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Eprints ID : 12156

To link to this article : DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2013.2281162

http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2013.2281162

To cite this version Lucia, Oscar and Maussion, Pascal and Dede,
Enrique and Burdio, Jose M. Induction Heating Technology and
Its Applications: Past Developments, Current Technology, and
Future Challenges. (2013) IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 61 (n5). pp. 2509-2520.

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Induction Heating Technology and its Applications: Past

Developments, Current Technology, and Future Challenges
O. Luca, Member, IEEE, P. Maussion, Member, IEEE, E. Dede, Member, IEEE, and J. M. Burdo, Senior Member, IEEE.

Abstract Induction heating technology is nowadays the

heating technology of choice in many industrial, domestic, and
medical applications due to its advantages regarding efficiency,
fast heating, safety, cleanness, and accurate control. Advances
in key technologies, i.e. power electronics, control techniques,
and magnetic component design, have allowed the development
of highly reliable and cost-effective systems, making this
technology readily available and ubiquitous.
This paper reviews induction heating technology summarizing
the main milestones in its development, and analyzing the
current state-of-art of induction heating systems in industrial,
domestic and medical applications, paying special attention to
the key enabling technologies involved. Finally, an overview of
future research trends and challenges is given, highlighting the
promising future of induction heating technology.
Index termsInduction heating, resonant power conversion,
electromagnetic analysis.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Induction heating (IH) provides contactless, fast, and

efficient heating of conductive materials. It is becoming one
of the preferred heating technologies in industrial [1],
domestic [2], and medical applications [3], among other
applications, due to its advantages when compared with other
classical heating techniques such as flame heating, resistance
heating or traditional ovens or furnaces.
Fig. 1 shows a typical arrangement of an induction
heating system [4-7] in a longitudinal flux configuration. An
ac source is used to supply an alternating voltage to an
induction heating coil. The coil generates an alternating
magnetic field, in which the induction target, i.e. the load, is
immersed. As a consequence, the induction target is heated
by means of two physical phenomena: eddy currents and
magnetic hysteresis [4]. Eddy currents oppose to the
magnetic field applied to the induction target, and they
produce the heating by Joule effect. This is commonly the
main heat source in IH processes. In addition to this, magnetic
hysteresis creates additional heating in ferromagnetic
materials. The typical operating frequencies of these systems
ranges from line frequency, e.g. industrial and high power
applications, up to a few MHzs, typical of medical systems.

O. Luca and J.M. Burdo are with the Department of Electronic Engineering and
Communications, University of Zaragoza, SPAIN (phone: +34976761000, e-mail:
[email protected]). P. Maussion is with the University of Toulouse, FRANCE. E. Dede
is with the University of Valencia, SPAIN.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1.
Typical arrangement of an induction heating system in a
longitudinal flux configuration: (a) general view and (b) top view.

Among the advantages of IH, the following ones are

commonly recognized:
x Fast heating: IH technology directly heats the induction
target, reducing wasted heat and significantly reducing
heating times thanks to high power densities and without
any thermal inertia.
x Efficiency: Modern efficient designs of the coil and the
power converter allows obtaining efficiency values higher
than 90%, significantly improving conventional heating
techniques. Moreover, since only the induction target is
heated, the heat loss through the ambient and surrounding
elements is minimized and high temperatures can be
reached.
x Controlled heating: The power applied by the IH system
and the location can be accurately controlled through the
appropriate design of the coil and the power converter and
its control. As a consequence, advanced features can be
implemented such as local heating, predefined
temperature profiles, etc.
x Improved industrial process: IH consistency and
repeatability improves the quality process and maximizes
the productivity of the process. Moreover, since IH is a
contactless heating process, the induction target is not
affected by the heating tool, i.e. the coil, and the quality is
ensured.
x Cleanness and safety: Since IH heats directly the induction
target, the temperature of the surroundings of the heating
area is lower, avoiding burning other materials, such as
spilled food in the case of domestic IH. Moreover, there is
no local pollution unlike fossil fuel furnaces.
These advantages, and the progress in IH technology
achieved in recent years, have boosted applications of IH that
can be classified into industrial, domestic, and medical
applications. The main enabling technologies that have
allowed this progress are power electronics, modulation and
control algorithms, and magnetic component design. Table I

TABLE I. DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS FOR EACH ENABLING TECHNOLOGY.
Enabling technology
Modulation and Control
Algorithms

Power Electronics
Application

Industrial

x High power.
x Improved reliability.

x Assembly-line read.

x Low-high operating
frequency.
x Low cost.
x High efficiency.

Domestic

x Limited cooling
capability.

x Medium operating
frequency.

x Low power.
Medical

x High quality factor

resonant tank.
x High operating
frequency.

x Multi-zone control algorithm.

x Improved interface and

communications.
x Variable load and power ranges.
x Multi-load management.
x Temperature control.

x Power factor and harmonics control.

x Variable load and power ranges.
x Need to avoid accoustic noise.
x Multi-load management.
x Temperature control.

x Accurate power and temperature

control.
x Frequency selection.

summarizes the main differential characteristics of the main

IH applications and the enabling technologies involved.
Although all IH applications share the main fundamental
principle, they have differential characteristics that have to be
addressed through the technologies involved in each design.
Industrial applications require usually higher output powers
and higher reliability, constraining the power converter
topology selection. Besides, since they have intensive
industrial usage, assembly-line readiness and an improved
interface and communications are required. In addition to this,
the inductor design needs to adapt to the different shapes of
induction targets, e.g. shafts, gears, etc., and provide the
required heat profile.
By contrast, domestic IH systems that are usually
implemented in induction cookers require low cost and highly
efficient implementations due to the limited cooling
capabilities. Besides, the wide load range due to the different
materials, geometries and required output powers is the main
challenge from the control point of view. The inductor system
must be designed also to obtain high-efficiency and be able to
heat non-ferromagnetic materials typical of some cultures.
Finally, medical applications require specific but vital
requirements to IH systems. These systems are usually low
power, but they require very accurate control of the heating
process, including temperature and localization.
The next lines give a brief outline of the evolution of IH
systems and its applications.
II.

HISTORY OF INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS

IH technology has been in constant evolution following

industrial and technological advances since the end of XIX
century [8]. The principle of induction heating was discovered
by Michael Faraday when he discovered induced currents by
a magnet. James C. Maxwell developed later the unified

Magnetic Components
x High efficiency.
x Variable shape.

x Optimized heat
distribution.

x High efficiency.

x Heat non-ferromagnetic
materials.
x Flexible cooking surfaces.
x Local heating.

x Controlled magnetic field

interactions.
x Ferromagnetic fluids.

theory of electromagnetism and James P. Joule described the

heat produced by a current in a conductor, establishing the
fundamental principles of induction heating.
The first industrial applications of the IH phenomenon
were identified in 1887 by Sebastian Z. de Ferranti, who
proposed IH for melting metals, filling the first patent on
industrial applications of IH. Later, in 1891, F.A. Kjellin
presented the first fully functional induction furnace. The first
major advance came when Edwin F. Northrup implemented
the first high-frequency induction furnace at Princeton in
1916. Nearly at the same time, M.G. Ribaud developed highfrequency IH technology using spark-gap generators and,
later, Valentin P. Vologdin developed IH generators using
machine generators and vacuum tubes. These were the
beginnings of modern high-frequency induction heating
systems. During WWII and later, automotive and aircraft
industry boosted the use of IH technology not only for melting
metals but also for advanced material treatment, significantly
increasing the IH technology penetration on industrial
processes. The second major revolution of IH technology
came along with the development of solid-state generators.
These generators took advantage of new power semiconductor
technology, mainly thyristors, to implement highly reliable
power converters. Later, the development of higher frequency
power devices, such as the power bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) and the power metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET), enabled the design of higher efficiency
power converters, making IH the technology of choice in
many applications. The grade of performance and efficiency
achieved in IH systems, together with further advances in
semiconductor technology and the introduction of the
successful insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), expanded
the applications of IH technology beyond the industrial
environment. Since late 80s, many domestic applications of

TABLE II. SELECTED REFERENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING THE FOCUS ON APPLIACIONS AND ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
Enabling technology
Power Electronics

Modulation and Control

Algorithms

Magnetic Components

Industrial

[1], [4], [5], [9-27].

[25], [26], [28-33].

[26], [30], [34-43].

Domestic

[2], [44-63].

[33], [50], [62], [64-78].

[42], [43], [45], [62], [77], [7989].

Medical

[3], [90-92].

Industrial and domestic

techniques applied.

[43], [93-99].

Application

Fig. 2.

Typical power conversion flow in an IH system.

(a)

Leq

Leq

Req

Req

Leq
Cr

Cr

(b)

Req

Lr

Cr

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.
Electrical equivalent model of an IH load (a) and basic resonant
configurations: (b) series, (c) parallel, and (d) hybrid series-parallel.

IH have appeared, and nowadays induction heating

cookers are well-established in many countries. Moreover,
since late 80s and, specially, in the XXI century, a special
interest of IH for medical applications has appeared due to its
advantages in terms of precise and local heating for
hyperthermia treatment.
Currently, IH technology is evolving fast towards highly
reliable and efficient systems, allowing implementing highly
versatile systems that makes IH ubiquitous. Next section
summarizes the state-of-art of the enabling technologies that
makes possible such systems.
III.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

Advances in key technologies have made possible the

development of IH technology [17]. This section summarizes
the current state-of-art of the main enabling technologies
commonly involved in IH systems: power electronics,
modulation and control algorithms, and magnetic component
design. A selection of references summarizing the state-of-art
is given in next subsections, and they are also summarized in
Table II according to the application that they focus on.
A. Power electronics
Fig. 2 shows the main power conversion scheme present
in most of the single coil IH systems. Firstly, an

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) filter ensures that the

power converter complies with the electromagnetic standards.
After that, an ac-dc converter provides a dc-bus to supply the
inverter block. The rectifier stage can be either a noncontrolled stage, i.e. diode rectifier, or a controlled one. The
latter implementation is used to provide an additional degree
of freedom for the control system, and can be implemented
either as a controlled rectifier [12] or as a diode rectifier plus
a dc-dc converter [25]. Depending on the applications, some
IH systems also include a power factor corrector block in
order to increase voltage and ensure sinusoidal input current
[73].
The dc-ac power converter, also known as inverter, is the
most important one and has to supply medium frequency
currents to supply the inductor [18]. The operating frequency
is usually higher than 20 kHz in order to avoid audible noise
and rises up to 1 MHz depending on the application.
Currently, most IH systems feature either voltage source or
current source resonant inverters [23] in order to obtain
efficient and high-power-density implementations. The
induction heating load is usually modeled as an equivalent
resistor Req and inductor Leq (Fig. 3 (a)), which may be
connected in series or parallel, depending on the model, and
additional external inductors and/or capacitors are added to
complete the resonant tank. The resonant inverter topology
used can be classified either considering the type or resonance
used or the number of switching devices.
Considering the resonant tank, the most used
configurations are the second-order series resonant (Fig. 3 (b))
and parallel resonant circuits (Fig. 3 (c)), and the third-order
LLC series-parallel resonant circuit (Fig. 3 (d)). The series
resonant RLC circuit [9], [50] is commonly used in voltage
source inverters and ensures zero mean current through the
inductor, due to the series capacitor, and zero voltage
switching (ZVS) conditions above the resonant frequency, i.e.
zero voltage across the device during the switching process
that ideally leads to zero switching losses. By contrast, the
parallel-resonant RLC circuit [24] is used in current source
inverters, achieving reduced current through the switching
devices and zero current switching (ZCS), i.e. switching with
zero current through the device that leads to ideally zero
switching losses. For this reason, this topology is chosen when
high inductor current is demanded in order to reduce stress in
the power devices. Finally, the series-parallel LLC circuits
combines the benefits of parallel resonance with additional
load short-circuit protection [10], [13], making it one of the
most used topologies for high power industrial applications.

All these three resonant configurations can also include a

transformer to provide isolation and additional voltage gain
[10].
According to the number of switching devices, the inverter
topologies commonly used in IH are the full-bridge [21], halfbridge [19], [20], and single-switch [63] resonant inverters.
Fig. 4 shows the voltage source full and half-bridge in the
series resonant form, and a ZVS single-switch inverter. The
full-bridge topology is commonly used for output powers
higher than 5 kW, and it is the standard choice for industrial
systems. By contrast, the half-bridge topology is the preferred
one for domestic induction systems up to 5 kW, whereas the
single-switch inverter is used in small IH generators and
domestic systems up to 2 kW.
Apart from the single output topologies previously
detailed, modern designs include multiple-coil systems
intended to improve the heat distributions [15]. These multicoil systems have been applied to both industrial [25-27] and
domestic applications [44], [48], [68], and require the
development of multiple-output inverters in order to obtain
cost-effective solutions. Fig. 5 summarizes some of the
approaches proposed. Fig. 5 (a) and (b) detail the schematic of
a dual full-bridge inverter [47] and a dual half-bridge inverter
[44], [60], respectively. These topologies have similar
operation to their single-output counterpart, but with limited
output power control due to additional ZVS constrains. Fig. 5
(c) shows a half-bridge topology featuring frequency
selectable resonant loads [45]. Each resonant tank is tuned at
a different resonant frequency, allowing selecting among them
with the inverter operating frequency. Finally, Fig. 5 (d)
shows the series resonant multi-inverter topology [48], [68]
designed to supply IH systems with a high number of coils
with a reduced number of switching devices, providing
independent output power control in each load. Additionally,
alternative conversion schemes have been recently studied for
IH systems. Direct ac-ac conversion has been studied by some
authors because of its benefits in terms of reduced component
count and electromagnetic emissions (EMI), and improved
efficiency. Fig. 6 summarizes some of the proposals made by
several authors. In Fig. 6 (a) [64], several switching devices
are combined to build bidirectional switches in order to
implement a full-bridge direct ac-ac power converter. The
main drawback is the increased number of switches, which
increases the cost and complexity of the power converter. The
power converter proposed in [57], Fig. 6 (b), follows the same
procedure but using the recently developed reverse-blocking
(RB) IGBTs to implement a half-bridge direct ac-ac converter
with similar advantages and drawbacks than the previous
implementation. In order to overcome these limitations, the
proposals shown in Fig. 6 (c) and (d) were presented. On one
hand, Fig. 6 (c) proposes a direct ac-ac half-bridge power
converter featuring high-frequency rectifier diodes, which
avoids the use of additional switching devices [52]. This
power converter also increases the voltage applied to the load,
increasing further the efficiency. Fig. 6 (d) shows a multipleoutput proposal where a common ac-ac converter block
composed of the switching devices Smh and Sml is used to
supply a large set of loads and, therefore, reducing the relative
impact of the ac-ac block cost and complexity [49].

S1

S2
Cs
il

vbus
S3

+ vl Cr Leq Req
vo

+
Cs

S4

(a)

S1
Cr

Cs
vbus
S2

Leq Req

il

+ v
l
Cs v
o
-

Cr

(b)

Cr
Leq Req
vbus

+ vo =vl -

il
S1

(c)
Fig. 4.
Basic voltage source inverter topologies applied to IH: (a) fullbridge series resonant inverter, (b) half-bridge series resonant inverter,
and (c) a single-switch ZVS quasi-resonant inverter.

B. Modulation and control algorithms

Modulation and control algorithms have to accurately
control the power converter in order to obtain the desired
performance. More specifically, accurate output power (and
as consequence, temperature) and current control are required,
with appropriate dynamics. The main issues to address, which
are common to nearly any IH application, include the
management of highly variable output power and IH loads
and, more recently, the implementation of multi-coil systems.
In order to obtain an apropriate output power control from
a static poing of view, different modulation types have been
succesfully proposed for single phase systems: square wave
[50], [69], [70], asymmetrical control [13], [50], [59], [66],
[67] or pulse density modulation (PDM) [9], [14], [28], [29],
[31], [59], [69]. Square wave and asymmetrical controls allow
to change the output power in the complete operation range by
either controlling the switching frequency or the duty cycle of
the control signals. PDM, also known as burst mode, has the
advantage of controlling the inverter at a fixed switching
frequency by controlling the on-time of the inverter. The use
of a phase-locked loop (PLL) is also common in the control
schemes of IH inverters such as in [13], [74]. As an alternative
to this idea, papers [25], [27] divide the control into two parts:
direct phase control thanks to a PLL and indirect RMS
amplitude control through a proportional-integral (PI)
controler, as it can be seen in Fig. 7. This solution is possible

Cs

S1
vbus

+ vo1

S2

il1

Cr1 Leq1 Req1

il2

Cr2 Leq2 Req2

S4

+ vl2

Cs

S3
Cs

S1
Cs

Cs

S6
Cs

S5

Cs

S3

Cs

S4

Cs

Cr Leq Req

il

vbus

S2

vo

Cs

(a)
(a)

S1
il1

D2

S2

vbus

Cr2

Cr1

Cs
Leq1 Req1
+ vl1
Cs

Leq2 Req2 i
l2
+ vl2 S3

Cs

S1

Leq Req

il

vbus
S2

Cs

D1

(b)

+ v
l
vo
-

Cr

(b)

S1
Leq1 Req1 Cr1

Cs

Leq2 Req2 Cr2

il1

vbus

Leqn Reqn Crn

S2

Cs

vo +

vl

(c)

(c)

ibus

Cr,1

Cr,3

vl,1

Leq,1

vl,3

Leq,3

Cs ch
S1
T h Dh
c1
io
T1
Vbus
+ T2
v o c2
Sl
S2
cl
Cs +

Req,1

S3

Req,3

Sh

T l Dl
-

il,1

il,2
Req,2

vl,2

Leq,2

Cr,2

vl,n-1

Cr,n-1
Leq,n-1

vl,4

Req,n-1
il,n-1
Sn-1
il,3
cn-1
D3 Tn-1
Dn-1
Tn
Dn
D4
cn
Sn i
il,4
+ l,n
Req,4
Req,n
vl,n Leq,n
Leq,4

Cr,4

c3
T3
T4
c4
S4
+

D1
D2

Cr,n

(d)
Fig. 5.
Multiple-output inverters for multi-coil IH systems: (a)
dual-full bridge, (b) dual output half-bridge, (c) frequencymultiplexed half bridge, and (d) series resonant multi-inverter.

in the case of one dc-dc converter per phase but the RMS
calculation slows the dynamic response.
One of the issues for the future of IH is the load adaptive
capabilities and some solutions have been proposed in [30],
[94], [102]. An adaptive simmering control of the temperature
for a domestic induction cooker is presented in [75].
Parameters are updated online, depending on the estimates

Smh
cmh+

v l1
Cs/2

cmh-

S1

cml+
cml-

Leq3

Leq1
Req1
i l1

v l3

c3

c1

c4

vl,n-1

Req3

i l3

S3

c1

Sn-1

Cr,n-1
Leq,n-1
Req,n-1
i l,n-1

cn-1

vo

S2

Cs/2

Cr3

io

~ Vmains
Sml

Cr1

i l2

cn

S4

Leq2
Cr2

Req4

Req2
v l2

Sn

i l4

vl4

Req,n

Leq4
Cr4

i l,n

Vl,n

Leq,n

Cr,n

(d)
Fig. 6.
Direct ac-ac resonant converters for IH systems: (a) fullbridge topology, (b) half-bridge topology featuring RB-IGBTs, (c) halfbridge topology featuring fast diode rectifiers, and (d) multiple-output
ac-ac converter.

provided by a multiple-model reset observer (MMReO). This

observer consists of a reinitialized reset observer and of
multiple fixed identification models, as it can be seen in Fig.
8. Besides, a fixed robust quantitative feedback theory based
controller is designed for comparison purposes. Such a control
scheme achieves quick heating up and accurate temperature
control whatever the amount of water, with or without a lid.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 9.
Different inductor flux approaches: (a) transverse flux and (b)
longitudinal flux.
Fig. 7.

Inductor current control circuit [25].

Fig. 10.

Fig. 8.
Multi-model reset observer for x >B, W@T where B, and
W are the characteristic temperatures of the system [75].

Besides all the single phase architectures, multi-phase or

multi-coil configurations could be helpful to increase either
flexibility or power or even both simultaneously. Control
becomes even more important since the currents have to be
perfectly controlled in form, amplitude and phase, due to the
coupling effects between the coils and with the load, whatever
the configuration, transverse flux or longitudinal flux.
Moreover, as the load characteristics changes with
temperature, the controller task becomes heavy. An original
control scheme is described and tested in [25-27] for a six-coil
system called zone controlled induction heating (ZCIH) in a
longitudinal flux configuration. Paper [27] presents the use of
a current control method based on a circuit model using real
and imaginary (ReIm) current/voltage components instead of
the current amplitude and phase angle control in the classical
approaches. State feedback decoupling provides separate
current control on each phase with high dynamics but with a
high computation burden due to numerous high rank matrix
transformations. The six currents remain in phase in this
application where no dc-dc converter is needed unlike in [25].
In order to obtain appropriate dynamics, resonant control
of the inductor currents has been presented in [32] versus other
classical control techniques for comparison purposes. With a
highly reduced power electronic structure, the amplitudes and
phases of the currents have to be precisely controlled in a CSI
feeding a multi-coil IH system in transverse flux
configuration. The innovation lies in the current phase control
in order to fit a required temperature profile for metal
treatment. A resonant controller is implemented on each of the
phases of this multi-coil induction heating system in order to

Transverse flux induction heating with moving parts

achieve very fast and accurate control. Currents in the other

phases are considered as disturbances that are compensated by
each resonant controller.
All these modulation and control algorithms have been
implemented either using analog [65] or digital techniques.
Nowadays, digital implementations using digital signal
processors (DSPs) or field-programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs) due to their advantages in terms of configurability
and performance. In particular, several design methodologies
[33], monitoring [76] and control architectures [46], [72],
[78], and accelerated simulation techniques [71] for IH
systems have been proposed taken advantages of FPGAs.
C. Magnetic component design
The most important magnetic component in an IH system
is the inductor-load system [42], [43]. Significant efforts have
been paid to the modeling [34], [36], design, and optimization
using either analytical [79] or finite element analysis (FEA).
From an application point of view, the most important aspects
are the electrical equivalent parameters extraction [44], [45],
[80], [85] the efficiency optimization [81], [86-89], and the
heat distribution optimization [26], [37], [38].
In the industrial applications of IH, two different types of
flux inductors exist, depending on the arrangements of the
coil and the load and on the flux direction: transversal flux in
Fig. 9 (a) or longitudinal flux in Fig. 9 (b).
The advantages of classical induction heating systems can
be improved by multiphase inductors. Indeed, achieving metal
temperature homogeneity with a single inductor on a large
scale is impossible, particularly in transverse flux heating. A
solution to overcome this constraint consists in using multicoil systems but with an increased complexity.
Conventional control solutions for industrial multiinductor systems [35], [39] are based on several inductors with
mobile magnetic screens and mobile flux concentrators (Fig.
10). These additional devices adjust the magnetic fields
produced and adapt the system to different formats of material
and changes in position in order to reach the desired
temperature gradients. The processing lines are then subject to

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 11. Detail of several industrial water-cooled transverse flux

inductors. Courtesy GH Electrotermia S.A.

Fig. 13. Example of IH applications: (a) IH metal by transverse flux, (b)

IH of rails for hardening, (c) bonding by IH, and (d) sealing by IH. Courtesy
Five Celes.

Fig. 12. Domestic induction heating inductors of different size and

shape. Courtesy BSH Home Appliances Group.

mechanical adjustments and/or maintenance as often as

necessary to change the material to be heated. It is important
to notice that without any model, the desired power profile is
obtained by successive trial and error setting tests which are
time consuming.
Significant progresses [11], [25-27] have been made in
this domain by considering a static multi-inductor system
without any moveable devices such as yokes or magnetic
screens. Nevertheless, these multi-coil systems involve
mutual coupling between inductors themselves and between
the inductors and the load that have to be taken into account
in the control scheme [27], [82-84]. The corresponding
architectures often present rather complex solutions with one
dc-dc converter (or one rectifier) plus one resonant inverter
per phase as in [11], [25-27]. In [40], it is proposed to
manually change the coil connections for load-generator
adaptation. Some decoupling transformers between the
different phases are added in [41], which are certainly bulky
and costly. It is possible to take advantage of simpler
structures by an optimization with constraints, based on a prior
determination of the mapping of induced current distribution
inside the heated material. It necessitates the global power
density calculation in order to achieve the correct temperature
profile through the setting of currents in the 3 phases in [30].
In that case, amplitudes and phases of the inductor currents
have to be determined and controlled.
Fig. 11 shows an example of several water-cooled
inductors for industrial applications, whereas Fig. 12 shows
several flat inductors with different shapes and sizes for
domestic induction heating.
This Section has covered the main enabling technologies
in IH systems. Next Section will explain the main applications
of IH with a special focus on the differential characteristics
and the implemented technologies.

CV Joint hardening installation

Fig. 14. Industrial applications of induction heating: IH joints hardening

facility for the automotive industry. Courtesy GH Electrotermia S.A.

IV.

INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS

Among the many applications of induction heating,

industrial, domestic and medical are the most important in
terms of installed power and economic importance. The next
subsections details the main characteristics of these IH
applications.
A. Industrial applications
Industrial applications of IH started in the early 1900s
with metal melting and were later extended to the automotive
and aircraft industries. Current applications have been
extended to many manufacturing processes including preand post-heating, melting, forging, surface treatment, sealing,
bonding, annealing, and welding, among others.
The use of induction heating improves the speed of the
process, its precision, efficiency, and repeatability, which are
key features needed for the automation of the industrial
processes. Fig. 14 shows two complete induction heating
installation for joints hardening (a) and tube welding (b).
Other industrial applications can be seen in Fig. 13 (a) and
(b), for high power level, or in Fig. 13 (c) and (d), for lower

KW

SCR

IGBT

MOS

2000
2.000

800

800

600

600
PARALLEL

400

400

SERIES
SERIES OR
PARALLEL

200

200

100

100

kHz

Fig. 15.

50

150

(a)

500

Power devices used in industrial IH applications.

(b)
(a)
120A

80A

10
kHz

300
kHz

40A

0A
1. 0KHz
I ( L2)

3. 0KHz

10KHz

30KHz

100KHz

300KHz

1. 0MHz

0
Fr equency

(b)

(c)

Fig. 16. Double-frequency induction heating generator: (a) block

diagram, (b) output current (25 A/div, time 10 s/div), and (c) output
current spectrum.

power levels. The method in Fig. 13 (c) consists in

accelerating the polymerization of the glue by heating the
metal parts to be glued by induction. The temperatures
required are generally low (150 to 300C). Fig. 13 (d) is an
elegant means of sealing aluminum covers on jars of food
product. Inductive heating of the aluminum film increases the
temperature of the sealing product applied to the side of the
cover in contact with the jar.
Depending on the final application and the material to
heat, the power converter operating frequency is significantly
different, varying from a few Hz for high power systems,
typical for metal melting, to several hundreds of kHz, for
surface heat processing. As a consequence, semiconductors
used in industrial heating converters are thyristors, operating
at frequencies up to 3 kHz, for power ratings of several MWs,
while IGBTs, operating at frequencies up to 150 kHz
for power ratings up to 3 MW are normally used. MOSFETs
are used for higher frequencies, up to several hundreds of kHz
and output powers lower than 500 kW. Fig. 15 summarizes
the semiconductor device utilization area depending on the
switching frequency, the power level, and the type of resonant
tank, series or parallel, used.
Certain applications require more advanced topologies
that aim to improve the heating characteristics or expanding

(c)
Fig. 17. Induction heating appliances: (a) exploded view, (b) inductor
system detail, and (c) power conversion diagram.

into new fields of application. This is the case of the dual

frequency generators [22] used to feed the inductor,
sequentially or simultaneously, with two different frequencies
(Fig. 16) to achieve different penetration depths. One
frequency is typically set in the medium frequency range (3 to
10 kHz), and the other one in the high frequency range (200
to 400 kHz). These types of generators are used for hardening
work pieces with irregular surface geometry like gears.
It is important to note that control and interoperability of
industrial IH systems are extremely important. On the one
hand, the power converter operation must be accurately
controlled to obtain the desired results in the IH target. On the
other hand, the IH system must be interconnected to the
complete assembly line using industrial protocols such as
Profinet, Interbus, Profibus, etc.
B. Domestic applications
The main domestic applications of IH are the induction
heating appliances [62]. IH cookers take advantage not only
of improved heating times and efficiency, but also lower
surface temperatures, which implies better security and
cleanness, since food does not get burnt.
Fig. 17 shows the main structure of an IH appliance (a)
and a detail of the inductor-pot system (b). The main
characteristics of this application is the low-profile compact

management is required. This is a remarkable example of how

advances in enabling technologies leads to improved
induction heating systems present in the market.

Fig. 18.

Total active surface IH Appliance.

design, and the highly variable IH target, which can change in

shape, materials, and position very easily. Efficiency is also a
key design parameter due to the limited cooling capabilities.
For this reason, large efforts have been paid to improve the
power converter and inductor efficiency [50-52], [54], [55],
[61].
Nowadays, two technological trends are present in IH
appliances. Both of them follow the same power conversion
diagram shown in Fig. 17 (c), but differ in the inverter
topology. Designs for Europe and America are usually
specified for output powers up to 4 kW, and the power
converter topology usually chose is the series resonant halfbridge inverter [50], [56]. By contrast, appliances for Asiatic
countries are usually designed with 2 kW output power and
the preferred topology is the ZVS single-switch quasiresonant inverter [58]. In addition to this, this technology also
offers the capability to heat high-conductivity materials [53],
such as aluminum or copper, usually employed in these
countries. Taking into account the output power and cost
restrictions, switching frequencies usually ranges from 20 kHz
up to 100 kHz. The lower limit is set in order to avoid acoustic
noise emissions, not desirable in domestic applications,
whereas the higher limit is imposed by the switching losses of
the power devices.
These appliances feature also advanced control techniques
including smart pot recognition [76] and adaptive control
strategies [75] to control not only the output power but also
the pot temperature. It provides the user with advanced
functionalities that cannot be achieved with conventional
cookers, significantly improving the user performance.
Currently, research trends are focused on higher efficiency
power converters and flexible cooking surfaces technology
[9], [52], [61], [86], where a special effort is required to design
multiple-output power converters and compact coils [44],
[48], [83]. The total active surface concept (Fig. 18), still
under development, is an example of modern development
where the user can place any pot, with any shape, anywhere in
the cooking surface, redefining completely the cooking
experience. This new concept requires the development of
high-efficiency high-performance multiple output power
converters to satisfy the required specifications with a costeffective solution. Besides, the control and modulation
strategies become more complex since accurate multi-load

C. Medical applications
Nowadays, the third major area of application of IH
technology is related to its medical applications. Initially, IH
was applied in the manufacturing and sterilization of many
surgical instruments, since it is a clean, fast, and portable heat
source. However, in recent years IH has also been introduced
in some minimally-invasive therapies [3].
Hyperthermia is a cancer treatment therapy based on
heating the target tumor temperatures over 50 C. This local
treatment removes cancer tissue while minimizing the damage
to surrounding healthy cells. IH is therefore a good alternative
for hyperthermia treatments because it is a contactless heating
technique, i.e. less invasive, and provides accurate power
control. In order to precisely deliver the power the tumor,
usually a ferromagnetic material is placed in the area to be
treated. Modern research trends investigate about the use of
fluids with ferromagnetic nanoparticles in order to obtain
precise heat distributions [93-97]. These techniques require
the design of accurate power converters and control [90-92],
and specific inductor designs [3], [98]. Due to the typical low
resistivity nature of IH loads for medical applications, parallel
resonant inverters are applied in order to minimize the current
through the inverter. Besides, the operating frequencies are set
to be higher than 300 kHz up to several MHz to obtain
appropriate equivalent electrical parameters, being the
MOSFET the power device commonly implemented.
Future research include more precise and homogeneous
heating, and temperature monitoring in the cancer and
surrounding tissues, along with combining this technique with
other therapies to improve results.
V.

FUTURE CHALLENGES

Although IH systems have reached certain maturity, there

are still some issues to address to further increase its
performance. Moreover, advances in enabling technologies
and applications continuously open new research trends and
industrial interest. Among the many topics of interest,
significant efforts are expected in these topics in the next
years:
x High-efficiency IH systems: the improvement of
semiconductor technology and the development of widebandgap devices, together with advanced topologies, are
allowing the design of higher efficiency systems. Such
systems not only exhibit higher efficiency, but also
improved performance and reliability.
x Multi-coil IH systems: Multi-coil systems offer higher
flexibility, performance, and heat distribution, and are
essential for some high precision/flexibility industrial and
domestic applications. These systems represent a major
breakthrough in IH technology, requiring the development
of multiple-output power converters, advanced control
techniques, and special inductor design paying very high
attention to coupling effects.
x

Advanced control systems: IH systems require robust

control algorithms to adapt the power converter operation

to different IH loads and operating points. Current research

lines pursue the use of adaptive algorithms and real-time
identification systems to improve the system performance.
This is one of the key issues of multi-coil systems as well
as real time temperature measurement and optimal control
and stability study. Generalized averaging methods and
envelope models will help to fix the characteristics of the
current transients in these systems.
x Special applications: although the process parameters in
many industrial and domestic applications are already
well-known, there are still some applications that need
further research and optimization to find viable solutions.
Among these special applications, the following are worth
to be highlighted: heating of low-resistivity materials,
accurate heating of biological tissues for medical
applications, faster design of IH systems for complex IH
load geometries, and accurate 3D FEA simulation of the
complete IH system.
VI.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper has reviewed the current state-of-art of

induction heating systems, focusing on the enabling
technologies involved and the main applications, and
providing an exhaustive list of papers.
From a design point of view, there are three main enabling
technologies to tackle when designing an IH system: power
converter, modulation and control architecture, and the
inductor design. Extensive research has been carried out in
recent years, leading to improved IH systems that have
enabled widening IH systems usage to many industrial,
domestic, and medical applications.
The future of IH systems is promising, with new
technologies and applications fostering research in each one
of the three enabling technologies aforementioned. The
development of higher efficiency and performance IH systems
is expected to be the focus of industrial interest and researches,
further increasing the general interest in IH systems.
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Oscar Lucia (S04, M 11) received the M.Sc. and

Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the
University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2006 and 2010,
respectively.
He has been with the Department of Electronic
Engineering and Communications at the University
of Zaragoza, Spain, where he is currently an
Assistant Professor. His main research interests
include multiple output converters, digital control,
and resonant power conversion for induction heating applications.
Dr. Luca is a member of the Aragon Institute for Engineering Research
(I3A).
Pascal Maussion (M'07) got his MSc and PhD in
Electrical Engineering in 1985 and 1990 from
Toulouse Institut National Polytechnique (France).
He is currently full Professor at the University of
Toulouse and with LAPLACE, Laboratory for
PLAsma and Conversion of Energy. His research
activities deal with control and diagnosis of electrical
systems (power converters, drives, lighting) and with
the design of experiments for optimization in control
and diagnosis. He is currently Head of Control and Diagnosis group in
LAPLACE. He teaches control and diagnosis in a school of engineers.

Enrique J. Dede (M95) obtained his PhD in

Electronics from the University of Valencia. Full
Professor in Power Electronics at the University of
Valencia since 1991 and R&D Director at the company
GH Electrotermia S.A.
Dr. Dede holds several international patents on high
frequency inverters for induction heating and has
written more than 200 papers in the field of Power
Electronics. He has more than 30 years experience in
the field of Power Electronics and particularly in the design of high
frequency inverters for induction heating, telecom power and recently in the
conception and design fast chargers for EVs.
Prof. Dede was former member of the European Working Group of the IASIEEE, nowadays he is member of the International Advisory Board of the
PCIM-Europe and PCIM-Asia. Past President of the joint Spanish IEEE
Chapter of the Power Electronics Society (PELS) and Industrial Electronics
Society (IES).
Dr. Dede is also serving as the Vice- President of the European Power
Electronics Association (EPE) and was the General Chair of the European
Power Electronics Conference-EPE 2009, held in Barcelona (Spain).
Jos M. Burdo (M97 SM12) received the M.Sc.
and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the
University of Zaragoza, Spain in 1991 and 1995,
respectively.
He has been with the Department of Electronic
Engineering and Communications at the University of
Zaragoza, Spain, where he is currently a Professor.
His main research interests include modeling of
switching converters and resonant power conversion
for induction heating applications.
Dr. Burdo is a member of the Aragon Institute for Engineering Research
(I3A)