its two northward extensions.
In the south, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
India's Islands include the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal and the Laccadive (Lakshadweep), Minicoy and
Amindive Islands in the Arabian Sea.
India and its neighbours Pakistan , Nepal, and Bhutan are
known as the Indian sub-continent, marked by the mountains

in the north and the sea in the south. This term indicates the
insularity of this region from the rest of the world.

Administrative Divisions

At the time of independence in 1947, India was divided into

hundreds of small states and principalities. These states were
united to form fewer states of larger size and finally organised
in 1956 to form 14 states and six union territories.
This organisation of Indian states was based upon a number of
criteria, the language being one of these. Subsequent to this a
number of new states have been carved out to meet the
aspirations of the local people and to meet the developmental
goals.
Presently there are 29 States, six Union Territories and one
National Capital Territory.

Geology

The geological history of India is very complex. The rocks in

different parts of the country range in age from very ancient to
geologically recent formations.
The peninsular block of India is the area where some of the
oldest rocks of the world are found.
The rocks forming the Himalayan region and the northern
plains on the other hand are of a recent origin.
Peninsular India is believed to be a part of the ancient
Gondwanaland.

From the point of geological history, this part of India bears a

close association with parts of South Africa and Australia.
Though the rocks found on the surface of the peninsular
plateau in many parts are of sedimentary origin (for example
in the northern part),
o the basement of this tableland is made up of crystalline
rocks. This ancient crystalline rock mass is thought to
have collided with the southern shore of the Asian
landmass, causing the uplift of the Himalayas.

 The great plain of northern India has been formed through

deposition of alluvium (soil) by the rivers flowing down from
the Himalayan region. This plain is not only one of the
youngest parts of India geologically, but also one of the world's
largest stretches of alluvium. This is also one of the most
fertile and hence one of the most densely populated areas of
the world.
It is customary to divide India into three landform regions
o the Himalayas and the associated ranges;
o the Indo-Genetic plain to the south of the Himalayan
region;
o and the peninsular plateau to the south of the plains.
These three landform regions have experienced different
geological processes and sequences of events.
1. The Himalayas and the associated ranges to the north
are made up primarily of Proterozoic and Phanerozoic
sediments that are largely of marine origin and they
experienced great tectonic disturbances. These
mountains have resulted from diastrophic movements
during comparatively recent geological times. The rocks
in these mountain ranges are highly folded and faulted.
The geological evidence that is available in abundance
suggests that this extra-peninsular region has remained
under the sea for the greater part of its history and
therefore has layers of marine sediments that are
characteristic of all geological ages subsequent to the
Cambrian period.
2. The second unit, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, as stated
earlier, is geologically a very young feature of the
country. This plain has been formed only during the
Quaternary Period. The region has very limited reliefand
much of the surface of the plain is below 300 metres
above the sea level. This unit consists of typical
undulating plains created by highly developed drainage
systems. The surface of the plains is covered by
sediments of Holocene or recent age. The western part of
the plain is

occupied by the vast stretches of desert.

The peninsular plateau is geologically as well morphologi
cally a totally different kind of area from the former two units.
According to the available geological
evidence, the peninsular
region has since the Cambrian period been a continental part
of the crust of the earth. It is a stable mass of Pre-Cambrian
rocks some of which have been there since the formation of
the earth. In fact this is a fragment of the ancient crust of the
earth. This region bas never been submerged beneath the sea
since the Cambrian period, except temporarily and that too
locally. The interior of the peninsular plateau has no sedi
ments of marine origin dating back to period younger than
Cambrian. During their long existence the rocks of this region
have
undergone litt le structural transformation. Among the few
Phenerozoic events that have affected the peninsular block
include the sedimentation during the Gondwana times
of the
Mesozoic era along with outpourings of the Deccan lavas.
Though the topography
of this region is also rugged like that
of the Himalayan region but in an entirely different way. The
mountains of the peninsular region, except for the Aravallis.
do not owe their origin to tectonic forces but to denudation of

ancient plateau surfaces. They are thus relict features of the

old plateau surface that have survived weathering and ero
sion for a long time. From a geomorphological point of view
they can be considered as
tors of the extensive plateau. The
only impact of tecton ic movements on the rock strata in the
pen insular region has been fracturing and vertical and radial
displacement of the fractured blocks. The rivers flowing over
this plateau surface have flat, shallow valleys with very low
gradient and most have attained their base level of erosion.

Physiography:

Diverse in its physiography, India can be divided into three

units:
1. the mountains in the north,
2. the plains of northern India and the coast, and
3. the plateau region of the south.
4. The coastal plains are sometimes also considered a
separate unit.

Himalayas

The Himalayas are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges

in the world and comprise mainly sedimentary rocks. They,
along with the associated ranges in the northwest and
northeast, form the northern boundary of India, extending
from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam, Manipur and
Mizoram in the east.

The total length of this chain is about 5000 km, of which about
2500 km stretches in the form of an arc along the Indian
border.
The Indus Valley and Brahmaputra Valley are taken as the
western and eastern limits, respectively, of the Himalayas with
in India.


The breadth (width) of the Himalayan mountains varies from
150 to 400 km and the average height of the whole region is
taken as about 2000 metres.
The elevation of the Himalayan chain more or less decreases
eastward. Himalayas are believed to have been formed during
the Tertiary Era in the zone formerly called the Tethys Sea.
According to this view the two blocks of landmass collided with
each other and the sediments laid in the Tethys were
compressed and folded to form the Himalayas.

The theory of plate tectonics, however, emphasises on the

concept of intra-plate folding.
According to this theory, the Indian Plate or the Gondwanaland
moved northwards and its forward edge penetrated below the
southern edge
of the Tibetan Plate.
The obstruction caused by the Tibetan Plate to the northward
movement
of the Indian Plate led to the folding of the later plate and the
Himalayas came into existence.
Penetration of the edge of the Indian Plate below the edge of
the Tibetan Plate led to uplift of the Tibetan region in the form
of a plateau.
There is evidence that the Indian Plate is still moving
northwards at an imperceptible rate which is responsible for
frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. (20cm/year)

Major Ranges of Himalayas

The Himalayas comprise a number of almost parallel ranges.

As pointed out earlier, the westernmost and the easternmost
limits of the Himalayas proper in India are marked by the Indus
Valley and the Brahmaputra Valley, respectively.
The mountainous region to the west of the Indus Valley is often
called the Trans-Himalayas while the hilly region to the east of
the Brahmaputra Valley is called Purvanchal
Generally three major ranges are identified with in Himalayas.
1. The Greater or the Inner Himalayas (Himadri)
This range is also called the Central Himalayas.
This is the northernmost range of the Himalayan
system and it is also the highest.
About 25 km broad, it is the source region of many
rivers and glaciers and its mountains reach an
average height of 6000 metres.
Mount Everest or Sagarmatha, the highest
mountain peak in the world (8848 metres) lies in
this range.
The other important peaks of this range are:
Kanchenjunga (8598 metres), Makalu (8481 metres)
and Dhaulagiri (8172 metres).
The south facing slope of the Greater Himalayan
range is steeper than the northern slope.
Grantie, gneiss and schist are the chief rocks
forming this range. Most of these rocks have been
metamorphosed due to extreme compression and
folding.
2. The Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)
This range extends to the south of the Central
Himalayas. It is also known as the Middle
Himalayas.
This range is broader than the former range but its
height is lower. Average height of mountains here is
about 1800 metres and the breadth varies from 80
to 100 km.
According to most observers, this range was
uplifted at a slow rate and the rivers rising from the
Greater Himalayas have cut
deep gorges in this section.
The Main Central Thrust Zone lies between this
range and the Central Himalayas. Dhauladhar, Nag

3.

4.

Reeva, Pir Panjal and Mahabharta are the important

ranges in this zone.
Slate, Limestones and quartzites are the dominant
rocks.
The Sub-Himalayas (Siwaliks)
This is the third and the lowest range of the system,
lying further south of the former two ranges.
This range is also known as the outer Himalayas.
The Main Boundary Trust separates this range from
the Lesser or the Middle Himalayas.
The length of this range between the Potwar Basin
in the west and the Teesta River in the east is about
2400 km.
The breadth of the Siwalik range varies between 10
and 50 kilometres and its average height is about
1,200 m.
The newest range of the Himalayas, it separates the
plains from the alluvium filled basins called duns
and duors.
The Himalayan Frontal Fault marks the boundary
between the Siwaliks and the alluvial plains to its
south.
This range has been formed most recently and the
rocks in this zone have been derived from the
debris deposited by the Himalayan rivers and
glaciers.
The Siwalik range extends only in the western part
of the Himalayas and in the eastern part this range
is believed to have been eroded and buried in
alluvium. Due to this fact the high mountain ranges
appear to be rising abruptly from the plains in the
eastern part.
Tibetan Himalayas
North of the Great Himalayas lie the TransHimalayas or the Tibet Himalayas. This range acts
as a watershed between rivers flowing to the north
and those flowing to the south.
Tibetan Himalayas is about 40 km wide and rises to
heights 3,000 to 4,300 metres. The rocks in this
range are highly fossiliferous ranging in age from
Cambrian to Tertiary.
This range is separated from the Eurasian Plate by
the lndus-Tsangpo Suture Zone.
There are also some minor ranges in the Himalayan
system. They include the Karakoram (highest peak-

K2. Zaskar and Laddakh ranges in the west, and the

Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lushai and Pathkai ranges in
the east.
The hilly region to the east of Brahamaputra Valley
is often called Purvanchal.

Regional Divisions of Himalayas

The most fundamental of regional divisions of Himalayas
divides this mountain system into two parts,
o the Western Himalayas dry region
o the Eastern Himalayas- humid region
According to a more logical regional division the mountain
region is divided into the following units.
o Punjab Himalayas
This part of the Himalayas stretches between the
River Indus and River Sutlej.
It is the westernmost part of the region. This stretch
measures 562 km from west
o Kumaon Himalayas
The Kumaon Himalayas extend between the rivers
Sutlej and tbe Kali.
This stretch measures about 320 km and it lies to
the east of the Punjab Himalayas.
o Nepal Himalayas
This part of the Himalayas extends between the
rivers Kali on the west and the Teesta to the east.
The stretcb measures 800 km.
o Assam Himalayas
This is the easternmost part of the Himalayas and it
s western and eastern boundaries are marked by
the rivers Teesta and the Brahamaputra,
respectively.
This stretch measures about 750 km.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

Water flowing through the rivers, nalas and even channels

during rainy season which drain the excess water.
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as
drainage and the network of such channels is called a
drainage system.
The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the
geological time period, nature and structure of rocks,

topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity

of the flow.
A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is
called its catchment area. An area drained by a river and its
tributaries is called a drainage basin.

Important Drainage Patterns

The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is
known as dendritic the examples of which are the rivers of
northern plain.
When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions,
the drainage pattern is known as radial. The rivers
originating from the Amarkantak range present a good
example of it.
When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each
other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles, the
pattern is known as trellis.
When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a
lake or depression, the pattern is know as centripetal.

 The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the

other is known as the watershed. The catchments of large
rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and
rills are often referred to as watersheds.
Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger
areas.
Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases. On
the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it
may be grouped into:
the Arabian Sea drainage;
the Bay of Bengal drainage.
They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge,
the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line
in Figure ).
Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the
Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is
oriented towards the Bay of Bengal
while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the
Arabian Sea.
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins
of India are grouped into three categories:
i. Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of
catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as the
Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the
Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak,
etc. (Appendix III).
ii. Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,00020,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the
Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
iii. Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000
sq. km include fairly good number of rivers flowing in the
area of low rainfall.
If you look at the Figure you can see that
many rivers have their sources in the Himalayas and
discharge their waters either in the Bay of Bengal or in the
Arabian Sea.
Identify these rivers of North India.
Large rivers flowing on the Peninsular plateau have their
origin in the Western Ghats and discharge their waters in
the Bay of Bengal. Identify these rivers of the South India.
The Narmada and Tapi are two large rivers which are
exceptions. They along with many small rivers discharge
their waters in the Arabian Sea.

 Name these rivers of the western coastal region from the

Konkan to the Malabar coast.
On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics,
the Indian drainage may also be classified into
i. the Himalayan drainage
ii. the Peninsular drainage.
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
The Himalayan drainage system has evolved through a long
geological history. It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus
and the Brahmaputra river basins. Since these are fed both
by melting of snow and precipitation rivers of this system
are perennial.
These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by
the erosional activity carried on simultaneously with the
uplift of the Himalayas. Besides deep gorges, these rivers
also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their
mountainous course.
While entering the plains, they form depositional features
like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided
channels, and deltas near the river mouth.
In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is
highly zigzag, but over the plains they display a strong
meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
River Kosi, also know as the sorrow of Bihar, has been
notorious for frequently changing its course. The Kosi brings
huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains.
The course gets blocked, and consequently, the river
changes its course.

There are difference of opinion about the evolution of the

Himalayan rivers. However, geologists believe that a mighty
river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire
longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab
and onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of
Sind near lower Punjab during the Miocene period some 524 million years ago.
The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine
origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay,
boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint.
It is opined that in due course of time Indo Brahma river
was dismembered into three main drainage systems:

i.
ii.

the Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;

the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central
part;
iii. the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its
Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.
The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene
upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of
the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water
divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap area bet hills
and the Meghalaya plat Ganga and the Brahmaputra
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

The Himalayan drainage consists of several river systems but
the following are the major river systems:
The Indus System
It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an
area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a
total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of
the Himalayan rivers in India. It originates from a glacier near
Bokhar Chu (3115' N latitude and 8140' E longitude) in the
Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash
Mountain range.
In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khamban; or Lions mouth. After
flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and
Zaskar ranges, it passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts
across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near
Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region.
Find out the area known as Dardistan. The Indus receives a
number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit,
the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, The Gasting and
the Dras.
It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives
the Kabul river on its right bank.
The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the
Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Viboa and
the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
The river flows southward and receives Panjnad a little
above Mithankot.
The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab,
namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the

Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of

Karachi.
The Indus flows in India only through the Leh district in
Jammu and Kashmir. The Jhelum, an important tributary of the
Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of
the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of
Kashmir.
It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering
Pakistan through a deep narrow valley. It joins the Chenab
near Jhang in Pakistan.
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed
by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also
known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180 km before
entering into Pakistan.
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises
west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal
Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai
Sidhu, it drains the area lying between the south eastern part
of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus,
originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an
elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level. The river
flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and
Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains
where it meets the Satluj near Harike.
The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an
altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as Langchen
Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400
km before entering India, and comes out of a valley at Rupar.
It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and
enters the Punjab plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a very
important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra
Nangal project.

The Ganga System

The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the
point of view of its basin and cultural significance. It rises in
the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the
Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal.
Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central
and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges (valley).

 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter,

it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the
Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The Alaknanda consists of
the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or
Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the
Pindar join it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga
meets it at Rudra Prayag.
The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows
first to the south, then to the south-east and east before
splitting into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the
Hugli.
The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttaranchal
(110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and
West Bengal (520 km).
The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India
alone. The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a
number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in
the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south,
respectively.
The Son is its major right bank tributary. The important left
bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the
Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahanada. The river
finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar
Island.
The Yamuna, the western most and the longest tributary of
the Ganga, has its source in the Yamunotri glacier on the
western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the
Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by the Chambal, the
Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates
from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind, the
Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank. Much of its
water feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and the Agra
canals for irrigation purposes
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of
Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorge up
wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has
been constructed. From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi,
Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the
Chambal ravines. The Gandak comprises two streams,
namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the Nepal
Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and
drains the central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain in
Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur
near Patna.

 The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.

After collecting the waters of its tributaries Tila, Seti and
Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the
plain before it finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of
Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises.
After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by
the Son Kosi from the West and the Tamur Kosi from the east.
It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.
The Ramganga is comparatively a small river rising in the
Garhwal hills near Gairsain. It changes its course to the
southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik and enters
into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad. Finally, it joins
the Ganga near Kannauj.
The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the
Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift valley and
finally joins the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. Once
known as the sorrow of Bengal, the Damodar has been now
tamed by the Damodar Valley corporation, a multipurpose
project.
The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milan glacier in the Nepal
Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga. Along the
Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the
Ghaghara.
The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga
rising in the Darjiling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left
bank tributary in West Bengal.
The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga,
originating in the Amarkantak plateau. After forming a series
of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, west
of Patna, to join the Ganga.
The Brahmaputra System
The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has
its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range
near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it traverses eastward
longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and
flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the
Tsangpo, which means the purifier. The Rango Tsangpo is
the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out
a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa
(7,755 m). The river emerges from the foothills under the

name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya town

in Arunachal Pradesh.
Flowing southwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries,
viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the
Brahmaputra.
The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km
long journey through the Assam valley. Its major left bank
tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari (South) and Kalang
whereas the important right bank tributaries are the
Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh. The Subansiri which
has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river.
The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and
flows southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right
bank from where the river is known as the Yamuna. It finally
merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting
and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its
tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments
owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan
one. This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow
valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as
the water divide between the major Peninsular rivers,
discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and as small
rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi
flow from west to east.
The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son,
originating in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the
Ganga river system. The other major river systems of the
Peninsular drainage are the Mahanadi the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri.
Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence
of meanders and non perennial flow of water. The Narmada
and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however,
exceptions.
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:
o Three major geological events in the distant past have
shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:
i. Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula
leading to its submergence below the sea during the
early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the

ii.

iii.

symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the

original watershed.
Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank
of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence
and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada
and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original
cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a
lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest
to the South eastern direction gave orientation to the
entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal
during the same period.

River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage

o There are a large number of river systems in the
Peninsular drainage. A brief account of the major
Peninsular river systems is given below:
o The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of
Chhattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its
water into the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its
catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km. Some
navigation is carried on in the lower course of this river.
o Fifty three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies
in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent
lies in Orissa.
o The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system. It is
also called the Dakshin Ganga. It rises in the Nasik
district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the
Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the states of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and
Andhra Pradesh. It is 1,465 km long with a catchment
area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent of this,
lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
o The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the
Manjra are its principal tributaries. The Godavari is
subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches to the
south of Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge.It
is navigable only in the deltaic stretch.
o The river after Rajamundri splits into several branches
forming a large delta.
o The Krishna is the second largest east flowing Peninsular
river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its
total length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and

the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the total

catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in
Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in
Andhra Pradesh.
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu
district in Karnataka. Its length is 800 km and it drains an
area of 81,155 sq. km. Since the upper catchment area
receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season
(summer) and the lower part during the northeast
monsoon season (winter),the river carries water
throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation
than the other Peninsular rivers. About 3 per cent of the
Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and
56 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Its important tributaries are
the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.
The Narmada originates on the western flank of the
Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m.
Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south
and the Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a
picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar
waterfall near Jabalpur.
After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the
Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km
long estuary. Its catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km.
The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this
river.
The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river. It
originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya
Pradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145
sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in
Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and the
remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of
Aravali. It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e.
the Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each
other at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out of
Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows towards the west till
Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the
Rann of Kuchchh. The entire river system is ephemeral.

Smaller Rivers Flowing Towards the West

o The rivers flowing towards the Arabian sea have short
courses. Why do they have short courses? Find out the
smaller rivers of Gujarat. The Shetruniji is one such river
which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.

o The Bhadra originates near Aniali village in Rajkot

district. The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in
Panchmahal district.
o Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat
o The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
at an elevation of 670 m. The Kalinadi rises from
Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay. The source
of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and traverses a course
of 161 km.
o The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka
flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in
Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment
area of 2,209 sq. km.
o Goa has two important rivers which can be mentioned
here. One is Mandovi and the other is Juari. You can
locate them on the map.
o Kerala has a narrow coastline. The longest river of Kerala,
Bharathapuzha rises near Annamalai hills. It is also
known as Ponnani.
o It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km. Compare its catchment
area with that of the Sharavati river of Karnataka. The
Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its
catchment area is 5,243 sq. km. You can see that there is
a marginal difference in the catchment area of the
Bhartapuzha and the Periyar rivers. Another river of
Kerala worth mentioning is the Pamba river which falls in
the Vemobanad lake after traversing a course of 177 km.

Small Rivers Flowing towards the East

o There are a large number of rivers flowing towards the east

along with their tributaries. Can you name some of these
rivers? There are small rivers which join the Bay of Bengal,
though small, these are important in their own right. The
Subarnrekha, the Baitarni, the Brahmani, the Vamsadhara,
the Penner, the Palar and the Vaigai are important rivers.
Find out these rivers from the atlas
RIVER REGIMES
o Do you know that the quantity of water flowing in a river
channel is not the same throughout the year? It varies
from season to season. In which season do you expect
the maximum flow in Ganga and Kaveri? The pattern of
flow of water in a river channel over a year is known as
its regime.
o The north Indian rivers originating from the Himalayas
are perennial as they are fed by glaciers through snow
melt and also receive rainfall water during rainy season.
The rivers of South India do not originate from glaciers
and their flow pattern witnesses fluctuations. The flow
increases considerably during monsoon rains. Thus, the
regime of the rivers of South India is controlled by rainfall
which also varies from one part of the Peninsular plateau
to the other.
o The discharge is the volume of water flowing in a river
measured over time. It is measured either in cusecs
(cubic feet per second) or cumecs (cubic metres per
second). The Ganga has its minimum flow during the
January-June period. The maximum flow is attained either
in August or in September. After September, there is a
steady fall in the flow. The river, thus, has a monsoon
regime during the rainy season. There are striking
differences in the river regimes in the eastern and the
western parts of the Ganga Basin. The Ganga maintains a
sizeable flow in the early part of summer due to snow
melt before the monsoon rains begin.
o The mean maximum discharge of the Ganga at Farakka
is about 55,000 cusecs while the mean minimum is only
1,300 cusecs. What factors are responsible for such a
large difference? The two Peninsular rivers display
interesting differences in their regimes compared to the
Himalayan rivers.
o The Narmada has a very low volume of discharge from
January to July but it suddenly rises in August when the
maximum flow is attained. The fall in October is as

spectacular as the rise in August. The flow of water in the

Narmada, as recorded at Garudeshwar, shows that the
maximum flow is of the order of 2,300 cusecs, while the
minimum flow is only 15 cusecs.
o The Godavari has the minimum discharge in May,and the
maximum in July-August. After August, there is a sharp
fall in water flow although the volume of flow in October
and November is higher than that in any of the months
from January to May. The mean maximum discharge of
the Godavari at Polavaram is 3,200 cusecs while the
mean minimum flow is only 50 cusecs. These figures give
an idea of the regime of the river.
EXTENT OF USABILITY OF RIVER WATER
o The rivers of India carry huge volumes of water per year
but it is unevenly distributed both in time and space.
There are perennial rivers carrying water throughout the
year while the non-perennial rivers have very little water
during the dry season. During the rainy season, much of
the water is wasted in floods and flows down to the sea.
o Similarly, when there is a flood in one part of the country,
the other area suffers from drought. Why does this
happen? Is it the problem of availability of water resource
or that of its management? Can you suggest some
measures to mitigate the problems of floods and
droughts simultaneously occuring in different parts of the
country?
o Can these problems be solved or minimised by trasfering
the surplus water from one basin to the water deficit
basins? Do we have some
schemes of inter-basin linkage?
o find out the difficulties posed by the unevenness of the
terrain. How can the water be lifted from the plain area
to the plateau area? Is there sufficient surplus water in
the north Indian rivers which can be transferred on a
regular basis? Organise a debate on the whole issue and
prepare a write up. How do you rank the following
problems in using river water?
(i) No availability in sufficient quantity
(ii) River water pollution
(iii) Load of silt in the river water
(iv) Uneven seasonal flow of water
(v) River water disputes between states
(vi) Shrinking of channels due to the extension of
settlements towards the thalweg.

o Why are the rivers polluted? Have you seen the dirty
waters of cities entering into the rivers? Where do the
industrial affluents and wastes get disposed of ? Most of
the cremation grounds are on the banks of rivers and the
dead bodies are sometimes thrown in the rivers. On the
occasion of some festivals, the flowers and statues are
immersed in the rivers.
o Large scale bathing and washing of clothes also pollute
river waters. How can the rivers be made pollution free?
Have you read about Ganga Action Plan, or about a
campaign for cleaning the Yamuna at Delhi? Collect
materials on schemes for making rivers pollution free and
organise the materials in a write up.