SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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Sexual reproduction is the process of development of new organisms through

the formation and fusion of gametes.
The flower is the main structure concerned with reproduction, The
reproductive organs or the sporophylls are produced within the flowers. The
sporophylls are of two types microsporophylls ( stamen) and megasporophylls
( carpel)
Stamen is distinguished as filament, anther and connective.
Carpel is distinguished as ovary bearing ovule, style and stigma
The whole process of sexual reproduction in flowering plants can be divided
into three steps
i)
Pre-fertilization
ii)
Double fertilization
iii)
Post-fertilization
PRE-PERTILISATION : STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

ES
C
N

The pre-fertilisation events can be studied under following pointsCIE

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Pollen grain formation

Embryo sac formation
Pollination
Pollen pistil interaction

POLLEN GRAIN FORMATION

TE

OF

S
L
TA

FU

EN
M
DA

U ( Stamen)
Male reproductive unit

IT
T
A stamen
NS is the male reproductive unit of angiosperms. It consists of an
I
anther and a filament. The anther is bilobed and the lobe encloses four pollen
sacs or microsporangia. Each pollen sac contains number of pollen grains. The
four pollen sacs in a dithecous anther appear to lie in the four corners of
anther
The wall of anther consists of four layers of cells
An anther dehisces by slits to liberate pollen grains
Anther development
The anther initiates its development in the form of a homogenous mass of a
meristematic cells surrounded by epidermis. It becomes four lobed and four
longitudinal rows of aechesporial cells are differentiated. Each of these cells
divides to form a primary parietal cell and a primary sporogenous cell. The
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parietal cell divides several times to form the anther wall and the sporogenous
cell divides a few times to form the microscopes or pollen mother cells (PMC).
The innermost layer of cell wall in contact with the PMCs form the tapetum
which plays a significant role in pollen development. The layer below the
epidermis later becomes the endothecium.

Wall layers of anther

Epidermis one cell thick and protective in function
Endothecium Second wall layer usually single layered. Cells have a cellulose
thickening with a little pectin and lignin. It help in anther dehiscence
Middle layers The number of middle layer ranges from 1-6. The middle layer
degenerate at the maturity of the anther
Tapetum This is the innermost layer of anther wall which surrounds the
sporogenous tissue. Tapetal cells are nutritive. They are multinucleatedSand
polyploidy. In these cells the ubisch bodies which is deposited in the
CEexine of
N
microscope wall. The tapetum is of two types
IE
C
(i)
Secretary / glandular The tapetal cells remain inSsitu all through the
L
A
development of microscope and finally they
degenerate.
T
Nwall
E
(ii)
Amoeboid / periplasmodial The radial
of tapetum cell break up
M
Apollen chamber. All such protoplast
releasing the protoplast intoD
the
now fuse to form the periplasmodium.
UN

OF

TE
U
The formation
IT and differentiation of microspore is called microsporogenesis.
T
The PMCs
S divide meiotically each forming generally tetrahedral tetrads,
N
I
Cytokinesis
may be successive or simultaneous.
Microsporogenesis

Successive type is advanced type. Tetrad are of five types, tetrahedral,

isobilateral, decussate, T shaped, linear tetrahedral is most common
In successive type, the cell wall is formed after meiosis I as well as meiosis II
thus an isobilateral pollen tetras is formed. It is a characteristic feature of
monocot
In simultaneous type, each nuclear division in microspore mother cell is most
followed by cell wall formation

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ES
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N

L
A
T

T
U
T
TI

OF

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I
C
S

EN
M
DA

NS
I
The microspores separate from the tetrahedral configuration and get
surrounded by a two layered wall, outer exine and inner intine. The pollen
grains are the first cells of the male gametophyte.
The tapetum get used up, the anther becomes dry structure and pollen are
liberated by dehiscence of the anther.
Mostly, all the four nuclei in a tetrad remain functional to form four
microspores. However, in cyperaceae only one functions and therefore only
one microspore instead of four is formed by one meiosis. In some cases, all
the four pollens remain attached forming compound pollen grains e.g. Juncus
jatropha. In family asclepiadaceae and orchidacae, all the microspores in a
sporangium adhere together in a single mass called pollinium.

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Pollen grain
Pollen grains may be oval, ellipsoidal, triangular, lobed or even crescent
shaped. It is generally round with size of 25 - 30m
Pollen grain is haploid, unicellular body with single nucleus. Therefore is an
outer wall and 2-3 celled interior.
Wall or sporoderm is made of two covering, outer thick exine of sporopollenin
and inner thin intine of pecto-cellulose
The outer layer exine is thick and sculptured or smooth. It is cuticularised and
cutin is of special type called sporopollenin which is resistant to chemical and
biological decomposition so pollen wall is preserved for long periods. It also
possess proteins for enzymatic and compatibility reactions.
Exine is differentiated into inner endexine and outer ektexine. Ektexine is
further divided into inner continuous foot layer, middle discontinuous
baculate layer and outermost discontinuous tectum.
ES
C
Tectum is helpful for identifying pollen grain and referring them
ENto their
I
C
family, genus or species.
S
Lwhen circular or it is
Exine is absent over certain areas called germ pores
A
NT
called germ furrow when elongated
E
Mis covered with yellowish, viscous
In insected pollinated pollen grain, exine
A
D Pollenkitt act as an insect attractant and
N
and sticky substance called pollenkitt.
U
protects the pollen from F
UVF
rays
O It is made up of cellulose and pectin. It emerges out
Intine is thin and elastic.
E
T from the germ pores during germination
as the pollen tube
U
T
Ipollen
Internally
grains have cytoplasm which is rich in starch and unsaturated
T
S
oils.
INUninucleated protopeast becomes 2-3 celled at the later stages of
development.
In calotropis and orchids, the pollen of each anther lobe formed a
characteristics mass called pollinium
Pollen grains can be monoclopate ( having one germ pores),bicolpate(two
germ pores) and triclopate (3 germ pores).
The branch of study of pollens is called palynology
Development of male gametophyte
Size of nucleus in pollen grain increases and it divides mitotically to produce a
bigger vegetative cell or tube cell and smaller generative cell
Pollination can occur in two celled ( tube + generative ) or three-celled ( tube +
two male gametes)
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However, in plants such as cereals, the male gametes while the pollen is still
within the anther. In those cases, where pollen is shed at two celled stage, the
generative cell divides after pollen has landed on stigma.
The cytoplasm contents of generative cell do not possess much of stored food
material. Vegetative cell contains fat, starch and protein granules.
Pollen products
(i)

(ii)

Pollen food supplements : Pollen grain contains abundant carbohydrates

and unsaturated fat. They are used in form of tablets and syrups for
enhancing vital body functions. Pollen consumption increases performance
and used by athletes and given to race horses
Pollen creams : Pollen grain protect themsevles from UV rays. Thus they
are used in creams, emulsions for providing smoothness and protection to
skin.
S

CE
N
E

I
C
S

Pollen viability

The period for which pollen grains remain viable or functional

L is called pollen
A
viability. It depends upon temperature, humidity. Pollen
T grains remain viable in
N
Ein liquid nitrogen ( temp 196OC)
30 minutes. Pollen grain can be cryopreserved
M
and used as pollen banks.
DA
Pollen allergy

OF

FU

E allergy. It causes have fever and common respiratory

Pollen grain produceTsevere
U
T bronchitis. Carrot grass ( Parthenium hysterophorus) that
disorders areI
asthma,
T
came in India
NS along with imported wheat is major source of pollen allergy besides
I
harming internal body organs.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE UNIT ( Pistil )
The pistil or gynoceium of a flower is the female reproductive unit
A carpel or pistil has a stigma or receptive region for pollen grains, a stalk or
style and basal swollen region or ovary. Ovary contains one to several ovules
Ovule is integumented megasporangium which on fertilization ripens into a
seed. It is oval and whitish.
The ovule is attached to placenta by means of a stalk called funiculus or
funicle. The point of attachment of funicle to the ovule is known as hilum. A
raphe ( ridge) is formed by the fusion of funiculus with the body of ovule.

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The actual megasporangium equivalent is a parenchymatous tissue called

nucellus. It may be thin ( tenuinucellate, e.g. compositae ) or massive (
crassinucellate e.g casuarinaceae)
On the basis of number of integuments, ovules are of following types
(i)
Unitegmic With one integuments, higher dicots e.g. composital,
gymnosperms
(ii)
Bitegmic Ovules with two integuments ( monocots and primitive dicots
like cruciferae and malvaceae)
(iii) Tritegmic With three integuments ( Asphodelus)
(iv) Ategmic Without integument ( Santalum, Loranthus, Ziriosoma and olax)
Place of origin of integuments is called chalaza, A pore is present in the
integuments at one end. It is known as micropyle. The inner region of
integument may provide nourishment to developing embryo sac and it is
called endothelium. Outer side of each integument as well as nucellus
ES
possesses cuticle.
C
ENat micropylar
In castor bean ( Ricinus ) proliferation of the integumentary I
cells
C
S
region is called caruncle. It performs two functions
AL
I. It acts as water absorbing pas and helps in seedT
germination
N
I. It is made up of sugary substance and thus E
seed dispersal occurs by ants.

IN

T
U
T
TI

OF

FU

M
A
D

Forms of ovule
1. Orthotropous ( Erect )
The body of the ovule lies straight and upright over the funicle. Hilum, chalaza
and micropyle occurs on the same line. E.g. Polygonum

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ES
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N

I
C
S

L
2. Anatropous ( Inverted )
A
The body of ovule is inverted and gets fused with
NTfunicle forms ridge called
E
M chalaza on opposite sides. It is
raphe. Hilum and micropyle are nearby
with
A
DRanunculus
the most common type of ovule.N
E.g.

IN

T
U
T
TI

OF

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3. Hemianatroppous
The body of ovule is placed at right angle (90o) to the funicle e.g.
Malpighiaceae.

ES
C
N

I
C
S

A
4. Campylotropous
T
The body is curved but embryo sac is straight.
ENHilum, chalaza and micropyle
M
come nearby e.g. Caspells, Capparis, Chenopodiaceac
A

IN

T
U
T
TI

OF

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N
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5. Amphitropous
Both body of ovule and embryo sac are curved e.g. crucifers

ES
C
N

6. Circinotropous
IE
C
O
The ovule turns at morethan 360 angle so funicle becomes
S coiled around the
L
ovule. Example opuntia.
TA

IN

T
U
T
TI

OF

FU

EN
M
DA

Megasporogenesis
The process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell is called
megasporogenesis. Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother
cell ( MMC) in micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large cell containing
dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes meiotic
division. Meiosis results in the production of four megaspores
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In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while

the other three degerate Only the functional megaspore develops into the
female gametophyte. This method of embryo sac formation from single
megaspore is termed monosporic development
Formation of embryo sac
The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei
which move to the opposite poles, forming the two nucleate embryo sac. Two
more sequential mitotic nuclear division results in formation of four nucleate
and later eight nucleate stages of embryo sac.
These mitotic division are strictly free. i.e. nuclear divisions are not followed
immediately by cell wall formation. After the eight nucleate stage, cell walls
are laid down leading to the organization of the typical female gametophyte
or embryo sac.
S
E
C
Six of eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells, the
EN
remaining two nuclei, called polar nuclei are situated below I
the
egg apparatus
C
S
in the large central cell
L
Aend and constitute the egg
Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar
T
ENsynergids and one egg cell. The
apparatus. The egg apparatus consists ofM
two
A at the micropylar tip called filiform
synergids have special cellular thickenings
D
N
apparatus, which play an important
FU role in guiding the pollen tubes into the
synergid. Three cells are
at chalazal end and are called the antipodals. Thus a
OF
typical angiosperm
TEembryo sac, at maturity, though eight nucleate is seven
U
celled. IT

T
S
N

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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ES
C
Pollination refers to the process of transfer of pollen grains fromNanther and
IE
their deposition on stigmatic surface of the flower
C
S
Pollination is of two types self pollination and cross pollination
L
A
T
Self pollination
ENfrom anthers to the stigma of
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
M
A
same or genetically similar flower D
N
Self pollination is of two types
FU: autogamy and geitonogamy
1. Autogamy
OF
It is a self pollination
TE which occurs between anther and stigma of the same
U
flower. IT
ST
a) N
Chasmogamous
devices
I When the flower expose their mature anther and stigma to the pollinating

Pollination

agents.
In Lilac the stigma lies exactly below the anthers
b) Cleistogamy
The flowers remain close so there is no alternative self pollination.
Examples: Pisum, Lathyrus, commelina, benghalensis
c) Bud pollination
Anthers and stigma of bisexual flowers mature before opening of bud and
thus self pollination takes place at the time of bud stage e.g. pea, wheat
etc.

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2. Geitonogamy
It is transfer of pollen grain from anther of one flower to stigma of another
flower of same plant or genetically similar plants

Advantages of self pollination

It maintains purity of the race
The plant does not need to produce large number of pollen grains
It ensures seed production
Self pollination eliminates bad recessive characters.

Disadvantages of self pollination

Variable and hence adaptability to changed environment reduced.
Vitality decreases and ultimatey leads to degeneration.

ES
C
N

Cross pollination

It is defined as the deposition of pollen grains from antherCofIa flower to the

S
stigma of a different flower of another plant of sameLor different species. It is
A
T
also known as allogamy
EN
In Xenogamy, pollination takes betweenM
two
flowers of different plants (
A
D
genetically & ecologically )
Devices for cross pollinationF
1.
2.

FU

O
E
Dicliny: There areTtwo types of flowers, male and female. The plants may be
TorUdioecious
monoecious
I
T Anther and stigmas mature at different times
S
Dichogamy:
IN Protandry: Anthers mature earlier. E.g, Salvia, clerodendron, sunflower,
(i)

rose
(ii)
Protogny : Stigmas mature earlier. E.g. plantago, magnolia, mirabilis
3. Self sterility : Pollen grains are incapable of growing over the stigma of the
same flower e.g. Tobacco, some crucifers. Quicker growth of pollen on
another plant than pollen of same plant is called prepotency ( e.g. apple)
4. Heterostyly: Flower have two or three heights of styles and stamens. Primula
and Jasminum have two types of flower ( dimorphic heterostyly) , pin-eye
( long style and short stamen ) and thrum-eye ( short style and long stamens)
Some plants have trimorphic (3) hetrostyly e.g. Lythrum, oxalis.

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5. Herkogamy : It is the presence of natural or physical barrier between

androecium and gynoecium which help in avoiding self pollination. In
calotropis stignui, gynoecium is fused with pollinium and form gynostegium
Advantages of cross pollination
Cross pollination introduces genetic recombinations and hence variation in
offspring.
Cross pollination increases the adptability of the offspring towards changes in
environment.
The defective character of race is eliminated and replaced by better character.
Disadvantages of cross pollination
Plants have to produce a large number of pollen grains
The very good character are likely to be spoiled
As external agency is involved chance factor is always there
Agents of pollination

I
C
S

EN
M
A air sac or wings
Pollens are very light. They may D
have
Flowers are small and are colourless,
UN odouless
F
Pollen grains are dry F
O
Anthers have long
filament and are abundant
E
T
Stigmas T
areUsticky and feathery.
I
T : Date palm, coconut, grass, willow, maize, jowar, cannabis,
Examples
S
N

Anemophily ( wind pollination) characteristics

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

L
A
T

ES
C
N

I mulberry.

Hay fever is allergic reaction due to presence of pollen in air

Hydrophily ( water pollination) characteristics
(i)
(ii)

Flowers are small and colourless, odourless, nectarless

Stigma is long, sticky and unwettable

Water pollination is of two types

(a) Epihydrophily ( on surface of water e.g. Vallisneria)
(b) Hypohydrophily ( inside water) e.g. zostera, ceratophyllum. Pollen grains are
without exine and often elongated. Vallisneria is dioecious. Male plants
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produces a large number of male flowers, which after breaking, rise upwards
in closed state and open on surface of water. The female plant produces
flowers that brings it on surface of water with the help of long pedicels. After
pollination, the female flower is brought down into water
Entomophily ( Insect pollination) characteristics
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Flowers are coloured. Bluish-purplish violet yellow flowers attracts

bees while reddish flowers attract butterflies and wasps.
Flowers commonly posses an aroma or scent
Visiting insects are fed by either nectar and pollen
Pollen grains are sticky due to pollenkitt
Stigmas are sticky

Ornithophily ( Bird pollination)

ES

C tree
Pollination by birds is common is coral tree, bottle brush and silk cotton
N
Two types of long beasked small birds take place pollination
IE sun birds and
C
S
hummingbird
L
A
Other birds are Bulbul, parrot, crow etc
T
N
Ewith
Ornithophilous flower are large and strong
abundant nectar and edible
M
A
part. Example Bombax, agave, Butea,
D Bignonia

UN
F
Chiropterophily ( Pollination by
bats)
OF
E
The flowers theyT
pollinate
are large dull coloured and produce strong aroma
U
Chiropterophilous
IT flower produce abundant pollen grains and secrete more
T
nectar
NSthan the orinthophilous flower.
I
Bats carry out the pollination in Adansonia and kigelia
Malacophily ( pollination by snails)
Snails perform pollination Arisaema ( snake orcobra plants )and some arum
lilies
Myrmecophily ( pollination by ants)

Plants pollination by ants are called myrmecophytes examples some members

of family rubiaceae.

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Significance of pollination
Pollination leads to fertilization and production of seeds and fruits, which
ensure continuity of plant life
It stimulates growth of ovary.
It results in production of hybrid seeds
The seeds and fruits are also a source of nutrition
Post pollination events
The nucleus of the pollen grain divides to produce vegetative and generative
cells. A short outgrowth called germ tube, emerges from the pollen and
secrete enzymes which digests the tissues of stigma and continues to grow as
pollen tube
The generative nucleus divides to form two male nuclei, which become
ES
surrounded by cytoplasmic masses and appear as distinct male gametes
C
N of style.
The pollen tube grows through the stigma and passes into theEtissues
I
C
Depending upon the region of entry into ovule. These are:S
L
A
i)
Porogamy : The entry of pollen tube into the
ovule through micropyle
NT
e.g. ottelia
E
M
ii)
Chalazogamy: The entry of pollen
tube into the ovule through chalaza
A
D
e.g. Casuarina
UN
F
iii)
Mesogamy: The entry
F of pollen tube through funicle or integuments
O
e.g. cucurbita.
E
Ttube
U
Generally pollen
enters the ovule through micropyle and enters
T
I
T through filiform apparatus. Filiform apparatus guides the entry of
synergids
S
pollen
IN tube.

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Pollen pistil interaction

Only the compatible pollen of the same species are able to germinate.
Germination is connected with compatibility incompatibility reaction between
proteins present over the pollen grains and stigma.
Plant breeders are able to obtain hybrid between different species.
If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal of anthers from the
flower bud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps. This step is
referred to an emasculation.
Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size, generally
made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination of its stigma with
unwanted pollen. This process is called bagging.
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is defined as the fusion of male and female gametes toCform

ES the
zygote which eventually develops into an embryo.
EN
I
Cpollen tube. One
Two male gametes are discharged into embryo sac through
S
L production of diploid
of the male gametes fuse with the egg, resulting inAthe
NT fertilization
zygote. This is called syngamy or also calledEgenerative
Mpolar nuclei, producing a triploid
The second male gametes fuses with two
A
Dcalled triple fusion and is also known as
N
primary endosperm nucleus. This
is
FU
vegetative fertilization. F
Ooccur two sexual fusion one in syngamy and other in
In an embryo sac there
E
UTphenomenon is called double fertilization.
triple fusion.TThis

IN

I
T
S

POST FERTILIZATION : STRUCTRE AND EVENTS

Endosperms
Endosperm is a nutritive tissue formed from vegetative fertilization.
Endosperm is meant for nourishing the embryo. It is generally triploid
Since endosperm develops fully in the fertilized ovule, it may show the effect
of genes present in the male gamete. The phenomenon is called xenia.
The direct or indirect effect of pollen on structure inside embryo sac except
embryo has been termed by Focke 1881 and limited to endosperm part. It is
seen in Zea mays ( maize) alone.

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The metaxenia may be defined as the effect of pollen on the seed coat or
pericarp lying outside the embryo sac
Depending upon its mode of development endosperm is of three types
ES
C
1. Nuclear endosperm
EN
I
C of free nuclei
Primary endosperm nucleus divides to form a large number
S
L
A central vacuole appears and massive peripheralA
multinucleate
cytoplasm is
T
N disappears. Example
formed. Wall formation occurs and central E
vacuole
M
maize, wheat, rice.
A
D
In coconut there is an outer multicellular
solid endosperm and inner free
UN
F
nuclear liquid endospermFin the centre.
O
2. Cellular endospermE
T after every division of primary endosperm nucleus, so
U
Wall formation
occurs
IT is cellular from the beginning e.g. Datura, balsam, Petunia
that endosperm
T
S
3. Helobial
IN endosperm
First division produces two cells within each of which free nuclear division
occur but ultimately they may also become cellular. E.g. Eremurus,
Asphodelus.
Functions of endosperms are
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

In plants with albuminous seeds the endosperm reserves support early

seedling growth.
Endosperm provides nutrition to developing embryo
Liquid endosperm of coconut contains auxins, cytokinins and GA and
induces cytokinesis. When added to basic nutrient medium. Coconut milk
also induces the differentiation of embryo and plantlets from various plant
tissues
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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Zeatin, a very potent cytokinin is extracted from the young endosperm of

maize.

Embyrogeny ( embryo formation)

It is the development of mature embryo from zygote or oospore
Early development produces a pro embryo which has an axial symmetry.
Embryo passes through globular stage.
Development of embryo is endoscopic or on inner side because of presence of
suspensor.
Dicot embryogeny ( crucifer / onagrad type)
Zygote divides into two unequal cells, larger suspensor cell towards micropyle
and a smaller embryo cell towards antipodal region.
The suspensor undergoes transverse division forming 6-10 celled suspensor.
The first cell of suspensor is called haustorium and last cell ( towards embryo
S
E
C
cell) is called hypophysis. It forms radical.
N
E
I
Embryo cell divides twice. Vertically and once transverselyCto produce a two
S
tired eight called embryo. The epibasal ( terminal ) tier
forms two cotyledons
L
A tier produces only
T
and a plumule while the hybobasal ( near the suspensor)
ENheart shaped and further
hypocotyls. It is initially globular than becomes
M
A
assumes typical shape.
D
N
A typical dicotyledonous embryo
FU consists of an embryonal axis and two
F
cotyledons. The part ofOembryonal
axis above the level of cotyledons is called
epicotyle. It terminates
TE with the stem tip, called plumule ( future shoot)
U
The part below
IT the level of cotyledons is called hypocotyls which terminates in
T
S tip called radical ( future root) The root tip is covered with root cap.
the root
IN

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C
N
In caspella bursa pastoris, the elongating cotyledons curve due toEcurving of the
I not show
C
ovule itself. In orchids, orboanche and utricularis, the embryo
does
S
L
differentiation of plumule, cotyledon and radical.
A
NT
E
M
Monocot embryogeny ( sagittaria type)
A
D a vesicular suspensor cell towards
The zygote divides transversely producing
N
FcellUtowards the chalazal end. The embryo cell
micropylar end and embryo
OFinto a terminal and middle cell. The terminal cell
divides transverselyEagain
Tand transversely into globular embryo. It forms a massive
divides vertically
U
T a plumule. Growth of cotyledon pushes the plumule to one
Iand
cotyledon
T
S
side.
INRemains of second cotyledons occurs in some grasses. It is called
epiblast. The single cotyledon of monocots is called scutellum. It is shield
shaped and appears terminal.
The middle cell gives rise to hypocotyls and radical. It may add a few dells to
the suspensor. Both radical and plumule develop covering sheats called
coleorhizae and coleoptiles respectively. They appear to be extensions of
scutellum.

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ES
C
N

L
A
T

Transformation of parts of flower

1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10

FU

BEFORE FERTILIZATION
OF
E
Calyx, corolla, androccium,
style,
T
U
stigma
T
Ovary TI
S
Ovary
IN wall
Ovule
Integuments
Outer integuments
Inner integuments
Micropyle
Funicle
Nucellus
Egg cell
Synergids

I
C
S

EN
M
DA

AFTER FERTILIZATION
Wither off
Fruit
Pericarp
Seed
Seed coats
Testa
Tegmen
Micropyle
Stalk of seed
Perisperm
Zygote
Disintegrate and disapper

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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Formation of seed and fruit

Fruit
Ripened ovary or fertilized ovary is called fruit. Wall of the ovary forms fleshy or dry
fruit wall called pericarp. Fleshy fruit or pericarp is having three layers epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp
Pericarp
It is the covering of fruit that develops from ovary wall
It is a part of fruit and is dry or fleshy
It is protective covering and nutrition
Seed

Ripened ovules are known as seeds

S
E
C

Integuments of ovule forms seed coat. Outer integuments

Nform testa
E
I
and tegmen develops from inner integuments
C
SAsphodelus,

In some case like litchi, ingadulce ( Pithecolobium,

L
A
Trianthema ) a sort of third integuments or N
arilTis present, which covers an
E
additional covering of seed
M
Acommunis ) have a spongy outgrowth
D

Some seeds like castor ( ricinus

N
near the micropyle, which F
is U
known as caruncle and it absorbs water during
seed germination. OF
E of ovule) forms stalk of seed. Ultimately, stalk withers

FuniculusT
( stalks
U
and leaves
ITa minute scar called hilum.
T
NSSmallest are found in orchids which are lightest in plant kingdom and
Iare called dust seeds. Fresh weight of each orchid seed is 20.33g

Largest seeds are double coconut ( Zodoicea maldivica) which are

bilobed and each seed is having a weight of 6kg

Depending upon the persistence of endosperm the seeds are classified

as
i)
Non-endospermic or ex-albuminous: Food stored in endosperm is
completely exhausted by developing embryo. Example : Seed of
gram, pea, bean, orchid.
ii)
Endospermic or albuminous: Endosperm grows vigorously and is not
exhausted by the developing embryo cotyledons are thin here
Examples: Seed of wheat, barley, castor, poppy etc

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Importance of seeds
Evolutionary achievement: Seed is an evolutionary achievement. It
provides protection to embryo
Seeds colonise in new areas and spread its species because of dispersal
Seeds has sufficient food reserve that nourishes the germinating
embryo
Being products of sexual reproduction, seeds have number of variation
and variation helps in adaptation to varied environment.
Germination and sowing of seeds by human gave rise to agriculture and
it helped in development of civilization, science and technology.
Seed viability
It is the period of time for which the seeds retain the ability to
S
germinate. Seed viability is determined genetically as well asCE
environmentally.
EN
I
C humidity and
Environmental conditions which can alter viability
are
S
L
temperature.
A
T
Genetically seed viability ranges from
aNfew days ( e.g. oxalis) one
E
M
season ( e.g. Birch), 2-5 years ( A
most crop plants) to 100 years ( e.g.
D
N
Trifolium ). Seed viability
has
U been found out to be more than 1000
F
years in Lotus. 2000
F years old seeds of Phoenix dactylifera excavated
O
from king Herods
E palace near Dead sea have been found viable.
T
Similarly
TU10,000 year old seeds of Lupins arcticus ( Lupine) excavated
I
from
T Arctic Tundra not only germinated but also produced plants that
S
IN flowered
Viability of the seed is tested by its (a) respiration (b) germination
Respiring seed turns colourless triphenyl tetrazolium chloride into pink
tripheyl formazan
i) Apomixis
[Gk . apo without ,mixis moarriage; Winklwr 1908 ]
It is the formation of new individuals by asexual methods which mimic
sexual reproduction including seed formation but do not involve fusion
of gametes or sex cells.
Normal type of sexual reproduction having two regular features, i.e.
meiosis and fertilization, is called amphimixis.

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The organism reproducing through apomixes is called apomicts.

Apomixis is controlled by gene and individual; are genetically similar to
the parent producing i.e. are clone and members of a clone are called
ramets.
It occurs by following methods:
a)
It is mode of apomixis in which seeds are formed but are asexual
in nature as the embryo develops directly without gametic
fusion.
b)
The term sporophytic budding is used if embryo develops
adventitiously from diploid cells of nucellus or integument, e.g.
mango, orange, opuntia, onion.
ii)
Parthogenogenesis
[Gk. Parthenos virgin; genesis descent, Owen 1848 ]
It is the development of a new individual from a single gamete without
ES
fusion with another gamete.
C
ENtypes of
Depending upon the ploidy of the gametes, there areItwo
C
gametes, there are two types of parthenogenesisS haploid and diploid
L
A
In haploid parthenogenesis, the embryo sac
and
T its egg are haploid
N
E sac as its contained egg is
In diploid parthenogenesis, the embryo
M
A and forms diploid embryo.
diploid. It undergoes parthenogenesis
D
N
Diploid parthenogenesisUis generally accompanied by failure of meiosis
F
during megasporogenesis
as well as direct formation of embryo sac
OF
from a nucellar
TE cell, e.g. Poa, apple, rubus
U
iii)
Apogamy
T( Gk. Apo without, gamos arriage)
I
SItTis formation of sporophyte or embryo directly from cells of
IN gametophyte.
In higher plants, only diploid apogamy is successful, that is, the
gametophytic cell forming the sporophyte is diploid. In lower plants,
haploid apogamy is equally successful.
Polyembryony
The phenomenon of having more than one embryo is called
polyembryony.
Occurrence of polyembryony due to fertilization of more than one egg
cell is called simple polyembryony.
Formation of additional embryos from different parts of ovule like
synergids, antipodal, nucellus, integuments etc.
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Example Citrus, groundnut, onion, opuntia, mangifera

Polyembryony was first discovered by Leeuwenhoek ( 1719 ) and was
confirmed by Schnarf ( 1929 ). Polyembryony is more common in
gymnosperm than in angiosperm
There are two types of polyembryony false and true embryony
In false embryony, more than one embryos arise in different embryo
sac in the ovule; whereas in true, more than one embryos are formed
in the same embryo sac
The cause of polyembryony may be:
Cleavage of proembryo e.g. family orchidaceae.
Development of many embryos from other cells of embryo sac
except egg. E.g. Argemone
Formation of many embryos due to presence of more than one
embryo sac in same ovule e.g. citrus
S
E
C
Formation of many embryos from the structure outside
Nthe embryo
E
I
sac e.g. mango, opuntia
C
S
Polyembryony is practically important because
genetically
uniform
L
A
parental type seedlings are obtained from
NTnucellar embryos
E
Nucellar embryos are superior toM
those obtained by vegetative
A
Dembryo seedlings are disease free and
propagation because nucellar
N
maintain their superiority
FU for long time.

F
O
Parthenocarpy : (Gk. Parthenos
E virgin, karpos fruit; Noll 1902)
T
TU of fruit without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruits are
It isIformation
T
S
seedless
e.g. apple, pear, banana, pineapple etc
IN Technically, fruit having seeds ( pseudoseeds) with an asexual embryo

are also parthenocarpic fruit

Parthenocarpy is of three types: genetic, environmental and chemically
induced
Genetic parthenocarpy:
Parthenocarpy is due to genetic alteration caused by mutation or
hybridization. It is also called natural parthenocarpy. E.g. banana,
apple, pineapple, varieties of grapes, pear
Environmental parthenocarpy:
Low temperature, frost and fog have been known to induce
parthenocarpy in a number of plants examples: pear, olive, capsicum,
tomato
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Chemically induced parthenocarpy :

Spray or paste of auxins and gibberellins in low concentration of 10-6
10-7 M has been found to induce parthenocarpy in several plants.
Example: tomato, citrus, strawberry, blackberry, fig etc.
Importance of parthenocarpic fruits
They do not contain seeds which have to be removed before eating
fruits.
Fruits can be developed inside the green houses where pollinators are
not available.
Quicker food processing.

ES
C
N

L
A
T

IN

T
U
T
TI

OF

FU

I
C
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EN
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