

Oceanography by Pmfias.com 
Guyots,
Trenches,
 Canyons,
Oceanography by Pmfias.com................................................... 1
 Sleeps,
Ocean Relief ....................................................................................... 1  Fracture zones,
Marginal Seas ................................................................................... 5  Island arcs,
 Atolls, Page
Bays, gulfs, and Straits ................................................................. 8
 Coral reefs, |1
The Pacific Ocean ........................................................................... 9  Submerged volcanoes and
The Atlantic Ocean...................................................................... 10  Sea-scarps.
The Indian Ocean ......................................................................... 11 Continental Shelf
Ocean currents .............................................................................. 12
 Continental Shelf is the gently sloping
Temperature Distribution of Oceans .................................. 17
seaward extension of continental plate.
Pacific Ocean Currents .............................................................. 21  These extended margins of each continent
Atlantic Ocean Currents ........................................................... 24 are occupied by relatively shallow seas
and gulfs.
Sargasso Sea .................................................................................. 25
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together
Indian Ocean Currents .............................................................. 26 cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
Ocean Salinity................................................................................ 27  Gradient of continental is of 1° or even
less.
Tides................................................................................................... 29
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep
Types of Tides ................................................................................ 31 slope, called the shelf break.
Coral Reefs ...................................................................................... 35
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth ....................................... 37
Resources from the Ocean ....................................................... 40
Jurisdiction over the Seas......................................................... 44
Sea Level Change ......................................................................... 46

Ocean Relief
 Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic,
volcanic, erosional and depositional
processes and their interactions.
 Ocean relief features are divided into major
and minor relief features.

Major Ocean Relief Features

Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

1. the continental shelf,

2. the continental slope,
3. the continental rise,
4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.

Minor Ocean Relief Features

 Ridges,
 Hills,
 Seamounts,
 The continental shelves are covered with Submerged region between Australia and
variable thicknesses of sediments brought New Guinea.
down by rivers, glaciers etc..  The shelf is formed mainly due to
 Massive sedimentary deposits received over 1. submergence of a part of a continent
a long time by the continental shelves, 2. relative rise in sea level
become the source of fossil fuels 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down
[Petroleum]. by rivers Page
 Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East |2
Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland,

 There are various types of shelves based on  The shelves are almost absent or very
different sediments of terrestrial origin — narrow along some of the margins like the
1. glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland), coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra,
2. coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia), etc. [Ocean – Continent Convergence and
3. shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta), Ocean – Ocean Convergence].
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (At the  It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern
Mouth of Hudson River) coast of USA. On the contrary, the
5. shelf along young mountain ranges Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
(Shelves between Hawaiian Islands). largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km
in width.

Width

 The average width of continental shelves is

between 70 – 80 km. Depth
 The depth of the shelves also varies. It may  The continental slope gradually loses its
be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while steepness with depth.
in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.  When the slope reaches a level of between
0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the
Importance of continent shelves continental rise.
 With increasing depth the rise becomes
1. Marine food comes almost entirely from
virtually flat and merges with the abyssal Page
continental shelves;
plain. |3
2. They provide the richest fishing
grounds; Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain
3. They are potential sites for economic
minerals [20% of the world production of  Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of
petroleum and gas comes from shelves. the ocean basins.
Polymetallic nodules (manganese
 These are the flattest and smoothest
nodules; concentric layers of iron and
regions of the world because of
manganese hydroxides) etc. are good
terrigenous [denoting marine sediment eroded
sources of various mineral ores like
from the land] and shallow water sediments
manganese, iron copper, gold etc..]
that buries the irregular topography.
Continental Slope  It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000
 The continental slope connects the m.
continental shelf and the ocean basins.  These plains are covered with fine-grained
 It begins where the bottom of the sediments like clay and silt.
continental shelf sharply drops off into a
steep slope. Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
 The gradient of the slope region varies
 The trenches are relatively steep sided,
between 2-5°.
narrow basins (Depressions). These areas
 The depth of the slope region varies
are the deepest parts of the oceans.
between 200 and 3,000 m.
 They are of tectonic origin and are formed
 The seaward edge of the continental slope
during ocean – ocean convergence and
loses gradient at this depth and gives rise
ocean continent convergence.
to continental rise.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the
 The continental slope boundary
surrounding ocean floor.
indicates the end of the continents.
 The trenches lie along the fringes of the
 Canyons and trenches are observed in this
deep-sea plain at the bases of continental
region.
slopes and along island arcs.
Continental Rise  The trenches run parallel to the
bordering fold mountains or the island
chains.
 The trenches are very common in the
Pacific Ocean and form an almost
continuous ring along the western and
eastern margins of the Pacific.
 The Mariana Trench off the Guam
Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench with, a depth of more than 11
kilometres.
 They are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus
Earthquakes like in Japan). This makes
them very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored
so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific
 Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in  Guyots: The flat topped mountains
the Indian Ocean. (seamounts) are known as guyots.
 Seamounts and guyots are very common in
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine the Pacific Ocean where they are estimated
Ridges to number around 10,000.

 A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two Submarine Canyons Page

chains of mountains separated by a large
|4
depression. [Divergent Boundary] CANYON: a deep gorge, especially one with a
 The mountain ranges can have peaks as river flowing through it
high as 2,500 m and some even reach
above the ocean’s surface. GORGE: a steep, narrow valley or ravine
 Running for a total length of 75,000 km, VALLEY: a low area between hills or
these ridges form the largest mountain mountains or a depression, typically with a
systems on earth. river or stream flowing through it.
 These ridges are either broad, like a
plateau, gently sloping or in the form of
steep-sided narrow mountains.
 These oceanic ridge systems are of
tectonic origin and provide evidence in
support of the theory of Plate Tectonics.
 Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is
an example.

 These are deep valleys, some comparable

to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
 They are sometimes found cutting across
the continental shelves and slopes, often
Abyssal Hills extending from the mouths of large rivers.
 The Hudson Canyon is the best known
canyon in the world.

Broadly, there are three types of submarine

canyons—

 Small gorges which begin at the edge of the

continental shelf and extend down the
slope to very great depths, e.g.,
Oceanographer Canyons near New
England.
 Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed  Those which begin at the mouth of a river
summits, rising from the seafloor that does and extend over the shelf, such as the
not reach the surface of the ocean. Zaire, the Mississippi and the Indus
Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These canyons.
can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.  Those which have a dendritic appearance
 The Emperor seamount, an extension of and are deeply cut into the edge of the
the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, shelf and the slope, like the canyons off the
is a good example. coast of southern California. The Hudson
 Canyon is the best known canyon in the  The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and
world. Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic,
 The largest canyons in the world occur in Newfoundland are famous examples.
the Bering Sea off Alaska. They are the  The banks are sites of some of the most
Bering, Pribilof and Zhemchung canyons. productive fisheries of the world.

Atoll Shoal Page

|5
 A shoal is a detached elevation with
shallow depths. Since they project out of
water with moderate heights, they are
dangerous for navigation.

Reef

 A reef is a predominantly organic deposit

made by living or dead organisms that
forms a mound or rocky elevation like a
ridge.
 Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of
 These are low islands found in the tropical the Pacific Ocean where they are
oceans consisting of coral reefs associated with seamounts and guyots.
surrounding a central depression.  The largest reef in the world is found off
 It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or the Queensland coast of Australia. [We
sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, will study coral reefs in future posts]
brackish, or highly saline water.  Since the reefs may extend above the
surface, they are generally dangerous for
Bank, Shoal and Reef
navigation.
 These marine features are formed as a
result of erosional, depositional and
biological activity.
 These are produced upon features of
diastrophic [Earth Movements] origin.
Therefore, they are located on upper parts
of elevations.

Bank

 These marine features are formed as' a

[Coral Bleaching is a very important topic. We
result of erosional and depositional
will see it later posts]
activity.
 A bank is a flat topped elevation located in Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief
the continental margins.
 The depth of water here is shallow but  Ocean relief controls the motion of sea
enough for navigational purposes. water.
 The oceanic movement in the form of
currents, in turn, causes many variations
in both oceans and in atmosphere.
 The bottom relief of oceans also influences
navigation and fishing.

Marginal Seas
 In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea  North Sea
partially enclosed by islands,  Norwegian Sea
archipelagos, or peninsulas.  Scotia Sea
 Some of the major marginal seas include
the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean
Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of
California, Gulf of Mexico,  Andaman Sea Page
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four  Arabian Sea |6
of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara,  Bay of Bengal
Laptev, and East Siberian).  Java Sea
 The primary differences between marginal  Persian Gulf
seas and open oceans are associated with  Red Sea
depth and proximity to landmasses.  Sea of Zanj
 Marginal seas, which are generally
shallower than open oceans, are more Marginal seas of the Mediterranean
influenced by human activities, river Sea
runoff, climate, and water circulation.
Major conflict zones lie on the east of
Important Marginal Seas: Mediterranean. Also recent refugee crisis is
constantly in news. Hence the locations from
the region are important for prelims.

 Adriatic Sea
 Aegean Sea

Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean

 Bering Sea
 Celebes Sea
 Coral Sea
 East China Sea
Download the Image at high resolution:  Philippine Sea
https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1myJlOn-  Sea of Japan
mMCNWJYSWtMZTItVGM/view  Sea of Okhotsk
 South China Sea (another important
Marginal seas of the world conflict zone)
 Tasman Sea (between Australia and New
 Important marginal seas are mentioned
Zealand)
below.
 Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)
Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean
Other seas
 Barents Sea
 The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as
 The Irish Sea
a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean Mediterranean sea.
 The Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined
 Argentine Sea as a marginal sea, and also the Dead Sea.
 Caribbean Sea
Human Impact on marginal seas
 English Channel
 Gulf of Mexico  Marginal seas are more susceptible to
 Hudson Bay pollution than open ocean regions
 Irish Sea because of the high concentration of
 Labrador Sea human activities near coastlines and
 Mediterranean Sea rivers.
 The greatest human impact on marginal are river runoff, water column mixing, and
seas is related to the fisheries industry. turbidity.
 Ninety percent of the world's fisheries exist  River runoff and water column mixing
within coastal waters that are located less introduce dissolved nutrients, trace
than 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the elements, and suspended particles into the
shoreline. photic (light) zones of near shore regions.
 Other human activities that have adversely  Although the addition of dissolved Page
affected marginal seas include industrial nutrients and trace elements to coastal | 7
sewage disposal, offshore oil drilling, and waters and marginal seas serves to
accidental releases of pollutants, including increase primary production, the addition
petroleum products, radioactive waste, of suspended particles increases water
detergents, and plastics. turbidity, which results in reduced
 Pollutants from the nearby landmasses are sunlight penetration and decreased
introduced into marginal seas in primary productivity.
concentrations that are thousands of times
greater than in open oceans.

Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in

Marginal Seas

 The Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea

are marginal seas found in proximity to
one another. The color difference shown
here is due to a phytoplankton bloom
occurring in the Black Sea.
 Phytoplankton are good as fish feed on
them. But when they proliferate
indiscriminately, they consume too much
oxygen during nights, thus depriving
other marine organisms of oxygen.
 For example, the discharge of domestic
sewage leads to elevated nutrient
concentrations (particularly phosphates) Water Circulation in Marginal Seas
which can result in harmful algal blooms.
 Water circulation patterns in marginal seas
Biomass Production and Primary depend largely on shape of the sea, fresh-
Productivity water input (e.g., river runoff and
precipitation) and evaporation.
 Marine biomass production originates with  If river runoff and precipitation exceed
primary productivity, which in turn is evaporation, as is the case in the Black
affected by the availability of sunlight, and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water will
carbon dioxide, nutrients such as nitrates tend to flow seaward near the sea surface.
and phosphates, and trace elements.  If evaporation exceeds river runoff and
 Marginal seas generally exhibit precipitation, as in the Mediterranean Sea,
intermediate levels of primary production, the marginal sea water becomes saltier,
with the highest rates found in coastal then sinks and flows towards the less salty
upwelling regions and the lowest open ocean region.
primary production occurring in open
ocean regions. Circulation Patterns in Major Marginal
 Hence, the highest biomass production Seas
rates occur in coastal upwelling zones,
the lowest in open oceans regions, and Black Sea and Baltic Sea
intermediate rates in marginal seas.
 For near shore regions, the dominant
processes influencing primary productivity
  The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins both  Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water
possess sills that restrict subsurface water bodies that are contained within a larger
circulation. body of water near land.
 While the surface waters of the Black and  These three water bodies are usually
Baltic Seas are able to flow over the sills located at important points of human
and introduce lower salinity water into the activities; thus, conflicts with nature and
open ocean, the flow of the saltier neighbors are common. Page
subsurface waters is blocked by these sills. |8
 This type of subsurface-water restriction Bays
often leads to stagnation, which may
eventually result in local oxygen  A bay is a small body of water that is set
depletion. off from a larger body of water generally
where the land curves inward.
Mediterranean Sea  In simple words, bay is a water body
surrounded on three sides by land with the
 The Mediterranean Sea, which is divided fourth side (mouth) wide open towards
by a 400 meter sill into two sub basins, is oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).
connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the  A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed
Straits of Gibraltar, to the Black Sea via than a gulf.
the Bosporus Strait, and to the Red Sea  Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson
via the manmade Suez Canal. Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
 Atlantic Ocean water enters this marginal  An example of a bay at a river's mouth is
sea through the Straits of Gibraltar as a New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson
surface flow. This ocean water replaces a River (Hudson Estuary).
fraction of the water that evaporates in the
eastern Mediterranean Sea. Guantánamo Bay
 In Mediterranean Sea evaporation
exceeds precipitation and hence salinity  Guantánamo Bay is a sheltered inlet
increases. within the Caribbean Sea.
 During the Spanish-American War in
Gulf of Mexico 1898, the United States gained access to
the outer harbor of Guantánamo Bay.
 Compared to the Black, Baltic and  Through an agreement signed with Cuba
Mediterranean Seas, the Gulf of Mexico is in 1903, the United States obtained the
a much less complex marginal sea. right to maintain a naval base at
 The Gulf of Mexico is connected to the Guantánamo Bay.
Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida  In 1934, a treaty reaffirmed the U.S. right
and the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán to lease the site. The treaty gave the United
Strait. States a perpetual lease on Guantánamo
 In the northern Gulf of Mexico region, Bay.
Mississippi River runoff influences surface  The most infamous Guantánamo Bay
waters as far as 150 meters away from the prison is here.
shore, resulting in salinities as low as 25.
 A unique feature of the Gulf of Mexico's Gulfs
surface circulation pattern is the Loop
Current, which results from the Caribbean  A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes
Current entering the Gulf of Mexico with a narrow mouth, that is almost
through the Yucatán Strait and upon completely surrounded by land. The
arrival, turning in a clockwise direction world's largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
and "looping" around a warm "dome" of  Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of
Gulf of Mexico surface water [More under California, Gulf of Aden (between the Red
ocean currents]. Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian
Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran).
Bays, gulfs, and Straits  The Persian Gulf is important with respect
to world energy because petroleum is
 transported through its waters in oil  Example: Isthmus of Panama and
tankers. Isthmus of Suez.

Straits The Pacific Ocean

 A strait is a narrow passageway of water,
usually between continents or islands, or Page
between two larger bodies of water.
|9
 The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the
world's most famous strait. It connects the
Atlantic Ocean on its west with the
Mediterranean Sea on its east.
 Two other well-known straits are the Strait
of Bosporus and the Strait of Hormuz.
 The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black
Sea (from the north) and the Sea of
Marmara (from the south), and splits
northwestern Turkey.
 The Strait of Hormuz is located at the
southeastern end of the Persian Gulf. It
is a narrow waterway that can be (and has
 Largest and deepest ocean.
been) controlled to prevent ships from
sailing through the gulf.  Covers about one-third of the earth’s
surface.
Choke Point  Average depth is generally around 7,300
metres.
 When a body of water such as a strait is  Its shape is roughly triangular with its
capable of being blocked or even closed in apex in the north at the Bering Strait.
order to control transportation routes, the  Many marginal seas, bays and gulfs occur
body is called a "choke point." along its boundaries.
 Historically, the Strait of Gibraltar has  Nearly 20,000 islands dot this vast ocean.
been one of the world's most important
choke points. North and Central Pacific
 However, the Strait of Hormuz has become
an important choke point in recent years  Characterized by maximum depth and a
because of increasing Middle East large number of deeps, trenches and
tensions. islands.
 The Strait is surrounded by the United  Some well-known trenches are Aleutian
Arab Emirates and Oman (on one side) and and Kuril.
Iran (on the other side).  There are also a large number of
seamounts and guyots. [Hawaiian
Isthmus Hotspot]

West and South-West Pacific

 Average depth is about 4,000 m.

 It is marked by a variety of islands,
marginal seas, continental shelves and
submarine trenches.
 Mariana Trench and Mindanao Trench
are very deep with a depth of more than
10,000 metres.
 Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a
strait. i.e., a narrow strip of land South-East Pacific
connecting two larger land masses.
 Page
| 10

 This part is conspicuous for the absence  The largest width occurring off north-east
of marginal seas, and has submarine America and north-west Europe.
ridges and plateaus.  Grand banks continental shelf is the most
 The Tonga and Atacama trenches are productive continental shelf in the world.
prominent. [Recall fishing industry in Laurentian
Climate]
The Atlantic Ocean  The Atlantic Ocean has numerous
marginal seas occurring on the shelves,
 The Atlantic is the second largest ocean like the Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and
after the Pacific. the North Sea, and beyond the shelves like
 It is roughly half the size of the Pacific the Gulf of Florida (Mexican Gulf).
Ocean.
 It’s shape resembles the letter ‘S’. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 In terms of trade, it is the most significant
of all oceans.  The most remarkable feature of the
Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Continental Shelf which runs from north to the south
paralleling the ‘S’ shape of the ocean.
 It has prominent continental shelf with  The ridge has an average height of 4 km
varying widths. and is about 14,000 km long.
 The length of the continental shelf is
maximum in Northern Atlantic coasts. Seamounts and guyots
  Indian Ocean is the third largest of the
world's oceanic divisions.
 Smaller and less deep than the Atlantic
Ocean.

Submarine ridges
Page
 Submarine ridges in this ocean include the
| 11
Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge [Reunion
Hotspot], the Socotra-Chagos Ridge, the
Seychelles Ridge, the South Madagascar
Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge etc..
 These ridges divide the ocean bottom into
many basins. Chief among these are the
Central Basin, Arabian Basin, South
Indian Basin, Mascarene Basin, West
Australian and South Australian Basins.

Islands

 Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean are

continental islands and are present in the
north and west.
 These include the Andaman and Nicobar,
Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar. The
Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral
islands and Mauritius and the Reunion
Islands are of volcanic origin. The eastern
section of the Indian Ocean is almost free
from islands.

Continental Shelf

 They are present in significant numbers  The ocean's continental shelves are
but not as significant as in pacific ocean. narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 mi)
in width.
 Several seamounts form islands of the
mid-Atlantic. Examples include Pico  An exception is found off Australia's
Island of Azores, Gape Verde Islands, northern coast, where the shelf width
Canary Islands etc.. exceeds 1,000 kilometres (620 mi).
 Also, there are coral islands like Bermuda  The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m
and volcanic islands like, St Helena etc.. (12,762 ft).

Trenches Trenches

 Atlantic Ocean lacks significant troughs  Linear deeps are almost absent. Few
and trenches, which are most exceptions are Sunda Trench, which lies
characteristic to the Pacific Ocean. to the south of the island of Java and
 North Cayman and Puerto Rico are the Diamantina Trench, west of Australia.
two troughs and Romanche and South  Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in
Sandwich are the two trenches in the Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m. Sunda
Atlantic Ocean. Trench off the coast of Java is also
considerably deep.
The Indian Ocean
Straits
 Marginal seas

 Arabian Sea
 Persian Gulf
 Red Sea
 Gulf of Oman
 Gulf of Aden Page
 Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb connecting | 12
Arabian Sea
 Gulf of Kutch
 Gulf of Khambat
 Palk Strait connecting Arabian Sea and
Bay of Bengal
 Bay of Bengal
 Most of the straits in Indian Ocean are  Andaman Sea
important trade roots.  Malacca Strait
 The major choke points include Bab el  Mozambique Channel
Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok  Great Australian Bight
Strait, the Strait of Malacca and the
 Gulf of Mannar
Palk Strait.


 Laccadive Sea

Ocean currents Ocean Movements

 TiTBiT: World Water Day – March 22

 The movements that occur in oceans are Primary Forces Responsible For Ocean
categorized as: waves, tides and currents. Currents
 Waves are formed due to friction between
wind and surface water layer. The stronger Explain the factors responsible for the
the wind, the bigger the wave. They die out origin of ocean currents. How do they
quickly on reaching the shore or shallow influence regional climates, fishing and
waters. navigation? [Mains 2015] Page
 Horizontal currents arise mainly due to | 13
friction between wind and water. Rotation Influence of insolation
of earth, Coriolis force and differences in
water level gradient also play a major role.  Heating by solar energy causes the water
to expand. That is why, near the equator
 Vertical currents arise mainly due to
the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in
density differences caused by temperature
level than in the middle latitudes.
and salinity changes.
 This causes a very slight gradient and
 Tsunami, storm surge and tides are tidal
water tends to flow down the slope. The
waves [waves with large wavelengths that
flow is normally from east to west.
have greater intensity and destructive
power]. Waves and Tides will be dealt in Influence of wind (atmospheric circulation)
separate posts. For now, we will take a
look at ocean currents only.  Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean
 Usually temperature distribution and pushes the water to move. Friction
salinity are discussed first. But here, I will between the wind and the water surface
begin with ocean currents as they bear a affects the movement of the water body in
greater influence on both temperature its course.
distribution and salinity distribution.  Winds are responsible for both magnitude
and direction [Coriolis force also affects
Ocean currents direction] of the ocean currents. Example:
Monsoon winds are responsible for the
 Ocean currents are the most important seasonal reversal of ocean currents in the
ocean movements because of their Indian ocean.
influence on climatology of various  The oceanic circulation pattern roughly
regions. [Read my previous posts on corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
climatic regions to understand the circulation pattern.
influence of ocean currents.]  The air circulation over the oceans in the
 Ocean currents are like river flow in middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic
oceans. They represent a regular volume of [Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt] (more
water in a definite path and direction. pronounced in the southern hemisphere
 Ocean currents are influenced by two types than in the northern hemisphere due to
of forces namely: differences in the extent of landmass). The
1. primary forces that initiate the oceanic circulation pattern also
movement of water; corresponds with the same.
2. secondary forces that influence  At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is
the currents to flow. mostly cyclonic [Sub-polar Low Pressure
 The primary forces that influence the Belt], the oceanic circulation follows this
currents are: pattern.
1. heating by solar energy;  In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow
2. wind; [Northern Indian Ocean], the monsoon
3. gravity; winds influence the current movements
4. Coriolis force. which change directions according to
 The secondary forces that influence the seasons.
currents are:
1. Temperature difference; Influence of gravity
2. Salinity difference
 Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile
and create gradient variation.
Influence of Coriolis force  Ocean currents are classified based on
temperature: as cold currents and warm
 The Coriolis force intervenes and causes currents:
the water to move to the right in the 1. Cold currents bring cold water into
northern hemisphere and to the left in the warm water areas [from high latitudes
southern hemisphere. to low latitudes]. These currents are
 These large accumulations of water and usually found on the west coast of Page
the flow around them are called Gyres. the continents (currents flow in | 14
These produce large circular currents in all clockwise direction in northern
the ocean basins. One such circular hemisphere and in anti-clockwise
current is the Sargasso Sea. direction in southern hemisphere) in
the low and middle latitudes (true in
Secondary Forces Responsible For both hemispheres) and on the east
Ocean Currents coast in the higher latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere;
 Temperature difference and salinity 2. Warm currents bring warm water into
difference are the secondary forces. cold water areas[low to high latitudes]
 Differences in water density affect vertical and are usually observed on the east
mobility of ocean currents (vertical coast of continents in the low and
currents). middle latitudes (true in both
 Water with high salinity is denser than hemispheres). In the northern
water with low salinity and in the same hemisphere they are found on the west
way cold water is denser than warm water. coasts of continents in high latitudes.
 Denser water tends to sink, while relatively
lighter water tends to rise. General Characteristics of Ocean
 Cold-water ocean currents occur when the Currents
cold water at the poles sinks and slowly
moves towards the equator.  Characteristics of Ocean Currents arise
 Warm-water currents travel out from the due to the interplay of the above-
equator along the surface, flowing towards mentioned factors.
the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
The general movement of the currents in
Types of Ocean Currents the northern hemisphere is clockwise and
in the southern hemisphere, anti-
Based on depth clockwise.

 The ocean currents may be classified  This is due to the Coriolis force which is
based on their depth as surface currents a deflective force and follows Ferrel's
and deep water currents: law.
1. surface currents constitute about 10  A notable exception to this trend is seen in
per cent of all the water in the ocean, the northern part of the Indian Ocean
these waters are the upper 400 m of where the current movement changes its
the ocean; direction in response to the seasonal
2. deep water currents make up the other change in the direction of monsoon
90 per cent of the ocean water. These winds.
waters move around the ocean basins
due to variations in the density and The warm currents move towards the cold
gravity. seas and cool currents towards the warm
 Deep waters sink into the deep ocean seas.
basins at high latitudes, where the
 In the lower latitudes, the warm currents
temperatures are cold enough to cause the
flow on the eastern shores and cold on the
density to increase.
western shores [food for imagination].
Based on temperature  The situation is reversed in the higher
latitudes. The warm currents move along
 the western shores and the cold currents  The currents flow not only at the surface
along the eastern shores. but also below the sea surface (due to
 Convergence: warm and cold currents salinity and temperature difference).
meet.  For instance, heavy surface water of the
 Divergence: a single current splits into Mediterranean Sea sinks and flows
multiple currents flowing in different westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface
directions. current. Page

The shape and position of coasts play an | 15

Effects of Ocean Currents
important role in guiding the direction of
currents. Ocean currents have a number of direct
and indirect influences on human
activities.

Desert formation Moderating effect

 Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on  They are responsible for moderate
desert formation in west coast regions of temperatures at coasts. [North Atlantic
the tropical and subtropical continents. Drift brings warmness to England. Canary
 There is fog and most of the areas are arid cold current brings cooling effect to Spain,
due to desiccating effect (loss of Portugal etc.]
moisture).
Fishing
Rains
 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents
 Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal bear richest fishing grounds in the world.
areas and even interiors. Example:  Example: Grand Banks around
Summer Rainfall in British Type climate. Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern
 Warm currents flow parallel to the east Coast of Japan.
coasts of the continents in tropical and  The mixing of warm and cold currents help
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm to replenish the oxygen and favor the
and rainy climates. These areas lie in the growth of planktons, the primary food for
western margins of the subtropical anti- fish population. The best fishing grounds
cyclones.
 of the world exist mainly in these mixing Major hot deserts are located between 20-
zones. 30 degree latitudes and on the western side
of the continents. Why?
Drizzle
 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due
 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds,
create foggy weather where precipitation hence they are also called Trade Wind Page
occurs in the form of drizzle Deserts.
[Newfoundland].  The major hot deserts of the world are | 16
located on the western coasts of continents
Climate
between latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S
Results in (Question asked in Previous Mains Exam).
 They include the biggest Sahara Desert
 Warm and rainy climates in tropical and (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
subtropical latitudes [Florida, Natal etc.], desert is the Great Australian Desert. The
 Cold and dry climates on the western other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert,
margins in the sub-tropics due to Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and
desiccating effect, Namib Deserts.
 Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing  The hot deserts lie along the Horse
zones, Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
 Moderate clime along the western costs in Pressure Belts where the air is descending,
the sub-tropics. a condition least favorable for precipitation
of any kind to take place.
Tropical cyclones

 They pile up warm waters in tropics and

this warm water is the major force behind
tropical cyclones.

Navigation

 Currents are referred to by their “drift”.

Usually, the currents are strongest near
the surface and may attain speeds over five
knots (1 knot = ~1.8 km). [At depths,
currents are generally slow with speeds
less than 0.5 knots].
 Ships usually follow routes which are
aided by ocean currents and winds.  The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-
 Example: If a ship wants to travel from shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore
Mexico to Philippines, it can use the route blow outside the desert limits.
along the North Equatorial Drift which  Whatever winds reach the deserts blow
flows from east to west. from cooler to warmer regions, and their
 When it wants to travel from Philippines to relative humidity is lowered, making
Mexico, it can follow the route along the condensation almost impossible.
doldrums when there is counter equatorial  There is scarcely any cloud in the
current [we will study this in next post] continuous blue sky. The relative humidity
flowing from west to east. is extremely low, decreasing from 60 per
Explain the factors responsible for the cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per
origin of ocean currents. How do they cent in the desert interiors. Under such
influence regional climates, fishing and conditions, every bit of moisture is
navigation? [Mains 2015] evaporated and the deserts are thus
regions of permanent drought.
Desert Formation and Ocean Currents Precipitation is both scarce and most
unreliable.
 On the western coasts, the presence of cold How does deep water marine
currents gives rise to mists and fogs by organisms survive in spite of absence
chilling the on-coming air. This air is later of sunlight?
warmed by contact with the hot land, and
little rain falls.  Photic zone is only about few hundred
 The desiccating effect of the cold meters. It depends on lot of factors like
Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast turbidity, presence of algae etc.. Page
is so pronounced that the mean annual  There are no enough primary producers | 17
rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more below few hundred meters till the ocean
than 1.3 cm. bottom.
 At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that
make use of heat supplied by earth’s
interior to prepare food. So, they are the
primary producers.
 Other organisms feed on these primary
producers and subsequent secondary
producers.
 So, the heat from earth supports wide
ranging deep water marine organisms.

But the productivity is too low compared to

ocean surface.

Why is diurnal range of ocean

temperatures too small?, Why oceans
take more time to heat or cool?

 The process of heating and cooling of the

oceanic water is slower than land due to
vertical and horizontal mixing and high
specific heat of water.
Temperature Distribution of  (More time required to heat up a Kg of
Oceans water compared to heating the same unit
of a solid at same temperatures and with
 The study of the temperature of the oceans equal energy supply).
is important for determining the
1. movement of large volumes of water The ocean water is heated by three
(vertical and horizontal ocean processes.
currents),
2. type and distribution of marine 1. Absorption of sun’s radiation.
organisms at various depths of oceans, 2. The conventional currents: Since the
3. climate of coastal lands, etc. temperature of the earth increases with
increasing depth, the ocean water at great
Source of Heat in Oceans depths is heated faster than the upper
water layers. So, convectional oceanic
 The sun is the principal source of energy circulations develop causing circulation of
(Insolation). heat in water.
 The ocean is also heated by the inner heat 3. Heat is produced due to friction caused
of the ocean itself (earth’s interior is hot. At by the surface wind and the tidal currents
the sea surface, the crust is only about 5 which increase stress on the water body.
to 30 km thick). But this heat is negligible
compared to that received from sun. The ocean water is cooled by

1. Back radiation (heat budget) from the sea

surface takes place as the solar energy
 once received is reradiated as long wave cold water from below (This happens near
radiation (terrestrial radiation or Peruvian Coast in normal years. El-Nino).
infrared radiation) from the seawater.  Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the flowing from oceans into continents) pile
atmosphere if there is temperature up warm water near the coast and this
difference. raises the temperature (This happens near
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of the Peruvian coast during El Nino event)(In Page
latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere normal years, North-eastern Australia and | 18
gains this heat in the form of latent heat of Western Indonesian islands see this kind
condensation). of warm ocean waters due to Walker Cell
or Walker Circulation).
Factors Affecting Temperature  Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents
Distribution of Oceans raise the temperature in cold areas while
the cold currents decrease the temperature
 Insolation: The average daily duration of in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm
insolation and its intensity. current) raises the temperature near the
 Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, eastern coast of North America and the
scattering, evaporation and radiation. West Coast of Europe while the Labrador
 Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending current (cold current) lowers the
on the angle of sun rays). temperature near the north-east coast of
 The physical characteristics of the sea North America (Near Newfoundland). All
surface: Boiling point of the sea water is these factors influence the temperature of
increased in the case of higher salinity and the ocean currents locally.
vice versa [Salinity increased == Boiling
point increased == Evaporation Vertical Temperature Distribution of
decreased]. Oceans
 The presence of submarine ridges and
sills [Marginal Seas]: Temperature is  Photic or euphotic zone extends from the
affected due to lesser mixing of waters on upper surface to ~200 m. The photic zone
the opposite sides of the ridges or sills. receives adequate solar insolation.
 The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally
extensive seas in low latitude regions have
warmer surface water than longitudinally
extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records
higher temperature than the longitudinally
extensive Gulf of California].
 The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf,
Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
relatively higher temperature than the
open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in
the high latitudes have lower temperature
than the open seas.
 Local weather conditions such as
cyclones.
 Unequal distribution of land and water:
The oceans in the northern hemisphere
receive more heat due to their contact with
larger extent of land than the oceans in the
southern hemisphere.
 Prevalent winds generate horizontal and
sometimes vertical ocean currents: The
winds blowing from the land towards the
oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from
the shore) drive warm surface water away
from the coast resulting in the upwelling of
 Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the  Pycnocline exists in oceans at a depth of
ocean bottom; this zone does not receive 100-1000 m because of large density
adequate sunrays. difference between surface waters and
deep ocean water.
Thermocline  Pycnocline effectively prevents vertical
currents except in polar regions.
 The profile shows a boundary region Page
between the surface waters of the ocean
| 19
and the deeper layers.
 The boundary usually begins around 100 -
400 m below the sea surface and extends
several hundred of meters downward.
 This boundary region, from where there is
a rapid decrease of temperature, is called
the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the
total volume of water is found below the
thermocline in the deep ocean. In this
zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
 Pycnocline is almost absent polar regions.
This is because of the sinking of cold water
near poles.
 Formation of pycnocline may result from
changes in salinity or temperature.
 Because the pycnocline zone is extremely
stable, it acts as a barrier for surface
processes. Thus, changes in salinity or
temperature are very small below
pycnocline but are seasonal in surface
waters.
Three-Layer System Similar Terms: Thermocline, Halocline.

 The temperature structure of oceans over Thermohaline Circulation

middle and low latitudes can be described
as a three-layer system from surface to the
bottom.
 The first layer represents the top layer of
warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
thick with temperatures ranging between
20° and 25° C. This layer, within the
tropical region, is present throughout the
year but in mid-latitudes it develops only
during summer.
 The second layer called the thermocline
layer lies below the first layer and is
characterized by rapid decrease in
temperature with increasing depth. The
thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.  Winds drive ocean currents in the upper
 The third layer is very cold and extends up 100 meters of the ocean’s surface.
to the deep ocean floor. Here the  However, ocean currents also flow
temperature becomes almost stagnant. thousands of meters below the surface.
 These deep-ocean currents are driven by
Pycnocline differences in the water’s density, which is
 Pycnocline is a boundary separating two controlled by temperature (thermo) and
liquid layers of different densities. salinity (haline).
 This process is known as thermohaline strait is at high temperature compared to
circulation. water at same level in Indian ocean. The
 The thermohaline circulation is sometimes temperature difference is greater than
called the ocean conveyor belt, the great nearly 20° C.
ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor
belt. Horizontal Temperature Distribution of
 Ocean bottom relief greatly influences Oceans Page
thermohaline circulation. | 20
 The average temperature of surface water
General behavior of the oceans is about 27°C and it
gradually decreases from the equator
 In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the towards the poles.
surface water temperatures are close to 0°  The rate of decrease of temperature with
C and so the temperature change with the increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per
depth is very slight (ice is a very bad latitude.
conductor of heat). Here, only one layer  The horizontal temperature distribution is
of cold water exists, which extends from shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines
surface to deep ocean floor. joining places of equal temperature.
 Isotherms are closely spaced when the
The rate of decrease of temperature with temperature difference is high and vice
depths is greater at the equator than at the versa.
poles.  For example, in February, isothermal lines
are closely spaced in the south of
 The surface temperature and its downward
Newfoundland, near the west coast of
decrease is influenced by the upwelling of
Europe and North Sea and then isotherms
bottom water (Near Peruvian coast during
widen out to make; a bulge towards north
normal years).
near the coast of Norway. The cause of this
 In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions,
phenomenon lies in the cold Labrador
sinking of cold water and its movement
Current flowing southward along the north
towards lower latitudes is observed.
American coast which reduces the
 In equatorial regions the surface, water
temperature of the region more sharply
sometimes exhibits lower temperature
than in other places in the same latitude;
and salinity due to high rainfall, whereas
at the same time the warm Gulf Stream
the layers below it have higher
proceeds towards the western coast of
temperatures.
Europe and raises the temperature of the
 The enclosed seas in both the lower and west coast of Europe.
higher latitudes record higher
temperatures at the bottom.
 The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the
Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea have high bottom
temperatures due to high insolation
throughout the year and lesser mixing of
the warm and cold’ waters.
 In the case of the high latitude enclosed
seas, the bottom layers of water are
warmer as water of slightly higher salinity
and temperature moves from outer ocean
as a sub-surface current.
 The presence of submarine barriers may
lead to different temperature conditions on Range of Ocean Temperature
the two sides of the barrier. For example,
at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the  The oceans and seas get heated and cooled
submarine barrier (sill) has a height of slower than the land surfaces. Therefore,
about 366 m. The subsurface water in the even if the solar insolation is maximum at
 noon, the ocean surface temperature is years. The point of highest sunspot activity
highest at 2 p.m. during this cycle is known as Solar
 The average diurnal or daily range of Maximum, and the point of lowest activity
temperature is barely 1 degree in oceans is Solar Minimum.
and seas.
 The highest temperature in surface water Pacific Ocean Currents
is attained at 2 p.m. and the lowest, at 5 Page
a.m. Previous post: Ocean Currents – Factors | 21
 The diurnal range of temperature is Responsible for the Formation of Ocean
highest in oceans if the sky is free of Currents – Effects of Ocean Currents on
clouds and the atmosphere is calm. climate, fishing, navigation, tropical cyclones.
 The annual range of temperature is
influenced by the annual variation of Equatorial Pacific Ocean Currents
insolation, the nature of ocean currents
and the prevailing winds.  Under the influence of prevailing trade
 The maximum and the minimum winds [tropical easterlies], the north
temperatures in oceans are slightly delayed equatorial current and the south
than those of land areas (the maximum equatorial current start from the eastern
being in August and the minimum in pacific (west coast of Central America) and
February [Think why intense tropical traverses a distance of 14,500 km moving
cyclones occur mostly between August and from east to west.
October – case is slightly different in
Indian Ocean due to its shape]).
Counter equatorial current
 The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic
 This raises the level of western pacific
oceans have a greater range of temperature
(near Indonesia and Australia) ocean by
than their southern parts due to a
few centimeters. And this creates a
difference in the force of prevailing winds
counter-equatorial current which flows
from the land and more extensive ocean
between the north equatorial current and
currents in the southern parts of oceans.
the south equatorial current in west-east
 Besides annual and diurnal ranges of
direction.
temperature, there are periodic
fluctuations of sea temperature also. For
example, the 11-year sunspot cycle causes
sea temperatures to rise after a 11- year
gap.

Sunspot

 Sunspots are temporary phenomena on

the photosphere of the Sun that appear
visibly as dark spots compared to
surrounding regions.
 They correspond to concentrations of
magnetic field that inhibit convection and
result in reduced surface temperature
compared to the surrounding photosphere.
 Sunspots usually appear as pairs, with Three factors aid the formation of Counter-
each spot having the opposite magnetic Equatorial current
polarity of the other.
 Although they are at temperatures of 1. Piling up of water in the western pacific
roughly 3,000–4,500 K (2,700–4,200 °C), due to trade winds.
the contrast with the surrounding material 2. The presence of doldrums (equatorial low
at about 5,780 K (5,500 °C) leaves them pressure belt) in between the north
clearly visible as dark spots. equatorial current and the south
 Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven equatorial current. Doldrums are narrow
 regions with calm (lower) atmospheric Kuroshio current. Most of it lies in the
conditions. Such conditions aid the sub-tropical high pressure belt and its
backward movement of piled up western northern part is under the influence of
pacific waters. westerlies.
3. Piling of water in the western part of
oceans due to rotation of earth (this is a Oyashio Current and Okhotsk current
very general point). Page
 There are two more cold currents in the
Question Prelims 2015 northern Pacific, Oyashio flows across the | 22
east coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to
What explains the eastward flow of the merge with the warmer waters of Kuroshio,
equatorial counter-current? and the Okhotsk current flows past
Sakhlain Islands to merge with the
1. The Earth’s rotation on its axis Oyashio current off Hokkaido (Northern
2. Convergence of the two equatorial currents Japanese Island).
3. Difference in salinity of water
4. Occurrence of the belt of calm near the North-Pacific current
equator
 From the south-east coast of Japan, under
This question is a very tricky one.
the influence of prevailing westerlies, the
Opinions can vary. Kuroshio current turns eastwards and
moves as the North-Pacific current,
Should wait for Official Answer Key! reaches the west coast of North America,
and bifurcates into two.
My opinion
Alaska and Californian current
Point 1: Very general in nature. So, less
important.  The northern branch flows anti-clockwise
along the coast of British Columbia and
Point 2: This is the first step. Without
Alaska and is known as the Alaska
convergence of equatorial currents, there may
current. The water of this current is
not be counter equatorial current. But
relatively warm as compared to the
convergence occur due to trade winds [winds
surrounding waters in this zone.
play a superior role in the formation of ocean
 The southern branch of the current moves
currents].
as a cold current along the west coast of
Point 3: Salinity greatly influences vertical USA and is known as the Californian
currents and its influence on horizontal current. The Californian current joins the
movement is less significant. So, ruled out. north equatorial current to complete the
circuit.
Point 4: This is the main reason behind
counter equatorial current (the backward East Australian current
movement of equatorial waters). Doldrums are
calm regions facilitating the backward  Following the pattern in the northern
movement of water. hemisphere, the south equatorial current
flows from east to west and turns
There is a severe clash between Points 2 and southwards as the East Australian
4. My pick is Option D [more probable]. current. It then meets the South pacific
current near Tasmania which flows from
But why? Because the most important factor west to east.
what influences the direction of ocean
currents is wind. Peru current or Humboldt Current
Kuroshio current  Reaching the south-western coast of South
America, it turns northward as the Peru
 The north equatorial current turns current. It is a cold current, which finally
northward off the Philippines to form the
 feeds the south equatorial current, thus
completing the great circuit.
 And the zone where Peru Cold current
meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is
an important fishing zone. Why? Read the
topic below.
Page
Phytoplankton and Fishing
| 23
Mixing zones of Cold and Warm Ocean
Currents [Grand Banks] and cold water
upwelling zones [Peru coast] are the most
productive fishing grounds on earth. Why?

 Phytoplankton are the primary producers

in the marine food chain and hence they  Algae and other plants are able to
are called the ‘grass of the sea’. photosynthesize to produce organic
material from inorganic nutrients.
 Phytoplankton are predominantly
microscopic, single celled organisms.  And the organic material forms the
building block for all animals higher up in
 Some species of algae are large,
the food chain.
multicellular and live on the ocean bottom.
However, they are insignificant players in  Almost all biomass in the ocean is derived
the marine ecosystem compared to the from the phytoplankton and to a lesser
phytoplankton as they only inhabit a extent the benthic algae (found on the
narrow zone around the coast. bottom of a sea or lake).
 However, there is a fundamental problem
phytoplankton in the open ocean have to
face. They need both sunlight and
nutrients (such as nitrate and
phosphate) to be able to photosynthesize.
 Sunlight is only available in the uppermost
layers.
 During photosynthesis, the nutrients are
quickly used up by phytoplankton so they
are not available for long periods in the
upper layers under normal circumstances.

This is indeed the case in tropical waters,

and as a result they are very unproductive.

 To escape this problem the seawater needs

to be mixed regularly to bring the nutrient
rich deep waters up to the sunlight zone
where the phytoplankton can grow.

This is one of the reasons why cold and

warm currents convergence zones [mixing
happens – the collision of currents causes
mixing] and upwelling zones are very
productive.

 Furthermore, in surroundings where

Why are cold and warm current mixing atmospheric temperatures are often colder
zones the good fishing grounds? Why than oceanic temperatures, the top layers
are tropical waters highly of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
unproductive?
 This increases the density of the surface
waters and causes them to sink and
therefore causes mixing [nutrient deficient
water sinks and nutrient rich water is
upwelled].

Page
| 24

Antilles current

 The south equatorial current bifurcates

into two branches near Cape de Sao
Roque (Brazil).
 Part of the current enters the Caribbean
Sea along with north equatorial current
into the Mexican Gulf, while the remainder
passes along the eastern side of the West
Indies as the Antilles current.
 There is a rise in water level in the
Mexican Gulf because of large amounts of
water brought by the Mississippi river and
branches of north and south equatorial
currents.

Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift

 Antilles current creates a current that

flows out through the Strait of Florida as
Florida current, which mixes with Antilles
Both of these factors play a role in current from the south.
Icelandic waters, resulting in the very  This combined current moves along the
productive ocean environment around east coast of USA and is known as the
Iceland. Florida current upto the Cape Hatteras
and as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
Atlantic Ocean Currents  Near the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream
mixes with cold Labrador and East
Equatorial Atlantic Ocean Currents Greenland currents and flows eastward
across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic
 Under the influence of prevailing trade Drift.
winds [easterly trade winds], the north  Here, westerly movement of North Atlantic
equatorial current and the south Drift is due to the influence of westerlies.
equatorial current start from the eastern
Atlantic (west coast of Africa), moving from Norwegian current
east to west.
 This raises the level of western Atlantic  The North Atlantic Current breaks up into
(north of the Brazil bulge) ocean by few two branches on reaching the eastern part
centimeters. And this creates a counter- of the ocean.
equatorial current which flows between  The main current, continuing as the North
the north equatorial current and the south Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles
equatorial current in west-east direction. from where it flows along the coast of
 Norway as the Norwegian current and  The Labrador current flows along part of
enters the Arctic Ocean. the east coast of Canada and meets the
 Norwegian current is very important as it warm Gulf Stream.
keeps ocean to the north of Norway partly  The confluence of these two currents, one
free from ice and also moderates the hot and the other cold, produce the famous
extremes of climate. It is because of this fogs around Newfoundland.
current, Russia is able to move cargo in  As a result of mixing of cold and warm Page
summers through Arctic ocean (Barents waters, one of the world's most important | 25
Sea). fishing grounds is created.[Explained in
 The southerly branch flows between Spain the previous post: Pacific Ocean Currents –
and Azores as the cold Canary current. Fishing and Phytoplankton]
 This current finally joins the north
equatorial current completing the circuit in
the North Atlantic.
 The Sargasso Sea, lying within this circuit,
is full of large quantities of seaweed and is
an important geographical feature.

Sargasso Sea

Brazil current

 In the South Atlantic Ocean, the south

equatorial current, flowing from east to
west, splits into two branches near Cape
de Sao Roque (Brazil).
 The northern branch joins the north
equatorial current (a part of it flows in
 The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in Anatilles Current and other into Gulf of
the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. Mexico), whereas the southern branch
 It is the only sea on Earth which has no turns southward and flows along the
coastline. South American coast as the warm Brazil
 It is bounded on the current.
1. west by the Gulf Stream;  The south flowing Brazil current swings
2. north, by the North Atlantic Current; eastward at about latitude 35°S (due to
3. east, by the Canary Current; and westerlies) to join the West Wind Drift
4. south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial flowing from west to east.
Current.  A small branch of West Wind Drift splits
 This system of ocean currents forms the and flows between Argentinian coast and
North Atlantic Gyre. Falkland Islands and this current is called
 All the currents deposit the marine plants as Falkland cold current.
and refuse they carry into this sea.  It mixes with warm Brazil current at the
southern tip of Brazil.
Grand Banks-Richest Fishing Grounds
on Earth Benguela current

 The two cold currents—East Greenland  A branch of the South Atlantic splits at the
current and the Labrador current—flow southern tip of Africa and flows along the
from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic west coast of South Africa as the cold
Ocean. Benguela current, which joins the south
equatorial current to complete the circuit.
  Under the influence of prevailing trade
winds [easterly trade winds], the north
equatorial current and the south
equatorial current start from the south of
Indonesian islands, moving from east to
west.
 This raises the level of western Indian Page
(south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few | 26
centimeters. And this creates a counter-
equatorial current which flows between
the north equatorial current and the south
equatorial current in west-east direction.
 The north-east monsoons drive the water
along the coast of Bay of Bengal to
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction.
 Similarly, the water along the coast of
Arabian Sea also circulate in an anti-
Indian Ocean Currents clockwise circulation.

 Indian ocean is half an ocean, hence the Summer Circulation – North

behavior of the North Indian Ocean Equatorial Current Counter-Equatorial
Currents is different from that of Atlantic Current are Absent
Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean
Currents.  In summer, due to the effects of the strong
 Also, monsoon winds in Northern Indian south-west monsoon and the absence of
ocean are peculiar to the region, which the north-east trades, a strong current
directly influence the ocean surface water flows from west to east, which completely
movement [North Indian Ocean Currents]. obliterates the north equatorial
current. Hence, there is no counter-
Indian Ocean Currents and Monsoons equatorial current as well.
 Thus, the circulation of water in the
 The currents in the northern portion of the northern part of the ocean is clockwise
Indian Ocean change their direction from during this season.
season to season in response to the
seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. The
effect of winds is comparatively more
pronounced in the Indian Ocean.

Southern Indian Ocean Currents -

Agulhas current, Mozambique current,
West Australian current

Winter Circulation  The general pattern of circulation in

southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite
similar to that of southern Atlantic and
 Pacific oceans. It is less marked by the  potassium sulphate — 2.5%
seasonal changes.
 The south equatorial current, partly led by Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
the corresponding current of the Pacific
Ocean, flows from east to west.  The salinity of water in the surface layer of
 It splits into two branches, one flowing to oceans depend mainly on evaporation and
the east of Madagascar known as Agulhas precipitation. Page
current and the other between  Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
| 27
Mozambique and Western Madagascar coastal regions by the fresh water flow
coast known as Mozambique current. from rivers, and in polar regions by the
 At the southern tip of Madagascar, these processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
two branches mix and are commonly called  Wind, also influences salinity of an area by
as the Agulhas current. It still continues to transferring water to other areas.
be a warm current, till it merges with the  The ocean currents contribute to the
West Wind Drift. salinity variations.
 The West Wind Drift, flowing across the
ocean in the higher latitudes from west to
east, reaches the southern tip of the west
coast, of Australia.
 One of the branches of this cold current
turns northwards along the west coast of
Australia. This current, known as the West
Australian current, flows northward to
feed the south equatorial current.

Ocean Salinity
 Salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in sea water.
 It is calculated as the amount of salt (in
gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater.
 It is usually expressed as parts per
thousand or ppt.
 Salinity, temperature and density of water
 Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been
are interrelated. Hence, any change in the
considered as the upper limit to demarcate
temperature or density influences the
‘brackish water’.
salinity of an area.
Role of Ocean Salinity
Horizontal distribution of salinity
 Salinity determines compressibility,
To make life easier, I will remove the symbol
thermal expansion, temperature, density,
o/oo and place only number
absorption of insolation, evaporation and
humidity.  The salinity for normal open ocean ranges
 It also influences the composition and between 33 and 37.
movement of the sea: water and the
distribution of fish and other marine High salinity regions
resources.
 In the land locked Red Sea (don’t confuse
Share of different salts is as shown below— this to Dead Sea which has much greater
salinity), it is as high as 41.
 sodium chloride — 77.7%
 In hot and dry regions, where evaporation
 magnesium chloride—10.9%
is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to
 magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
70.
 calcium sulphate — 3.6%
 Comparatively Low salinity regions  Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea
due to enormous fresh water influx by
 In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river rivers.
where fresh and saline water get mixed)
and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from
0 - 35, seasonally (fresh water coming from
ice caps). Page
| 28
Pacific

 The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean

is mainly due to its shape and larger areal
extent.

Atlantic

 The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean Inland seas and lakes
is around 36-37.
 The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean  The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is
has a salinity of about 35. very high because of the regular supply of
 Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, salt by ' the rivers falling into them.
high relative humidity, cloudiness  Their water becomes progressively more
and calm air of the doldrums.
 The polar areas experience very
little evaporation and receive large
amounts of fresh water from the
melting of ice. This leads to low
levels of salinity, ranging between
20 and 32.
 Maximum salinity (37) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20°
W - 60° W. It gradually decreases
towards the north.

Indian Ocean

 The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is saline due to evaporation.

35.  For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt
 The low salinity trend is observed in the Lake , (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and the
Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water Lake Van in Turkey is 220, 240 and 330
by the river Ganga. respectively.
 On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows  The oceans and salt lakes are becoming
higher salinity due to high evaporation more salty as time goes on because the
and low influx of fresh water. rivers dump more salt into them, while
fresh water is lost due to evaporation.
Marginal seas
Cold and warm water mixing zones
 The North Sea, in spite of its location in
higher latitudes, records higher salinity  Salinity decreases from 35 – 31 on the
due to more saline water brought by the western parts of the northern hemisphere
North Atlantic Drift. because of the influx of melted water from
 Baltic Sea records low salinity due to the Arctic region.
influx of river waters in large quantity.
 The Mediterranean Sea records higher Sub-Surface Salinity
salinity due to high evaporation.
 With depth, the salinity also varies, but 1. Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt
this variation again is subject to latitudinal in grams dissolved in sea water per (a) 10
difference. The decrease is also influenced gm (c) 100 gm (b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm
by cold and warm currents. 2. Which one of the following is the smallest
 In high latitudes, salinity increases with ocean: (a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean
depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases (b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean
up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At Page
the equator, surface salinity is lower. Tides | 29
 The periodical rise and fall of the sea level,
once or twice a day, mainly due to the
attraction of the sun and the moon, is
called a tide.
 Movement of water caused by
meteorological effects (winds and
atmospheric pressure changes) are called
surges (storm surge during cyclones).
 The study of tides is very complex,
spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and
height.
 The moon’s gravitational pull to a great
extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
Vertical Distribution of Salinity gravitational pull, are the major causes
for the occurrence of tides.
 Salinity changes with depth, but the way it  Another factor is centrifugal force which
changes depends upon the location of the acts opposite to gravitational pull of
sea. earth.
 Salinity at the surface increases by the loss  Tides occur due to a balance between all
of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased these forces.
by the input of fresh waters, such as from
the rivers. Tidal Bulge - Why there are two tidal
 Salinity at depth is very much fixed, bulges? - Why is there a tidal bulge on
because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, the other side?
or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked
difference in the salinity between the
surface zones and the deep zones of the
oceans.
 The lower salinity water rests above the
higher salinity dense water.
 Salinity, generally, increases with depth
and there is a distinct zone called the
halocline (compare this with thermocline),
where salinity increases sharply.
 Other factors being constant, increasing
salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally,
sinks below the lower salinity water. This
leads to stratification by salinity.

Questions

Multiple choice questions

 Page
| 30

 Together, the gravitational pull and the  The movement of the moon in relation to
centrifugal force are responsible for the earth.
creating the two major tidal bulges on the  Changes in position of the sun and moon
earth. in relation to the earth.
 On the side of the earth facing the moon,  Uneven distribution of water over the
a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite globe.
side though the gravitational attraction of  Irregularities in the configuration of the
the moon is less as it is farther away, the oceans.
centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the
other side. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTQ6ciH
 The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference ENgI
between these two forces; i.e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon  On the surface of the earth, the horizontal
and the centrifugal force. tide generating forces are more important
 On the surface of the earth, nearest the than the vertical forces in generating the
moon, pull or the attractive force of the tidal bulges.
moon is greater than the centrifugal force,  The tidal bulges on wide continental
and so there is a net force causing a bulge shelves, have greater height. When tidal
towards the moon. bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they
 On the opposite side of the earth, the become low.
attractive force is less, as it is farther  The shape of bays and estuaries along a
away from the moon, the centrifugal coastline can also magnify the intensity of
force is dominant. Hence, there is a net tides.
force away from the moon. It creates the  Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
second bulge away from the moon. magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and
Factors Controlling the Nature and estuaries they are called tidal currents
Magnitude of Tides (tidal bore is one such tidal current).

Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada

 The highest tides in the world occur in the and low tides are approximately of the
Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The same height.
tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m.
 Because there are two high tides and two Mixed tide
low tides every day (slightly more than a 24
hour period); then a tide must come in  Tides having variations in height are
within about a six hour period. known as mixed tides. These tides Page
generally occur along the west coast of
Types of Tides North America and on many islands of the | 31
Pacific Ocean.
 Tides vary in their frequency, direction and
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the
movement from place to place and also
from time to time.
Earth Positions
 Tides may be grouped into various types
 The height of rising water (high tide) varies
based on their frequency of occurrence in
appreciably depending upon the position of
one day or 24 hours or based on their
sun and moon with respect to the earth.
height.
Spring tides and neap tides come under
Tides based on Frequency this category.

Spring tides
Semi-diurnal tide
 The position of both the sun and the moon
 The most common tidal pattern, featuring
in relation to the earth has direct bearing
two high tides and two low tides each
on tide height.
day [Actually it varies between 3 tides
 When the sun, the moon and the earth are
to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4
in a straight line, the height of the tide will
is normal]. The successive high or low
be higher.
tides are approximately of the same height.
 These are called spring tides and they
Although tides occur twice a day, their occur twice a month, one on full moon
interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead, period and another during new moon
they occur at regular intervals of 12 hours period.
and 25 minutes.

 This is because the moon revolves around

the earth from west to east, and each day
it moves a bit to the east if observed from
the same place on earth at the same time
on two consecutive days.
 This time lag explains the tide interval of
12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur
twice a day.
 A place in England—Southampton—
experiences tides 6-8 times a day [2 high
tides from North Sea + 2 high tides from
English Channel + 2 neap tides from
North Sea + 2 neap tides from English
Channel]. This happens because the North
Sea and the English Channel push the Neap tides
water at different intervals.
 Normally, there is a seven day interval
Diurnal tide between the spring tides and neap tides.
 At this time the sun and moon are at right
 There is only one high tide and one low angles to each other and the forces of the
tide during each day. The successive high
 sun and moon tend to counteract one Magnitude of tides based on Perigee
another. and Apogee of earth
 The Moon’s attraction, though more than
twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished
by the counteracting force of the sun’s
gravitational pull.
 Like spring tides, these tides also occur Page
twice a month. | 32

 When the earth is closest to the sun

(perihelion), around 3rd January each
year, tidal ranges are also much greater,
with unusually high and unusually low
tides.
 When the earth is farthest from the sun
(aphelion), around 4th July each year,
tidal ranges are much less than average.

Ebb and Flood

 The time between the high tide and low

tide, when the water level is falling, is
called the ebb.
 The time between the low tide and high
tide, when the tide is rising, is called the
flow or flood.

Gif Images: View in power point in full

screen mode

Magnitude of tides based on Perigee

and apogee of moon

 Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is

closest to the earth (perigee), unusually
high and low tides occur. During this time
the tidal range is greater than normal.
 Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest
from earth (apogee), the moon’s
gravitational force is limited and the tidal Gif Image: View in power point in full
ranges are less than their average heights. screen mode
Importance of Tides  The shape of bays and estuaries along a
coastline can also magnify the intensity of
 Since tides are caused by the earth-moon- tides.
sun positions which are known accurately,  Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
the tides can be predicted well in magnitudes. Example: Bay of Fundy ––
advance. This helps the navigators and Highest tidal range.
fishermen plan their activities.  The large continents on the planet, Page
however, block the westward passage of | 33
Navigation the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates.
 Tidal patterns differ greatly from ocean to
 Tidal heights are very important, especially ocean and from location to location.
harbours near rivers and within estuaries
having shallow ‘bars’ [Marine Landforms] Tidal bore
at the entrance, which prevent ships and
boats from entering into the harbour.  Tides also occur in gulfs. The gulfs with
 High tides help in navigation. They raise wide fronts and narrow rears experience
the water level close to the shores. This higher tides.
helps the ships to arrive at the harbour  The in and out movement of water into a
more easily. gulf through a channels called a tidal
 Tides generally help in making some of the current.
rivers navigable for ocean-going vessels.
London and Calcutta [Tidal Ports] have
become important ports owing to the tidal
nature of the mouths of the Thames and
Hooghly respectively.

Fishing

 The high tides also help in fishing. Many

more fish come closer to the shore during
the high tide. This enables fishermen to get
a plentiful catch.

Desilting

 Tides are also helpful in desilting the

sediments and in removing polluted water
from river estuaries.

Other

 Tides are used to generate electrical power

(in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
 A 3 MW tidal power project was
constructed at Durgaduani in Sunderbans
of West Bengal.

Characteristics of Tides

 The tidal bulges on wide continental

shelves have greater height.
 In the open ocean tidal currents are
relatively weak.
 When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic
islands they become low.
 When a tide enters the narrow and shallow Impact of Tidal Bore
estuary of a river, the front of the tidal
wave appears to be vertical owing to the  Tides are stable and can be predicted.
piling up of water of the river against the Tidal bores are less predictable and hence
tidal wave and the friction of the river bed. can be dangerous.
 The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a  The tidal bores adversely affect the
vertical wall of-water rushing upstream shipping and navigation in the estuarine Page
and is known as a tidal bore. zone. | 34
 The favorable conditions for tidal bore  Tidal bores of considerable magnitude can
include strength of the incoming tidal capsize boats and ships of considerable
wave, slim and depth of the channel and size.
the river flow.  Strong tidal bores disrupt fishing zones in
 There are exceptions. The Amazon River estuaries and gulfs.
is the largest river in the world. It empties  Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the
into the Atlantic Ocean. The mouth of the ecology of the river mouth. The tidal-bore
Amazon is not narrow, but the river still affected estuaries are the rich feeding
has a strong tidal bore. A tidal bore zones and breeding grounds of several
develops here because the mouth of the forms of wildlife.
river is shallow and dotted by many low-  Animals slammed by the leading edge of a
lying islands and sand bars. tidal wave can be buried in the silty water.
 In India, tidal bores are common in the For this reason, carnivores and scavengers
Hooghly river. Most powerful tidal bores are common sights behind tidal bores.
occur in Qiantang River in China.
 The name ‘bore’ is because of the sound Multiple choice Questions
the tidal current makes when it travels
through narrow channels. 1. Upward and downward movement of
ocean water is known as the:
 Bores occur in relatively few locations
worldwide, usually in areas with a large a) tide
tidal range, typically more than 6 metres b) wave
(20 ft) between high and low water. c) current
 A tidal bore takes place during the flood d) none of the above
tide and never during the ebb tide (Tidal
bores almost never occur during neap 2. Spring tides are caused:
tides. Neap tides happen during quarter
moons, when tides are weakest). a) As result of the moon and the sun pulling
the earth gravitationally in the same
direction.
b) As result of the moon and the sun pulling
the earth gravitationally in the opposite
direction.
c) Indention in the coast line.
d) None of the above.

3. The distance between the earth and the

moon is minimum when the moon is in:

a) Aphelion
b) Perihelion
c) Perigee
d) Apogee

4. The earth reaches its perihelion in:

a) October
b) July
c) September
d) January Coral Reef Relief Features
150 Words  Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll
(coral islands are formed on atolls) are
 What are tides? How are tides caused?
the most important relief features.
How are tides related to navigation?
Page
Coral Reefs
| 35
 Coral reefs are built by and made up of
thousands of tiny animals—coral
“polyps”—that are related to anemones
and jellyfish.
 Polyps are shallow water organisms
which have a soft body covered by a
calcareous skeleton. The polyps extract
calcium salts from sea water to form these
hard skeletons.
 The polyps live in colonies fastened to the
rocky sea floor.
 The tubular skeletons grow upwards and
outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky
mass, collectively called corals. Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)
 When the coral polyps die, they shed their
skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow.  Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly
 The cycle is repeated for over millions of from a shore. They are located very close
years leading to accumulation of layers of to land, and often form a shallow lagoon
corals [shallow rock created by these between the beach and the main body of
depositions is called reef]. the reef.
 These layers at different stages give rise to  A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2
various marine landforms. One such km wide]. This type of reef grows from the
important landform is called coral reef. deep sea bottom with the seaward side
 Coral reefs over a period of time transform sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral
or evolve into coral islands polyps do not extend outwards because of
(Lakshadweep). sudden and large increase in depth.
 The corals occur in different forms and  The fringing reef is by far the most
colours, depending upon the nature of common of the three major types of coral
salts or constituents they are made of. reefs, with numerous examples in all major
 Small marine plants (algae) also deposit regions of coral reef development.
calcium carbonate contributing to coral  Fringing reefs can be seen at the New
growth. Hebrides Society islands off Australia and
off the southern coast of Florida.

What is a "lagoon"?

 A lagoon - as used in the context of coral

reef typology - refers to a comparatively
wide band of water that lies between the
 shore and the main area of reef features may help in formation of atolls,
development, and contains at least some such as a submerged island or a volcanic
deep portions. cone which may reach a level suitable for
coral growth.
Barrier Reefs  An atoll may have any one of the following
three forms-
 Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef 1. true atoll—a circular reef enclosing a Page
complexes that parallel a shore, and are lagoon with no island;
separated from it by lagoon. | 36
2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an
 This is the largest (in size, not island;
distribution) of the three reefs, runs for 3. a coral island or an atoll island which
hundreds of kilometres and is several is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the
kilometres wide. It extends as a broken, process of erosion and deposition of
irregular ring around the coast or an waves with island crowns formed on
island, running almost parallel to it. them.
 Barrier reefs are far less common than  Atolls are far more common in the
fringing reefs or atolls, although examples Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji
can be found in the tropical Atlantic as atoll and the Funafuti atoll in the
well as the Pacific. Ellice/Island are well known examples of
 The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef atolls. A large 'number of atolls also occur
off the NE coast of Australia is the world's in the Lakshadweep Islands.
largest example of this reef type.  In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in
 The GBR is not actually a single reef as the mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are
name implies, but rather a very large common in French Polynesia, the
complex consisting of many reefs. Caroline and Marshall Islands,
Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
 The Indian Ocean also contains numerous
atoll formations. Examples are found in
the Maldives and Chagos island groups,
the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island
group.

Development Of Major Coral Reef Types

Formation Of Lakshadweep Islands

[You must include the concept of
Hotspot]

Atolls  The basic coral reef classification scheme

described above was first proposed by
 An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) Charles Darwin, and is still widely used
oceanic reef system surrounding a large today.
(and often deep) central lagoon.  Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began
 The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres and to grow near the shorelines of new islands
may be joined with sea water through a as ecological conditions became ideal for
number of channels cutting across the hard coral growth.
reef.  Then, as the island began to gradually
 Atolls are located at great distances from subside into the sea, the coral was able to
deep see platforms, where the submarine keep pace in terms of growth and remained
 in place at the sea surface, but farther where diurnal and annual temperature
from shore; it was now a barrier reef. ranges are very narrow.
 Eventually, the island disappeared below
the sea surface, leaving only the ring of [Explain why coral reefs are absent on west
coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll coast of tropical continents? Because of
had formed. Cold Ocean Currents – corals like warm
waters and hate cold waters] Page
 Shallow water: Coral require fairly good | 37
amount of sunlight to survive. The ideal
depths for coral growth are 45 m to 55 m
below sea surface, where there is abundant
sunlight available.
 Clear salt water: Clear salt water is
Gif Image: View in power point in full suitable for coral growth, while both fresh
screen mode water and highly saline water are harmful.
 Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of
1. Step 1: A fringing reef forms first, and oxygen and microscopic marine food,
starts growing in the shallow waters close called plankton [phytoplankton], is
to a tropical island. essential for growth. As the plankton is
2. Step 2: Over time, the island subsides and more abundant on the seaward side,
the reef grows outwards, and the distance corals grow rapidly on the seaward side.
between the land and the reef increases.  Little or no pollution: Corals are highly
The fringing reef develops into a barrier fragile and are vulnerable to climate
reef. change and pollution and even a minute
3. Step 3: If the island completely subsides, increase in marine pollution can be
all that is left is the reef. The reef retains catastrophic.
the approximate shape of the island it grew
around, forming a ring enclosing a lagoon. Distribution of Coral Reefs

Corals and Zooxanthellae

 Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and

plants live in close association with corals,
with tight resource coupling and
recycling, allowing coral reefs to have
extremely high productivity and
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth biodiversity, such that they are referred to
as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the
 Stable climatic conditions: Corals are Oceans’.
highly susceptible to quick changes. They  Scleractinian corals build skeletons of
grow in regions where climate is calcium carbonate sequestered from the
significantly stable for a long period of water.
time.  Scleractinian corals come under Phylum
 Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive in Cnidaria, and they receive their nutrient
tropical waters [30°N and 30°S latitudes, and energy resources in two ways.
The temperature of water is around 20°C] 1. They use the traditional cnidarian
strategy of capturing tiny planktonic
 organisms with their tentacles (All enhance calcification, and mediate
about Phylum Cnidaria is given in elemental nutrient flux.
NCERT).  The host coral polyp in return provides its
2. Having a symbiotic relationship with a zooxanthellae with a protected
single cell algae known as environment to live within, and a steady
ZOOXANTHELLAE. supply of carbon dioxide for its
 Zooxanthellae are autorophic [prepare photosynthetic processes. Page
their own food] microalgaes belonging to  The symbiotic relationship allows the slow | 38
various taxa in the Phylum growing corals to compete with the faster
Dinoflagellata. growing multicellular algaes. The corals
can feed by day through photosynthesis
Coral == Phylum Cnidaria. and by night through predation.
Zooxanthellae == Phylum Dinoflagellata. The tissues of corals themselves are
actually not the beautiful colors of the
Symbiotic Relationship Between coral reef, but are instead clear. The corals
Corals And ZOOXANTHELLAE receive their coloration from the
ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their
 Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the tissues.
coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in
nutrient production through its Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching
photosynthetic activities.
 These activities provide the coral with
fixed carbon compounds for energy,
 temperate continents because of the
cold currents] can induce coral bleaching.
 Bleaching events occur during sudden
temperature drops accompanying intense
upwelling episodes [El-Nino], seasonal
cold-air outbreaks.
 Most reefs recovered, with low levels of Page
coral deaths, but damage has been severe | 39
 Disturbances affecting coral reefs include at places.
anthropogenic and natural events.  This is an instance of coral reefs'
 Recent accelerated coral reef decline is susceptibility to increased water
related mostly to anthropogenic impacts temperatures combined with OCEAN
(overexploitation, overfishing, increased ACIDIFICATION.
sedimentation and nutrient  While the rising temperatures have
overloading). increased the frequency and intensity of
 Natural disturbances which cause damage bleaching, acidification has reduced corals
to coral reefs include violent storms, calcifying ability.
flooding, high and low temperature  Small temperature increase over many
extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a few
(ENSO) events, sub aerial exposures, days will result in coral dysfunction.
predatory outbreaks and epizootics.  Coral bleaching has occurred mostly
 Coral reef bleaching is a common stress during the summer seasons or near the
response of corals to many of the various end of a protracted warming period.
disturbances mentioned above.  They are reported to have taken place
 Bleaching occurs when during times of low wind velocity, clear
1. the densities of zooxanthellae skies, calm seas and low turbidity. The
decline and/or conditions favor localised heating and high
2. the concentration of ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
photosynthetic pigments within  UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea
the zooxanthellae fall. [it is no waters. The corals actually contain UV-
more useful for the coral and the absorbing compounds which can block
coral will bleach it] potentially damaging UV radiation. But
 When corals bleach they commonly lose rising temperatures mean reduction in the
60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each concentration of these UV absorbing
zooxanthellae may lose 50-80% of its compounds in corals.
photosynthetic pigments.
Sub aerial Exposure
 If the stress-causing bleaching is not too
severe and if it decreases in time, the
 Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the
affected corals usually regain their
atmosphere during events such as extreme
symbiotic algae within several weeks or a
low tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or
few months.
tectonic uplift can potentially induce
 If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the bleaching.
stress continues and depleted
 The consequent exposure to high or low
zooxanthellae populations do not recover,
temperatures, increased solar radiation,
the coral host eventually dies .
desiccation, and sea water dilution by
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching heavy rains could all play a role in
zooxanthellae loss, but could also very well
lead to coral death.
Temperature
Fresh Water Dilution
 Coral species live within a relatively narrow
temperature margin, and anomalously  Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-
low and high sea temperatures [corals generated precipitation and runoff has
are absent on the west coast of tropical
 been demonstrated to cause coral reef  In contrast, many of the coral bleaching
bleaching. events observed in the 1980s occurred over
 Generally, such bleaching events are rare large geographic regions and at all depths.
and confined to relatively small, near shore
areas. Bleaching may also be Beneficial

Inorganic Nutrients  Recent research has revealed that corals Page

that are consistently exposed to low levels
 Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, of stress may develop some kind of | 40
an increase in ambient elemental nutrient resistance to bleaching.
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate)
actually increases zooxanthellae densities Resources from the Ocean
2-3 times.
 Although eutrophication is not directly Ocean Deposits
involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could
cause secondary adverse effects such as  Ocean deposits are unconsolidated
lowering of coral resistance and greater sediments deposited on the ocean floor.
susceptibility to diseases.  They are broadly divided into two types —
1. the terrigenous deposits (deposits
Xenobiotics derived from land; found mainly on the
continental shelves and slopes), and
 When corals are exposed to high 2. the pelagic deposits (found over deep
concentrations of chemical contaminants sea plains and the deeps).
like copper, herbicides and oil, coral
bleaching happens. Terrigenous Deposits

Epizootics  They are mainly inorganic deposits

(denoting compounds which are not
 Pathogen induced bleaching is different organic ― broadly, compounds not
from other sorts of bleaching. containing carbon).
 Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole  The proportion of organic matter (in the
colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, form of shells, corals and skeletons) is
resulting in a white skeleton (not to be quite negligible.
confused with bleached corals).  They are derived from disintegrated rock
material (due to weathering and erosion).
Spatial and temporal range of coral reef  The disintegrated rock material is carried
bleaching from land to the sea mainly by running
water.
 Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef  The terrigenous deposits are found mainly
regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, on the continental shelves and slopes.
eastern Pacific, central and western Pacific,  Except for fine volcanic ash, little
Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) terrigenous material is carried on to the
experienced some degree of coral bleaching sea surface.
and mortality during the 1980s.  The larger particles are found near the
 Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral shore and the finer ones carried deeper.
moralities were related to non-thermal
disturbances such as storms, aerial Pelagic Deposits
exposures during extreme low tides, and
Acanthaster outbreaks.  Pelagic deposits cover nearly 75% of the
 Coral bleaching accompanied some of the total sea floor.
mortality events prior to the 1980s during  The pelagic deposits consist of both
periods of elevated sea water temperature, organic (remains of plants and animals)
but these disturbances were geographically and inorganic material.
isolated and restricted to particular reefs  Organic material is in the form of a kind of
zones. liquid mud called ooze which contains
 remnants of shells and skeletons of various  Sulphur reserves are known to exist in the
marine organisms. Gulf of Mexico (sulphur from the mineral
 Inorganic material is in the form of red gypsum) and the Mediterranean Sea.
clay, which is apparently of volcanic origin.  Phosphorite can be mined to produce
 The chief constituents of red clay are phosphates. It is found in shallow waters
silicon and aluminum dioxide, while other and in the form of nodules on the
constituents include iron, manganese, continental Shelf and slopes. Page
phosphorus and radium.  Large deposits are known to occur off the | 41
 The red clay is the most widely spread coasts of California, Florida, Mexico, Peru,
pelagic deposit of the sea floor. The red Japan, northwestern and southern Africa,
clay covers more than half of the Pacific and Australia.
floor.  Magnetite occurs in areas with deposits of
volcanic rock materials (east coast of
Mineral Resources Japan and the western coast of North
America – both convergent boundaries).
 Both metallic and nonmetallic resources  The tin ore, cassiterite, is a residue of
are found in seas. granite weathering and occurs in a belt
 Most of the mineral resources in sea are from northern Thailand-western Malaysia
present either in the dissolved form or as to Indonesia. It provides more than 1 per
suspensions. cent of the world's produce of tin.
 The source for most of the mineral  Gold placers occur along the coast of
resources found in seas is land (minerals Alaska on the East Pacific shelf.
are carried from land to sea by running  Platinum mixed with sand occurs in
water and wind). Australia, South Africa and US.
 At present levels of technology,  Diamonds are found in sediments washed
commercially exploiting mineral resources down the rivers in some areas of Africa and
from sea is not viable as extracting Australia.
minerals from sea is twenty times more  Oil (petroleum) and natural gas are the
expensive than land mining. most well exploited (so far) of all the
 At present, only dissolved salts like sodium mineral resources derived from the sea.
chloride (salt) and salts of magnesium and They constitute upto 90 per cent of the
bromine are extracted from sea. value of minerals derived from sea.
 The oil and natural gas resources are
Mineral deposits found on continental subsurface deposits found mainly on
shelves and slopes continental shelves, slopes and in small
ocean basins.
 The surface deposits on the continental  One structure that acts as a trap for oil
shelves and slopes are found mixed with and natural gas is the salt dome which are
sand. also rich in sulphur.
 Sands are mined to extract calcium  The main prospects for petroleum deposits
carbonate along the Bahamas coast. are youthful margins where some basins
 Coral sands are mined in Hawaii and Fiji contain thick accumulations of sediments.
for calcium carbonate. Oil may also occur at convergence zones
 The beach sands of western India, coastal and near transition faults.
Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka  Up to 20 per cent of the oil and gas
and the USA have zircon, monazite resources are in the offshore areas. The oil
(thorium is extracted form monazite crisis has increased the importance of
sands found across the Kerala coast) and offshore exploration and production.
rutile.  Major offshore oil fields are in the Persian
 Kerala's placer deposits contain 90 per Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea, and
cent of the world's monazite reserves. off the north coast of Australia, the
 The eastern and western coasts of southern coast of US, and the coasts in
Australia account for about 30 per cent of Arctic Ocean.
rutile.
 The western coast of India has shown  Energy from Tides: The tides, during rise
promising reserves. Relatively unexplored and fall, release a lot of energy by striking
reserves are known to exist around against the shore. This piston action can
Sumatra, Borneo, East Africa, Northwest be used to operate a turbine and produce
Africa, and Australia. electricity.
 Besides oil, submerged coal deposits are to  The USA, the CIS, Japan and France are
be found in Japan, UK, Africa and the producing power from ticks. Page
coast of Maharashtra in India.  Energy from Temperature Difference in | 42
Surface and Sub-Surface Water: In
Mineral deposits found on deep sea tropical seas, the surface temperature is
floor about 25 °C to 30 °C, while the sub-
surface temperature is 5 °C.
 The deep sea has two main types of  This vertical difference of 25 °C is enough
mineral deposits of economic importance: to generate electricity, but it is an
manganese nodules (also called as expensive option.
polymetallic nodules) and metalliferous  The mechanism involved is called OTEC.
sediments. Belgium and Cuba are producing power in
 Manganese nodules (containing mainly this way.. In India, a plant of 100 MW is
cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese) expected to come up at
are abundant in areas of low Kulsekaripattinam (Tamil Nadu coast).
sedimentation rates, such as abyssal  Geothermal Energy: This means tapping
plains. heat from fracture zones and active
 Estimates are that as much as 25 per cent volcanoes under sea.
of the sea floor is covered by nodules and
that over 1.5 trillion tons are in the Pacific Fresh Water
alone.
 The nodules of Atlantic and Indian Oceans  Several desalination technologies are in
are generally characterized by having operation, but as yet they are not being
copper, nickel and cobalt below those used on a large scale, as they are costly.
generally considered economic.
 Manganese nodules in Indian Ocean cover Technologies adopted in desalinization of
a large area, over 10 million sq. km. sea water
 Large areas in the basins east of the
 Electrodialysis employs iron-selective
Central Indian Ridge (ridge along the
membranes for the desalination of
Reunion Hotspot) contains nodules with a
brackish water.
high percentage of manganese, nickel and
 Flash distillation technique is in use in
copper.
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Island, Pakistan,
 Considerable interest has been sparked by
Chile, and India.
the discovery of polymetallic sulphides in
 Reverse osmosis is the most widely used
Western Indian Ocean.
method. Suitable osmotic membranes are
 They occur along the mid-ocean rift
used which reject salts and allow water to
valleys, and those found near the
pass through when sea water is put under
Galapagos rift system contain 48 per cent
high pressure.
sulphur, 43 per cent iron, 11 per cent
copper and smaller quantities of zinc, tin, Biotic Resources
molybdenum, lead and silver.
 The sulphides apparently result from  Biotic marine resources extracted by man
submarine hydrothermal precipitation include fish, crustaceans, molluscs,
along the northern boundary fault of the seaweeds and other edible forms of marine
rift valley at depths exceeding 2,000 m. life.
 India has located few scattered deposits of  Marine animals provide oil, fur, leather,
polymetallic sulphides in the central glue and cattle feed. Marine plants and
Indian Ocean. animals are used in curative medicine.
Energy Resources
 Sea foods are of high nutritional value,
and, given the limited land availability for
agricultural expansion, are of great
importance in meeting the food demands of
humans in the future.
 Edible fish are of three main types, based
on the location of habitat. Page
1. Pelagic fish (mackerel, herring, | 43
anchovies, tuna) breed near the surface
of seas.
2. Demersal fish (haddock, cod, halibut,  Krill are small shrimp-like marine
sole in the temperate region, and organisms inhabiting the Antarctic region.
snapper and garoupa in tropical waters) An important feed for whales, seals, squids
feed on or near the sea bed of the and birds, krill stocks renew themselves
continental shelf. rapidly; so increasing catches may not
3. Then there are the migratory much affect the Antarctic ecosystem.
anadromous fish (salmon) that live in  However, since krill decompose rapidly, the
the sea but move into fresh water of catcher vessels must have technically
coastal rivers every year. advanced systems to enable quick
 Whales are mammals of the ocean and processing or freezing of the catch.
have been caught not only for food but for  At the base of the food chain are the
industrial And medicinal purposes as well. planktons—phytoplankton and zoo-
Baleen whales are used as food by planktons. These are the food for many
humans, in pet foods, in fertilizers, in marine animal species.
flavoring, and as oil for margarine, soap  Benthos (sea surface) resources include
and glycerin. animals such as crustaceans (prawn,
 Sperm whales provide products used in shrimp, crab, lobster) and shellfish or
hardening agents, lubricants, and molluscs (mussels, oysters).
cosmetics.  Aquaculture is well developed in Europe
and Asia to breed oysters, mussels and
clams. Benthos plants include algae.
 Algae such as sea lettuces are used in
soups and salads and as flavouring.
 Kelp hai traditionally been used as winter
fodder and to mulch fields along the
northwest coast of US and Canada.
 Kelp is used in soups, or salted and
 Another biotic resource is the squid. pickled. It has been suggested that kelp
Squids show a great variety of form, and can be cultivated fer producing methane
are found in all large seas from the Arctic gas and used as an energy source by
to the tropical maritime regions. bioconversion
 They occur near coasts as well as in the  There are many industrial uses for algae.
central part of the oceans to at least a Brown algae produce algin used as
depth of 5,000 metres. stabilisers in the paints industry, to
 There are huge potential reserves of squids strengthen ceramics, and to thicken jams.
as only a limited area—northwestern Red algae provide agar and carrageenan.
Pacific, the Mediterranean, and the west Agar is an important medium for bacterial
coast of Africa—is at present exploited. culture in research; it is also an ingredient
 However, squids are not commonly eaten in desserts and pharmaceutical products.
in many parts of the world. Carrageenan is used as a stabiliser and
emulsifier in ice-creams, salad dressings,
puddings, and in cosmetics and medicines.
Agar producing algae are harvested in
Japan, Mexico, South America and Africa.
 Picture credits: http://www.reparationlaw.com
Jurisdiction over the Seas
Territorial waters
United Nations International
Conferences on the Law of the Sea  Territorial waters are those waters over
which a state has full sovereignty and are
 UNCLOS is an international agreement now recognized as extending for 19 km (12
Page
that defines the rights and responsibilities miles) from the coast or from a base line
of nations where use of the oceans’ waters drawn round an indented coast in such a | 44
by them is concerned. way as to include fjords, estuaries and
 The issue of territorial rights of the seas land between the mainland and offshore
has been discussed at third UN Convention islands in the internal waters.
(conference) on Law of the Sea was held
from 1972 to 1982. Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone
 The UNCLOS came into force in the year
1994. As of today, it has been signed by  A further contiguous zone of 19 km is
more than 150 countries. The USA has recognized in which the coastal state can
signed the treaty but has not ratified it. take action against those who break the
 The UN provides support for Convention law (smugglers, pirates, illegal immigrants
meetings. However, the UN does not have etc.) within the true territorial waters. This,
a direct part in the implementation of the in other words, is a pursuit zone.
Convention.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
 But organizations like the International
Maritime Organisation and the
 An important feature is the recognition of a
International Whaling Commission have a
320-km (200-mile) exclusive economic
role to play.
zone (EEZ) which starts at the same base
 The UNCLOS specifies guidelines for line as the territorial waters.
businesses, the environment and
 EEZs were introduced to halt the
management of marine natural resources.
increasingly heated clashes over fishing
 UNCLOS deal with aspects like rights, although oil was also becoming
delimitation, control of environmental important.
pollution, commercial activities in the seas,
 Within the EEZ the coastal state has the
technology transfer and settlement of
right to exploit all economic resources—
disputes between States with reference to
fish, minerals, oil and gas and energy
ocean matters.
production.
 UNCLOS uses a consensus process rather
 A modified arrangement is recognized on
than a majority vote to discourage groups
the continental shelf. States may claim
of nation-states dominating negotiations.
rights to resources in the sea-bed for at
Four main decisions have been widely least 320 km (200 miles), although the
accepted since 1978. average width of the continental shelf is
only 64 km.
 The state may extend these rights to the
edge of the shelf—as much as 1280 km
(800 miles) in some cases—though this
does not include rights to the sea itself
beyond the 320 km EEZ.
 Land-locked and geographically
disadvantaged States can participate on an
equitable basis in exploiting an appropriate
part of the surplus of the living resources
of the EEZs of coastal states of the same
region or sub-region.
 In the EEZ and on the continental shelf, all
marine scientific research is subject to
relevant coastal State's consent. The
 coastal states, in turn, are expected to Convention on Dumping of Wastes at
grant consent for peaceful purposes to Sea
other States.
 An inter-governmental conference on the
High Seas Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at
Sea met in London in November 1972 to
 Beyond all the zones in which individual adopt this instrument, the London Page
countries can claim control are the high Convention.
seas. The high seas are free for navigation | 45
 The Convention has a global character and
by vessels of all nations. is aimed at international control and
 The oceans may also be used freely for the putting an end to marine pollution.
laying of submarine cables, and the  The definition of dumping under the
airspace over them is also free. Convention relates to deliberate disposal at
 The oceans may also be freely fished by all sea of wastes or other materials from
nations, though some international vessels, aircraft, platforms and other man-
agreements seek to control overfishing, made structures.
which endangers some species.  ‘Dumping’ here does not cover wastes
 The States must share with the derived from the exploration and
international community part of the exploitation of sea-bed mineral resources.
revenue derived from exploiting resources  The provision of the Convention would not
on the continental shelf extending beyond apply when there is a need to secure the
200 miles. safety of life or of vessels.
 Special protection should be accorded to  Certain important amendments were
highly migratory species of fish and sea adopted by the Convention various times
mammals. to deal with the emerging issues in the
context of dumping of wastes in the
Law of the Sea and Marine Pollution
oceans.
 The 1978 amendment dealt with the
 Marine pollution refers to the emptying of
incineration of wastes at sea.
chemicals into the ocean and its harmful
effects.  Another set of amendments adopted at the
same time (October 1978) related to
 The potentially toxic chemicals stick to tiny
introduction of new procedures for dispute
particles and these are taken up by
settlement.
plankton and benthos animals which are
deposit or filter feeders concentrating  The 1993 amendments banned dumping of
upward within foodchains. low-level radioactive wastes into the seas.
 As animal feeds usually have a high fish  They phased out the dumping of industrial
meal or fish oil content, toxins can be wastes by 1995 and called for an end to
found in consumed food items obtained incineration of industrial wastes at sea.
from livestock and animal husbandry.  It is to be noted that dumping of low-level
 To curb marine pollution and regulate the radioactive wastes and industrial wastes as
use of the world’s oceans by individual well as incineration of wastes were earlier
States, the nations of the world have come permitted by the Convention.
together to form two major conventions:  The changing approach, keeping in view
1. one on dumping of wastes at sea the need of the times, led to the adoption
(Convention on the Dumping of of the 1996 Protocol on November 7, 1996.
Wastes at Sea, to be replaced by the 1996 Protocol
1996 Protocol) and
2. the other laying down rights and  The Protocol, which became effective in
responsibilities of States in use of the 2006, replaces the 1972 Convention.
oceans and their resources (United  It shows the major change in approach
Nations Convention on Law of the Sea among the nations regarding the use of the
or UNCLOS). sea as a place for dumping of waste
materials.
 The 1996 Protocol is much more restrictive The United Nations Convention on Law of
as compared to the 1972 Convention that the Sea
allowed dumping provided certain
conditions were satisfied.  UNCLOS establishes general obligations for
 1996 Protocol calls for appropriate safeguarding the marine environment and
preventive measures to be taken when protecting freedom of scientific research on
wastes thrown into the sea are likely to the high seas. Page
cause harm “even when there is no  It also creates an innovative legal regime
conclusive evidence to prove a cause for controlling mineral resource | 46
relation between inputs and their effects.” exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond
 The Protocol states that “the polluter national jurisdiction, through an
should, in principle, bear the cost of International Seabed Authority.
pollution”.  UNCLOS can hold states liable for damage
 The Contracting Parties must ensure that caused by violation of their international
the Protocol does not simply result in obligations to combat pollution of the seas.
pollution being transferred from one part of
The UN
the environment to another.
 The Protocol prohibits the Contracting  With time, the UN’s involvement with the
Parties from dumping “wastes or any other law of the sea has expanded owing to
matter with the exception of those listed in increasing awareness of the ocean-related
Annex 1”. problems.
 Annex 1 includes dredged material; sewage  Major international conferences like the
sludge; fish waste from industrial fish UN Conference on Environment and
processing operations etc. for which the Development (UNCED) emphasized on the
concern is mainly physical impact. protection and preservation of the oceans’
 The Protocol prohibits incineration of environment.
wastes at sea (permitted by the 1972
convention but prohibited under the 1993 Sea Level Change
amendments).
 The Protocol states that “Contracting  Sea level change means the fluctuations in
Parties shall not allow the export of wastes the mean sea level over a considerably long
or other matter to other countries for period of time.
dumping or incineration at sea”.  Sea level change (relative change in sea
 The International Maritime Organization level) is calculated from a series of
(IMO) is responsible for Secretariat duties continuous records of tidal oscillations
with respect to the Protocol. over a considerably long period of time.
 During a relative rise in sea level, either
2006 Amendments to the Protocol
the land or the sea surface may undergo
 Adopted in 2006, the amendments were upliftment or subsidence, or both may rise
enforced in 2007. and fall at the same time.
 The amendments have created a basis in
The major categories of change in sea
international environment law to regulate
carbon capture and storage in subsealed level
geological formation.
1. Eustatic changes occur when the volume
 It is part of the measures being considered
of sea water changes due to factors such
to address climate change and ocean
as global warming and melting of ice
acidification like developing low carbon
sheets (rise in sea level) or ice ages (fall in
energy forms especially for sources of
sea level).
enormous C02 emissions.
2. Tectonic changes occur due to a change
 The amendments allow storage of carbon
in the level of land.
dioxide (C02) under the seabed but
 Isostatic changes take place due to
regulate the sequestration of C02 streams
addition or removal of load (during ice
from C02 capture processes in sub-seabed
ages, landmass subsided due to the
geological formations.
 load exerted by the glacial ice and dry. It was followed by a steady rise in sea
hence there was an apparent rise in sea level called Flandrian transgression.
level. On the other hand, the landmass
of Scandinavia is still rising as the Sea level changes in the Quaternary
glacial ice is being removed). Period
 Epeirogenic movement occurs due to
broad scale tilting of continents which  Elevated shorelines, such as raised Page
may result in the rise of one part of the beaches, suggest a fall in sea level in that
| 47
continent even as the other part may region in the past.
subside causing an apparent rise in sea  The exact age of the changes in sea level is
level. ascertained from the application of
 Orogenic movement (mountain radiometric dating techniques on the
building) is related to folding and materials found in those raised beaches.
flexuring (stretching of a part of the  Submarine canyons prove that once there
earth's crust) of the lithosphere which was a relative rise in sea level because they
results in the formation of lofty are formed only in submerged conditions.
mountains and an apparent fall in sea  Oxygen isotopes well preserved in the
level. calcareous deposits of microfossils, found
in the sedimentary deposits on the ocean
Importance of understanding Sea Level floor, provide information about the sea
Changes level changes.
 Peat deposits are formed as a result of the
 It provides key evidences regarding climate decay of organic deposits in waterlogged
change in the past. conditions. Peat is formed in intertidal
 It helps in estimating the rates of tectonic zones that can be dated radio metrically.
upliftment in the past geological periods. Therefore, peat deposits are also the
 Understanding sea level changes is source of valuable information about past
important to assess the suitability of sea level changes.
coastal locations for industrial and
agricultural development. Between 18,000 and 8,000 years before
 Understanding sea level changes induced present, i.e., during the Holocene period, the
by global warming is important to protect sea level rose at a much faster rate (1 m/100
low-lying countries by building coastal years). Although this rate of rise in sea level
dykes and embankments. came to a standstill about 6000 to 5000 years
 The task of mapping of areas likely to be ago.
affected by storm surges and periodic
Sea level changes in the pre-
flooding becomes possible only if we know
the likely areas to be affected by future sea Quaternary Period
level rise.
 Evidence of pre-Quaternary sea level
 By identifying the areas of possible
changes are obtained from various sources
submergence in the near future it becomes
such as the sedimentary deposits of the
possible for us to set up tidal power
continents and by tracing changes in the
generation plants in suitable locations.
shorelines.
Evidence in Support of Sea Level  The depth of sediments indicates the
Change possible duration of the submergence of
the area where the sediments are
 Evidence suggests that during the last few deposited.
glaciations and interglacials, the average  Seismic evidence, gathered by drilling
sea level stood at about 50 to 60 m below boreholes also helps us to understand the
the present mean sea level. change in sediments at depth.
 During the last glaciation (about 18,000  When marine sediments are exposed sub
years ago), the sea level was 110 m to 140 aerially due to the rise of land or fall in sea
m below the present sea level. Hence, large level, the change in sea level locally can be
areas of the continental shelves were left estimated by using fossil evidences.
 The sea level changes of global extent can  The Antarctic ice-sheet was formed during
be ascertained from the study of sea level the middle and late Tertiary and it resulted
changes in different continents of the in the fall of the sea level.
world.  About 3 to 4 million years ago, the
 If the sea level fluctuations in different continents of the northern hemisphere
continents are synchronous, they may be experienced the formation of extensive ice-
assumed as a global sea level change. sheets. As a result of this, the sea level Page
 The marine sediments found on stable dropped (as the total volume of ocean | 48
cratonic (interior continental landmass) water was reduced).
terrain indicate sea level fluctuations in  On the contrary, if the ice-sheet melts, the
the past ages. water returns to the ocean. The land
surface rises when the ice load is removed
Sea level changes during Cretaceous by melting.
Period and earlier  Generally it is observed that in the initial
stage of the melting of ice, the isostatic
 Long-term rise during the early Cretaceous uplift is rapid, i.e., 3 m to 10 m per 100
Period was preceded by a prolonged period years.
of generally low sea levels which had  But such a process of land upliftment is
extended from the late Palaeozoic Era slow and takes several thousand years
about 320 million years ago to the late because of the viscous mantle and the
Mesozoic Era about 150 million years ago. overlying crustal block of low elasticity.
 During the late Cretaceous, the sea level  Scandinavia, for example, is still rising
rose to a maximum 250 m above the after the removal of ice deposited during
present sea level. the last Ice Age.
 Most noteworthy are the dramatic falls in
sea levels during the Mesozoic and Change in the volume of the ocean
Cenozoic. The most rapid fall in sea level basin
(about 150 m) took place in the late
Oligocene Epoch.  Changes in the volume of ocean basin and
the resultant changes in sea level were an
Mechanisms of the Change in Sea Level important event of the Mesozoic Era and
the early Cenozoic Era.
 The fluctuations of sea level involve three
basic mechanisms: Such changes occur due to the following
1. changes in ocean water volume; factors.
2. changes in ocean basin volume;
3. changes in the geoid, i.e., the shape of Changes in the volume of mid-oceanic
the earth.. ridges

Changes in the volume of ocean water  An important tectonic cause of sea level
rise, changes in the volume of mid-oceanic
 The present sea level would rise by about ridges may occur due to periodic
60 to 75 m if the ice in Antarctica melts, reorganization of plate boundaries which
whereas the Greenland ice cap would cause variations in the total length of the
contribute about 5 m rise in sea level. ridge system.
 It is assumed that, in such a case, the  If the lithosphere is warm, the spreading
added load of ocean water would lead to rate increases causing an increase in ridge
the sinking of the ocean floor due to volume and vice versa. The sea level rises
isostatic compensation (Isostatic when the oceanic ridge increases in
movement of the earth's crust suggests volume.
vertical movement of the crust in response  Another factor is the change in the rate of
to the increased and decreased load on it). sea floor spreading. Since the late
So the total rise of sea level would be about Cretaceous Period, there has been a steady
40-50 m. increase in the volume of mid-oceanic
ridge.
 Since the ridge occupies about 12 per cent that the entire Mediterranean sea was
of the total volume of ocean water, any evaporated about 5 million years ago.
such change in the volume of the mid-  The water evaporated from the
oceanic ridge influence& the sea level to a Mediterranean Sea would have ultimately
great extent. returned to oceans and produced a rise in
sea level.
Accumulation of sediments on the ocean  According to an estimate, there was a Page
floor global sea level rise of 5 m even after an | 49
isostatic adjustment, i.e., subsidence of
 Sediments are produced by the denudation
ocean floor by 10 m due to the increased
of continents and are deposited on the
load of water.
ocean floor.
 It is to be mentioned that the
 The deposition of sediments may result in
Mediterranean Sea at that time was
the subsidence of the ocean floor and the
isolated from the rest of the oceans since
removal of sediments either through
the Strait of Gibraltar was closed by a local
subduction or upliftment.
upliftment.
 If we do not take these two factors into
 An analogous evidence of desiccation and
consideration, there will be a rise in sea
sea level rise is found in the case of the
level due to the decreased volume of the
southern part of the Atlantic Ocean in its
ocean basin.
nascent stage in the early Cretaceous
 Since the mid-Cretaceous Period, there has period.
been a steady growth of carbonate
 This led to a rise in sea level because the
accumulation in the ocean basins, mainly
water of the southern part of the Atlantic
due to more active growth of carbonate-
Ocean returned to the water body of the
secreting marine organisms.
surrounding oceans.
 It is assumed that the carbonate
accumulation has resulted in a global rise Geoidal Effect Hypothesis
of ocean floor by about 300 m and global
rise of sea level by about 55 m even after  Geoidal effects suggest crustal
isostatic adjustments. deformations as a result of continuous
horizontal redistribution of mass within
Impact of orogenesis
and between ocean basins of the world in
 As orogenesis (mountain building) causes response to an increase and decrease of
shortening and thickening of continental load on ocean basins.
crust and a reduction in the area of  A model developed in the 1970s by
continents, the sea level falls as a result of geophysicists and geomorphologists
an increase in the volume of the ocean predicted six ocean basin zones which
basin. witnessed Holocene sea level change due to
 For example, if it is assumed that the both isostatic and geoidal effects. However,
Tibetan plateau is made of crustal layers of sea level change due to geoidal impact is
twice the average thickness, it will produce still not proved.
a fall of global sea level by about 26 m due
Short-Term Changes in Global Sea Level
to an. increased volume of ocean basin.

Drying out of small ocean basins  Short-term changes occur during a year.
Commonly, seasonal variations of 5-6 cm
 Desiccation (loss of water) of ocean basins in sea level are observed in a year.
of smaller size may, lead to change in  But the fluctuations of sea level reach 20-
global sea level. 30 cm or more in almost all coastal areas
 The presence of thick evaporate deposits in of the world.
the sedimentary rocks of the
Mediterranean Sea and the evidence of Even if the causes of such short-term changes
deep submarine gorges from the mouths of are not known, the fluctuations of sea level
rivers like the Nile and the Rhone prove may be due to a complex interaction of the
following factors:
 Marine water density: Temperature and  Global warming in the last century due to
salinity control the density of sea water. anthropogenic activities has resulted in
Low temperature and high salinity produce thermal expansion of ocean water. So, the
high density of sea water and lower sea sea level has risen by about 10 to 15 cm in
level. the past 100 years.
 It is due to lower temperature and higher  Melting of ice-sheets in the Antarctica by
salinity that the eastern part of the Pacific about 3 per cent of its total volume of ice Page
Ocean has a sea level 30-50 cm higher than has, to some extent, contributed to global | 50
the Atlantic Ocean. sea level rise.
 Atmospheric pressure: Low pressure  In the last century, about 15 per cent of
results in higher local sea level and vice the total volume of the Greenland ice cap
versa. The sea level rises locally in places melted.
of low pressure because water is sucked in  Besides these areas of ice-melt, other
by the upward moving air mass. glaciers are also estimated to have
contributed about 48 per cent of the global
sea level rise.

Long-Term Sea Level Changes

 Global sea level changes which exceed 100

m are possible only if the major ice-sheets
melt or there are substantial changes in
the volume of the world’s mid-oceanic

ridge.
 Velocity of ocean currents: Fast-flowing  Other factors such as long-term changes in
ocean currents when taking a curved path the geoid or global hypsometry,
cause a rise in sea level on their outer desiccation of small ocean basins etc.
fringes. are considered to be of lesser importance.
 Generally, a difference of 18 cm in sea level  The effect of the melting of ice and
is observed between the two sides of a fast- changes-in the volume of mid-oceanic ridge
flowing current. cause global sea level change at a relatively
faster rate than the latter.
 Explaining both the rates and magnitudes
of the long-term sea level changes is not
very easy because of rapid sea level
changes on a global dimension which have
occurred during the past few million years.

Impact of Sea Level Fall

 Ice formation and fall in sea level:
During winter the ocean water trapped in  A fall in sea level may cause changes in the
the icecaps of the northern and the base levels of rivers. The rivers cut their
southern hemispheres leads to a fall in sea new channels deeper than before. So a
level. condition of rejuvenated landforms is
 Piling up of water along windward found.
coasts: A local rise of sea level occurs in  The rivers curve deeper valleys on the
the coastal region as water is driven rejuvenated land and canyons are formed
towards the coasts by an air mass, for even in the lower courses due to the rivers’
example, the sea level rises in south and adjustment with the new base level.
east Asia during the monsoon months due  Moreover, due to the extended shoreline,
to landward movement of the air mass. the drainage channels further extend
towards the sea causing further
The twentieth century has observed short-
lengthening of the rivers.
term global sea level rise due to the following
 A drop in sea level causes the death of
factors.
coral reefs as the continental shelves on
 which they are formed are left dry. So,  It has been postulated that during a
fresh coral reefs emerge along the fringe of certain period a beach and its adjacent sea
dead corals. floors adjust to storms and periods of low
 In places of shallow continental shelves, wave energy.
the fall in sea level leads to greater aridity  When the sea level rises, the same beach
in the continental hinterland due to undergoes erosion followed by the
reduced surface runoff. deposition of sediments on the adjacent Page
 A fall in sea level in temperate and high sea floor. Thus, the sea level rises further | 51
latitude regions causes extension of ice as the sea floor is elevated by sediment
caps and glacial tongues onto the deposition.
continental shelves.  The coastal region of northern New
 In some cases, the glaciers have produced Zealand shows that during the twentieth
irregular topography like fjords, century the mean sea level has risen by
accumulation of debris on the shelves about 0.17 m to 0.35 m due to the above-
forming unsorted deposits of boulders etc. mentioned factor.
called glacial till.  As a result of rise in sea level, the mouths
of drainage basins will undergo
Impact of Possible Rise in Sea Level submergence. This will lead to a
readjustment of the long-profiles of the
 Although the ice melt in the Antarctica has rivers, which are likely to show a rise.
not yet posed a serious danger for us, it  The recent experiences suggest that the
may prove to be dangerous in the near islands are the worst affected by the recent
future if the temperature of the rise of sea level. Some of the affected
atmosphere continues to increase. islands are the Carteret Islands, located on
 A vast segment of the populated land, viz., the north-east of Papua New Guinea in the
the low-lying densely populated coastal Pacific Ocean, and Tuvalu Islands, about
areas, will be submerged. Even the small 1000 km north of Fiji in the South Pacific.
islands will be wiped out.  It was to check this phenomenon of sea
 An estimated global population of about level rise that the ‘Oceans and Coastal
1000 million will be affected by rise in sea Areas Programme Activity Centre’ was
levels. set up in 1987 under the aegis of the
 Immense damage may be caused to the United Nations Environment Programme
coastal structures like ports, industrial (UNEP) to identify the countries facing
establishments, etc. maximum risk of submergence.
 As a result of the rise in sea level, almost
33 per cent of the world’s crop lands could Please give your valuable feedback
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