Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 2010; 154:XX.

J. Prasko, T. Diveky, A. Grambal, D. Kamaradova, P. Mozny, Z. Sigmundova, M. Slepecky, J. Vyskocilova

TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTERTRANSFERENCE

IN COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
Jan Praskoa,b,c,d*, Tomas Divekya,b , Ales Grambala,b, Dana Kamaradovaa,b, Petr Moznye,
Zuzana Sigmundovaa,b, Milos Slepeckyf, Jana Vyskocilovac
a

Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Olomouc, I. P. Pavlova 6, 775 20 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Psychiatric Clinic, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University Palacky Olomouc
c
Prague Psychiatric Centre, Ustavni 91, Prague 8
d
Centre of Neuropsychiatric Studies, Ustavni 91, Prague 8
e
Mental Hospital Kromeriz
f
Psychagogia s.r.o, Liptovsky Mikulas, Slovakia
E-mail: [email protected];
b

Key words: Therapeutic relationship/Transference/Idealization/Disappointment/Anger/Countertransference/Schemas/

Cognitive behavioural therapy/Interpersonal relations
Background. Both patients and psychotherapists can experience strong emotional reactions towards each other
in what are termed transference and countertransference within therapy. In the first part of this review, we discuss
transference issues. Although not usually part of the obvious language of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), examination of the cognitions related to the therapist, is an integral part of CBT, especially in working with difficult patients.
In the second part, we cover counter-transference issues. We describe schematic issues that give rise to therapist
counter-transference and explain how this interacts in different types of patient therapist encounter. We also examine
ways in which the therapist can use CBT to help him/her modify the countertransference and, in the process, assist
the patient.
Methods. PUBMED data base was searched for articles using the key words therapeutic relations, transference,
countertransference, cognitive behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, schema therapy, dialectical behavioral
therapy. The search was repeated by changing the key word. No language or time constraints were applied. The lists
of references of articles detected by this computer data base search were examined manually to find additional articles.
We also used the original texts of A. T. Beck, J. Beck, M. Linehan, R. Leahy, J. Young and others. Basically this is a
review with conclusions about how therapists can manage transference issues.
Results. Transference. The therapist should pay attention to negative or positive reactions towards him/ her but
should not deliberately provoke or ignore them. He/she should be vigilant for signs of strong negative emotions, such
as a disappointment, anger, and frustration experienced in the therapeutic relationship by the patient. Similarly he/
she should be alert to exaggerated positive emotions such as love, excessive idealization, praise or attempts to divert
the attention of therapy onto the therapist. These reactions open space for understanding the patients past and actual
relations outside the therapy. Countertransference. The therapist should be aware of countertransference schemas
as they apply to him/her. He/she should monitor his/her own feelings that indicate countertransference. Further, the
assistance of and discussion with supervisors and colleagues is useful in regard to countertransference even in experienced therapists. Countertransference can be used as an open window into the interpersonal relations of the patient.
Conclusions. Both the literature and our experience underscore the importance of careful and open examination of
both transference and counter-transference issues in CBT and their necessary incorporation in the complete management of all patients undergoing CBT.
INTRODUCTION
Transference is a phenomenon in psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings from one
person to another, in the case of psychotherapy from patient to therapist. Countertransference refers to transference of feelings from therapist to patient. Both phenomena
are based on the human ability to recognise the outside
world. Whenever a person perceives something, in order
to recognise it, he/she needs to compare the present
perception with past experience. Memories, especially
pictorial and emotionally laden ones, can be triggered by

something in the present which evokes the past and the

person will react in a similar way as they did then1.
Transference and countertransference feelings/
reactions are a valuable source of information about a
patients (and therapists) inner world. Some psychotherapists have had or have the perception that transference is not examined in cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT). They believe that the general technical difference
between psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT) is emphasis of the former
on transference. This was one of the major misconceptions of CBT that was identified by various experts25.

J. Prasko, T. Diveky, A. Grambal, D. Kamaradova, P. Mozny, Z. Sigmundova, M. Slepecky, J. Vyskocilova

Psychodynamic therapists view transference as a powerful tool in understanding the patient and eventually effecting change. They believe that cognitive behavioral
therapists eschew transference as an intervention that
would distract the patient from outside relationships and
risk therapeutic rupture6. Although the interpretation of
transference is not a central tool of cognitive therapy,
automatic thoughts and feelings related to interactions
with the therapist are very much within the scope of exploration and may provide valuable opportunities for testing and modifying dysfunctional automatic thoughts2,7.
A good therapeutic relationship is an important issue for
the effective treatment in cognitive behavioral therapy.
Cognitive behavioral therapists generally aim to establish
an open collaborative relationship at the start of therapy
and then to work directly towards them without paying
too much attention to interpersonal issues. Clinical competence, conviction, and consistency seem to predict a
more successful psychotherapeutic outcome810. However,
when working with difficult patients (e.g. patients with
personality disorder, hypochondriasis etc.) psychotherapy
is rarely strightforward. The dysfunctional schemas, beliefs
and assumptions that bias the patients perceptions of
others are likely to bias their perception of the therapist.
The dysfunctional interpersonal behaviour strategies,
manifest in the patient-therapist relationship. If they
are not addressed effectively, interpersonal difficulties
arising in the patient-therapist relationship can disrupt
the therapy. However, these difficulties also provide the
therapist with an opportunity to directly observe an
intervention rather than having to rely on the patients
report of interpersonal problems occuring outside the
sessions11. Therefore transference and countertransference
feelings/reactions are a valuable source of information
about a patients (and therapists) inner world.

TRANSFERENCE FROM THE COGNITIVE

BEHAVIORAL POINT OF VIEW
Although the word transference is not part of the
jargon of cognitive behavioral therapy, examination of
the cognitions related to the therapist apropos past significant relationships is an integral part of assessment
and treatment within CBT12,13. The patients emotional
reaction to the dynamics of therapy and therapist are
important especially in working with difficult patients.
Always alert but not provoking, the therapist should be
ready to explore these reactions for more information
about the patients system of thoughts and beliefs. If not
explored, possible distorted interpretations persist and
may interfere with the collaboration. If exposed, they often provide rich material for understanding the meanings
and beliefs behind the patients idiosyncratic or repetitious reactions. Some forms of therapy depend on the
use of transference. Simply stated, transference occurs
when the patient superimposes prior experiences on the
therapist14. The patient may perceive something about the
therapists personality, style, demeanor, or appearance

that may remind him or her of a significant person in the

patients past, such as a parent; hence, the patient may begin to respond to the therapist as the patient would to that
parent. Effective transference is facilitated by the therapist
persistently withholding self-disclosure, presenting as a
virtually unbiased blank slate (tabula rasa) wherein the
patient is free to superimpose (transfer) his or her feelings
for a significant person in his or her own life (a parent,
spouse, sibling, peer, etc.) onto the neutral therapist15.
This is not the aim of CBT. Self-disclosure, warm and
empathetic atmosphere, collaborative relation and stress
on the self-efficacy of the client may pollute this transference potential14.
There are many telltale signs of transference. These
are the same signs that suggest the presence of automatic
thoughts during the session. E.g. there may be a sudden
change in the patients nonverbal behavior: sudden change
in expression, abruptly switching to a new topic, stammer, block, pauses in the middle of a train of statements,
slumping posture, clenching fists, kicking, tapping foot
and so on. One of the most revealing signs is a shift in
the patients gaze, especially if he/she has had a thought
but prefers not to reveal it16. When asked, the patient may
say, It is not important. The therapist should press the
patient nonetheless, gently, as it might be important.
The therapist should pay attention to any negative or
positive reactions to him/her that arise but should not
deliberately provoke or ignore them. He/she should be
vigilant for signs of disappointment, anger, and frustration experienced by the patient in the therapeutic relationship. Similarly the therapist should be alert to excessive
idealization, praise or attempts to divert the attention of
therapy onto the therapist. These reactions open windows into the patients past and actual relations outside
the therapy. The therapist would be unable to view the
meanings or beliefs beyond these windows if the arousal
of their own affective responses is viewed as a distraction to be controlled, avoided, or suppressed. Hoffart
et al.17 examined whether therapists emotional reactions
to their patients mediate the effect of personality disorders and interpersonal problem behaviours on the outcome of treatment with a focus on an Axis I disorder
and, whether the therapists reactions mediate the effect
of personality disorders on the course of interpersonal
problems. Therapists completed a checklist of emotional
reactions to individual patients after the end of residential
cognitive or guided mastery therapy for 46 inpatients with
panic disorder with agoraphobia. The severity of DSMIII-R personality disorder was related to the therapists
insecurity feelings but not to interest or anger. A higher
level of therapist insecurity feelings was related to less
reduction in self-reported agoraphobic avoidance during
treatment, whereas the therapists emotions were unrelated to symptomatic course after treatment. Therapists
insecurity feelings appeared partly to mediate the relationship between patient severity of personality disorder
and persistence of patients interpersonal dominance and
nurturance problems.

Transference and countertransference in cognitive behavioral therapy

Rossberg et al.18 studied the relationship between patients self-reported personality characteristics, treatment
outcome and therapists countertransference reactions.
Eleven therapists filled in the Feeling Word Checklist
58 (FWC-58) for each patient admitted to a day treatment program. The patients completed the Circumplex
of Interpersonal Problems (CIP) at admission and discharge. At the end of treatment, the outcome measures
were assessed. At the start of treatment, therapists reported fewer feelings of rejection and being on guard in
response to patients who reported high avoidant, exploitable, overly nurturing and intrusive CIP subscale traits.
At the end of the treatment, the CIP subscales of being
domineering, vindictive and cold correlated with fewer
positive and more negative countertransference feelings.
The study revealed a strong relationship between improvement and countertransference feelings. This study
confirms clinical narratives of relationships between the

therapists countertransference reactions and patients

reported interpersonal problems and outcome.
An idealized transference develops quite often, usually at the beginning of the treatment, whereas negative
transference typically occurs later. Acute intense transference and countertransference feelings/reactions may
serve as indicators of serious character pathology, such
as Cluster B personality disorders. Devaluation presents
one of the therapists biggest challenges: conducting
therapy and managing resistance with patients who force
the therapist into very aggressive and uncomfortable experiences. When these situations arise, the therapist has
a twofold task. He or she must tolerate the transference
enough not to engage in a countertransferential enactment. Additionally, from this vulnerable vantage point, he
or she must help the patient understand both the meaning
of and the consequences of devaluations of the therapist19.

Table 1. Examples of some kinds of transference and plausible reactions of the therapist.
Type
of transference

Examples of typical thoughts

Moderate
positive

Emotional
reactions

The therapist wants to help me,

understand me, is human and
helpful, doing his job very well
so he help me
Admiring Therapist is great like me.
IndeIts nice to meet with such a
pendent
person, he can advise me with
something, of course I can only
help myself.
Admiring- Therapist is great. It is only
dependent himself, who is able to help me
- I am lost without him. I can
do anything with his support.

Nice tune

Erotic

Therapist is a perfect (ideal)

partner. Relationship with him
will save me , it would be wonderful to be with him, make
love with him, to flow into one
another (be in harmony with
him)

Shy
(apprehensive)
-distrustful

Therapist can comment upon

me, can hurt me, he is strong
when he finds out who I am,
he will refuse me and will make
fun of me and will reject me

Crush on
the therapist,
maybe the
depersonalization or
the "trance
during the
contact with
the therapist
Fear, anxiety,
shame

Behavior
Cooperation, willingness to do
homework

Nice tune or
euphoria at
meetings

Enjoy discussing with a therapist

opposite positions, slightly competes, homeworks alternately
preparing and not doing, emphasizes freedom of relationship
Euphoric tune Try to put themselves into therachanges with pists place, They bring presents,
anxiety about flatter, do their best to do the
being left
homework- need affirmation that
they did it right, often require
advice, explanation, support.

Aggressive I must show my power (domi- Anger, hate,

nance) otherwise I will be
fear
deprived of my freedom and
discernment. It is either him
who wins or me. How dares he!
I must put him down!

Useful therapeutic reaction

None

Open narcissistic attitude, discuss the "advantages

and disadvantages in life, normalization "- neither
of us is more unique than any other man, insist on
homework

To strength independent behaviors, assign exercises

such as independent steps for homework, discuss
the dependent thoughts and go through the advantages and disadvantages of the dependent attitudes.
Advice , affirmation and further explanation should
not be given. Exposition to independent activities
and tasks.
Flirting or shy withdrawal,
It is not necessary to solve it, as far s it does not
wearing showy clothes, amorous affect the therapy. It flows away spontaneously. In
looks towards the therapist,
case it blocks the therapy- open the theme as a
filtration of the information, i.e
problem, go through the thoughts and realize their
they need to look better than they influence on the behavior, discuss sources of this
need in the past, express clearly and in a sensireally are.
tive way his/her own attitudes in the therapeutic
relationship.
Problems with an eye contact,
censorship of what he /she is
willing to share with the therapist.
Does homework anxiously, often
speaks about being worthless,
looks for apologies and explanations, rationalization, unable to
trust.
Aggressive voice as well as his
look, verbal rage, accusations,
blaming, threatening, sometimes
even the physical aggression.

Often goes away during the therapy, as the trust is

obtained during the therapy, if it persists as a problem , it should be opened as a problem, work with
the thoughts, look for the possible causes of these
attitudes in the past, the adaptive and maladaptive
aspects, planning the expositions with the aim of
showing the courage to behave in an open way
Give the feedback, let the patient know we
understand his feelings, let him express anger and
derogation by the method of negative questioning
and assertive approval or by the means of feedback,
then discuss the attitudes lying behind that, go to
their background, how they are expressed in the
behavior, the advantages and disadvantages. When
finally patients tension decreases, the therapist
should express his attitude by feedback (to take
patients behavior separately from his personality
as such).

J. Prasko, T. Diveky, A. Grambal, D. Kamaradova, P. Mozny, Z. Sigmundova, M. Slepecky, J. Vyskocilova

Table 1. (Continued)
Type
of transference

Examples of typical thoughts

Suspicious Therapist does me wrong on

purpose, abuses me for his
own needs or for the needs of
somebody else, he is against
me, has hidden motives, does
not play fair.
CompeCant let him overtop me, I am
titive
better in many things than he
is. I will show him, dont let
him humiliate me.

Contemptuous

Jealous

Emotional
reactions
Anger, fear,
feelings of
threat

Tension,
changes of
feelings of
euphoria
anger, envy,
frustration,
according to
the subjective
score
He cannot make it! He is weak, Contempt,
impatience,
stupid, he is a fool, etc. How
anger
could he help me? I am the
dominant one in our relationship
He prefers the others, he does
not care for me.

Possessive He is here for me, he has to be

there for my disposal anytime.

Behavior

Useful therapeutic reaction

He withdraws, does not speak

about himself or only superficially, can be aggressive indirectly,
does not do homework, drops out
or stops attending the therapy.

Give the feedback, discuss the situation openly,

help to examine, where the sensibility comes from
and to go through the relationships, where it also
occurs. Mapping the sensible attitudes, their advantages and disadvantages, effects on the behavior.
Experimenting with the confidence.
Secretly or openly competes, fiery Give the feedback for the specific situations, investidiscuss everywhere, where exgate the competitive thoughts and deeper attitudes,
pects competition, rationalizes their sources situations, where they occur, ,to which
non compliance in homeworks
behavior they lead to, ,advantages and disadvantages including their effects on the therapy..

He despises the therapist, he

cheapens what the therapist does,
refuses to do the homework,
drops out the lessons or stops
attending the therapy

Ager, grief

Withdrawal or regrets, sometimes

outbursts of anger, measuring the
time of sessions (others and himself), monitoring of manifestation
of favor (himself and others).

Feelings of euphoria change

with anger according to the
behavior of
the therapist.

He domineers, calls very often,

does not visit the therapist at the
time they agreed on and is angry
when the therapist is not on
disposal. He blames or is verbally
aggressive.

COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF TRANSFERENCE

Techniques of explicit formulation are included in
cognitive behavioral therapy. Having a clinical formulation that is shared with a patient can help maintain the
therapeutic alliance during difficult reenactments1,20. In
CBT, especially in schema focus therapy, therapists use
operationalized core schemas and beliefs as the focus of
therapy, targeting transference and maladaptive interpersonal patterns. Developing a CBT case conceptualization
of patients is recommended for treating each patient in
CBT4; cognitive behavior therapists examine the thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors related to a wide range of situations (including reactions to the therapist) and relevant
childhood experiences to understand the underlying core
beliefs and conditional assumptions of each patient12.
Transference interpretation has remained a core
ingredient in psychodynamic tradition, despite limited
empirical evidence for its effectiveness. In the field of
psychoanalysis, the technical use of transference interpretations versus other interpretations has been intensively
debated over a period of 100 years. Despite this fact, the
research base remains very limited and inconclusive. Only
one of eight naturalistic studies has reported a positive

Give the feedback about the particular behavior,

investigate thoughts and attitudes, find their origin,
find how they work in different situations, the
behavior they lead to, advantages and disadvantages
for the life and relationships, what they mean for
the therapy.
Ask for the thoughts related to the sorrow (harming the therapeutic relationship), then help with
opening the thoughts, emotions and behavior
concerning the anger. Go through the reasons in
the past (place in the family as a sibling) and how
they affect the behavior, emotions and relationships
in various life situations, advantages/ disadvantages
for the relationships and life and for the therapy.
Investigate thoughts and attitudes, find their origin
in the past (the need of possession instead of the
fear of being left by someone), thoughts, emotions
and behavior in various relationships including the
therapeutic one, advantages and disadvantages.

correlation between transference interpretations and outcome21. There is no study on the efficacy of using transference discussions in CBT. The goal of transference
interpretation is sustained improvement in the patients
relationships outside therapy. It seems to be especially
important for patients with long-standing, more severe
interpersonal problems. Although the central tool of CBT
is not interpretation of transference, automatic thoughts
and feelings related to interactions with the therapist
are very much within the scope of exploration and may
provide valuable opportunities for testing and modifying
dysfunctional automatic thoughts2,7. One of the more common mistakes in CBT, is moving too quickly away from
the emotions being expressed about the therapist or the
therapy, and failing to sufficiently attend to this rich opportunity for further understanding the patient16.
Tact and timing in the exploration of transference reactions are paramount. At the macro level of case analysis,
formulation represents conceptualization at the level of
whole treatment. Case formulation was initially developed
in relation to psychodynamic approaches22 and shown
to be a replicable procedure. Recent work has included
explicit formulation techniques in cognitive therapy4.
Transference is also influenced by the actual behavior

Transference and countertransference in cognitive behavioral therapy

of the therapist. Explicit discussion of the patients ongoing relationship with the therapist is compelling when it
is accurate. Focus on the transference makes it possible
for the patient (and therapist) to become directly aware
of the distinction between reality and fantasy in the therapeutic encounter. However, in brief therapy, transference
interpretations may be too anxiety-provoking.

COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
Counter-transference occurs when the therapist reacts in complementary fashion to the patients transference. Attention to emotional reactions of both patient
and therapist is a fundamental component of cognitive
behavioral therapy, especially during the process of therapy with difficult patients. Despite the manualization of
treatment and emphasis on techniques and pharmacotherapy, countertransference exists. No therapist is free
of countertransference. To guide patients effectively in
discovering their thoughts and expressing their feelings,
the therapist needs to have a foundation of skills for recognizing, labeling, understanding, and expressing his/
her own emotions16. To understand our own limitations,
our own resistance to change, is necessary to discover
more about the patient and ourselves; as we learn how the
patients behavior affects our own countertransference,
we are also learn about how the patient affects others23.
Rather than having no feelings, or being an expert at repression, the cognitive therapist is attuned to personal
emotions that might affect the therapy environment. Just
as the therapist would encourage a client to do, cognitive
behavioral therapists use awareness to their own physical sensations and subtle mood shifts as cues, suggesting
the presence of automatic thoughts. Any changes in the
therapists typical behavior might signal an emotional reaction and associated automatic thoughts, such as talking
in a commanding (or hesitating) tone of voice, increased
frequency of thoughts about a client outside sessions, or

perhaps avoidance of returning a clients phone call or

tardiness in starting or ending a session.

TYPES OF COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
Betan et al.24 studied a national random sample of 181
psychiatrists and clinical psychologists in North America.
Each completed a battery of instruments on a randomly
selected patient in their care, including measures of axis
II symptoms and the Countertransference Questionnaire,
an instrument designed to assess clinicians cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses in interacting with a particular patient. Factor analysis of the Countertransference
Questionnaire yielded eight clinically and conceptually
coherent factors that were independent of clinicians theoretical orientation: 1) overwhelmed/disorganized, 2) helpless/inadequate, 3) positive, 4) special/overinvolved, 5)
sexualized, 6) disengaged, 7) parental/protective, and 8)
criticized/mistreated. The eight factors were associated
in predictable ways with axis II pathology. An aggregated
portrait of countertransference responses with narcissistic
personality disorder patients provided a clinically rich,
empirically based description that strongly resembled
theoretical and clinical accounts.Countertransference patterns were systematically related to patients personality
pathology across therapeutic approaches, suggesting that
clinicians, regardless of therapeutic orientation, can make
diagnostic and therapeutic use of their own responses to
the patient24.
In some cases, the focus on the patients problems
may allow the therapist to compartmentalize and avoid
his/her own personal problems or allow the therapist to
displace his/her conflicts with others onto the patient23.
Some people are attracted to being therapists because
it allows them a sense of competence, superiority, and
apparent efficacy. This illusion of competence may allow
the therapist to unconsiously pursue other goals, such as
the need to have power or control, or the need to compartmentalize, intellectualize, and isolate oneself from
ones own problems.

Table 2. Examples of the counter-transference and possible strategies for a change.

Type of
countertransference
Moderate
positive
Admiring

Overprotective

Examples of typical
thoughts

Emotional
reactions

Behavior

Strategies of change

I like him, he is nice,

good cooperation with
him, he will do well.
That person is special
(especially beautiful,
original, intelligent, etc.)

Nice tune

Cooperation, support, empathy

None

Admiration,
fascination

He cannot make decisions on his own, Leeds

help, advice, it will be my
fault, if something wrong
happens to him.

Fear, insecurity

Therapist does not make appropriate

examinations, does not conduct the
therapy. Possible non-compliance of
the patient is deprecated, does not
require patients homework, tends to
talk about the exceptional properties of the patient
He gives advice, protects, ensures,
takes control over the patient, does
not allow patients independent
decision making, doubts patients
abilities

Clarify own attitudes, their background, the effect

on the behavior, advantages + disadvantages for the
therapy. Supervision needed. Normalization of the
therapy: conduct the same way like the others. In case
that the behavior is impossible to change and make a
standard therapy, necessary to open that problem with
the patient or the patient should change the therapist
Clarify own attitudes, their background, the effect
on the behavior, advantages + disadvantages for the
therapy. Supervision needed. Stop the directive leading
of the therapy, let the patient plan things, stop ensuring. Otherwise the patient should change the therapist.

J. Prasko, T. Diveky, A. Grambal, D. Kamaradova, P. Mozny, Z. Sigmundova, M. Slepecky, J. Vyskocilova

Table 2. (Continued)
Erotic

Apprehensive

He/ she is attractive. I

would feel nice with him/
her. The only problem is
his/her lack of tenderness (sex, attention). Has
sexual dreams (imagination) about the patient.
He can hurt me, make
fun of me, rouse me,
show me I am worthless,
stupid, etc.

Aggressive He is a psychopath, an
(invasive) ignorant person (does
not try hard enough,
wants only advantages,
secondary benefits, etc).
He is annoying. I will
show him!
Distrustful What does he want actually? He has some hidden
intentions against me!

Fascination,
trance or
depersonalization during the time
they meet

He flirts, is over-protective, unwilling touches, speaks often about

sex, offers sexual therapy in the
worst case and has an affair with
the patient

Fear, anxiety, shame.

He speaks quietly, cannot keep the

distance, the leading of the therapy
leaves on the patient, is not active in
the therapy ( he calls it empathic
leadership. He is afraid to say what
he thinks, does not discuss the
alternatives with the patient
He moralizes, preaches, minimizes
the needs of the patient, does not
have time for the patient. He is rude
to the patient, yells at him.

Anger,
resonance

AppreWithdrawal, only formal cooperahension, ten- tion with the patient, waiting for
sion, anger
hidden motives, tries to cancel the
therapy
CompeDo not let him think, he Tension
Competition with the patient in the
titive
will overtop me.
changes with opinions, in who is right, prides
the pride
himself, he is not very supportive,
(vanity)
empathic
Derogatory He his a jackass, weakContempt,
He gives conceptive advice miniling, dumb, hysterical
boredom, an- mizes the attitudes and problems of
person, etc.) I am fed up ger, vanity
the patient, make fun of him, does
with him bored,, I wish he
not have the time for him, is very
would not annoy me.
inpatient, does not let the patient
finish what he wanted to say, does
not listen properly.

Therapist countertransference feelings may be informative about the entire treatment process of the patient. It
has generally been recognized that countertransference
vicissitudes play an extremely important role in psychotherapy of patients especially with hypochondriacal and
borderline patients, at one or another phase of the treatment25. At critical points in the development of transference and countertransference and their interaction,
the therapists recognition of and capacity to deal with
countertransference issues become crucial to the treatment progression. According Leahy23 typical problems
in countertransference include following:
Ambivalence about using techniques because of fears
of alienating the patient;
Guilt or fear over the patients anger;
Feeling of inferiority when working with narcissistic
patients;
Discomfort if the patient is sexually attractive;
Inability to set limits on sexually provocative or hostile
patients;
Overextending therapy sessions;
Lack of assertion in collecting fees or enforcing policies;
Inhibition in taking an adequate sexual history;
Anger at patients who make phone calls between sessions;
Catastrophizing the issue of hospitalizing a patient.

Stop rationalization of the seductive behavior, stop it

completely, admit own counter- transference, find supervision. Realize own motives, their background, the
effect on the behavior, advantages + disadvantages for
the therapy Otherwise the patient should change the
therapist. Even after the change, the therapist should
not have a sexual affair with the patient.
Work on the self-confidence and self-acceptance,
help the patient to process the transference reaction.
Supervision always needed. Otherwise the patient
should change the therapist

Realize his own aggressive attitudes and behavior, stop

to deny or rationalize them. Clarify their background,
the effect on the behavior, advantages + disadvantages
for the therapy. Otherwise the patient should change
the therapist.

Work on the self-confidence and self-acceptance

Supervision needed. To process own attitudes, their
origin and effects. If necessary, let the patient chase
the therapist
Work on the self-confidence and self-acceptance
Supervision needed. To process own attitudes, their
origin and effects. If necessary, pass the patient to
other therapist
To work on his/her own relationships, attend the psychotherapeutic training or to attend a new one in case
experience from the previous is not sufficient enough.
To process own attitudes, their origin and effects. If
necessary, pass the patient to other therapist

When patients present with issues such as abandonment, dependency, devaluation, demandingness, sexual
preoccupations, abuse, betrayal, or exploitation of others, they may arouse your own feelings and vulnerabilities
about these issues23.

COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF COUNTERTRANSFERENCE

The therapist uses all of the automatic thought distorsions in countertransference: This patient is hysterical. (labeling); He wants only secondary gains. (mind
reading); Hell never get better. (fortune telling); Hes
made no improvement. (all-or-nothing thinking); Its my
mistake the patient is no better. (all-or-nothing thinking);
He should do homework (shoulds); He wont get better. (overgeneralization)
Countertransference schemas
The therapists individual schemas will affect the countertransference.There are probably as many schemas as
there are adjectives to describe people. Many therapists
display more than one schema. Moreover some patients
are more likely to activate certain schemas than others.
Leahy23 describes these therapist schemas:

Transference and countertransference in cognitive behavioral therapy

Demanding standards: Anankastistic or perfectionistic
therapists often view patients as irresponsible, selfindulgent, and lazy. They believe that the expression
of emotions, or even uncertainty, is devastating. They
have difficulty expressing warmth and empathy toward
patients and place a great deal of emphasis on logic
and rationality. The patient may feel that the therapy
is simply an opportunity for the therapist to show that
he or she is smarter than the patient. Perfectionistic
therapists may attempt to compensate his/her underlying feelings of incompetence and worthlessness by
demanding perfect performance from self and patient.
A typical sequence of automatic thought can be: My
patient is not getting better Im not doing my job
Ill be exposed as a fraud Im a failure I cant accept any failure in myself. In some cases the therapist
with demanding standards can compensate for his/her
perfectionism by demanding more and more from the
patient.
Abandonment: the therapist with an abandonment
schema will be worried that if he/she confronts the patient, then the patient will leave the therapy. Premature
termination of the therapy is interpreted as a personal
rejection of the therapist. Therapists concerned about
abandonment issues can behave in many different
forms that reflect countertransference: for example
on the one hand, excessive caretaking of the patient,
or on the other, avoidance of entering into a meaningful therapeutic relationship. Excessive caretaking
takes the form of trying to protect the patient from
any difficulties and taking on the patients problems
as the therapists own to solve. Therapists who avoid
attachment on the other hand, often focus more on
superficial techniques than on more meaningful personal issues. This type of therapist avoids difficult
topics with patients and refrains from using anxietyprovoking interventions, such as exposure techniques.
They often personalize the patients lateness, failure
to show up for a session, or lack of interest in therapy.
Patients resistance can be seen as a personal rejection.
Special, superior person: the narcissistic therapist views
therapy as an opportunity to show of his/her special
talents. Therapy with the resistant patient may begin
with grandiose hopes, expressed by the therapist that
the patient has finally found the right therapist. The
therapists investment in his/her own image as being a
special, superior therapist may result in his/her siding
with the patient to vilify all the other therapists who
have failed the patient. This therapist feels entitled
to having the cooperation and adulation of the patient.
This may result in the therapist encouraging boundary
violations by the patient or, in some case, the therapist
himself/herself may initiate these boundary violations.
As the therapeutic relationship unfolds if the patient does not make rapid progress the narcissistic
therapist may grow bored with, angry at, or punitive
towards the patient. He may label the patient Hes a
borderline, histrionic, paranoid, hypochondriacal...
Rather than empathize with the patients understanable frustration with lack of progress, the therapist

may turn on the patient, blaming the patient for a

lack of desire to improve. To modify the narcissistic
perspective, one needs to ask one question: What
would your life be like if you had to walk in the shoes
of this patient?
Need for approval: The pleasing therapist may be
highly skilled in showing empathy for the patient. He/
she wishes to make the patient feel good regardless
of what is going on, is averse to any expression of
anger or disappointment by the patient. The warmth
and empathy of such a therapist are much appreciated by many patients but he/she has difficulty recognizing that borderline patients are very angry. This
type of therapist will avoid raising questions about the
patients substance abuse, anger, resistance, and selfdefeat. These topics are viewed as too disturbing for
the patient, and therefore as not appropriate. Patients
may act out by missing sessions, showing up late, or
not doing homework, but the high-need-for-approval
therapist, who does not want to cause a conflict
communicates the idea that acting-out behavior is acceptable. One therapist found it difficult to make the
decision to hospitalize a suicidal patient because of
his/her concern that the patient would get angry with
him/her. The therapist may find that the patients anger is difficult to tolerate. He/she can personalize the
patients behavior and viewed the patients disapproval
as a sign of his/her own failing. His/her assumption
was, If the patient is angry at me, it means that I
failed.

SELF-CORRECTION OF COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
By anticipating and paying attention to such countertransferential responses, CBT affords the therapist the opportunity to recognize and manage such responses, which
reduces the therapists risk of retaliatory acting out7.
Throughout the process of providing therapy, in addition to tending to the patients expressions, the therapist
has to make an effort to monitor his/her reactions to the
content of the sessions. Therapist must take special care
to recognize his/her strong emotional reactions to patient,
both positive and negative; this is an opportunity to ask
him/herself how much of what the patient is processing
matches the therapist s prior experiences or preexisting
opinions.
The therapist monitoring his/her (positive and negative) feelings, must be aware of these reactions:
Dreading or happily anticipating session with the patient;
Having exceptionally strong hateful or loving feelings
towards a patient;
Wanting to end sessions early or extend sessions;
Strongly wishing for or dreading termination.
The first step in managing counter-transference is the
therapist recognizing that his/her feelings toward a patient
are unusually strong, either positive or negative. It is use-

J. Prasko, T. Diveky, A. Grambal, D. Kamaradova, P. Mozny, Z. Sigmundova, M. Slepecky, J. Vyskocilova

ful to take some time, perhaps outside the therapeutic environment, to patiently ask some introspective questions:
What are my emotional reactions to this patient?
Are they somewhat exaggerated?
What is making me like or dislike this patient?
What issues do I want or not want to discuss with this
patient?
What is making me feel uncomfortable?
What were some signs of the patients pathology that I
had missed? What was it about me that made me miss
them?
A second step may involve seeking out consultation
with a supervisor to help delve deeper into addressing
and potentially resolving the source of strong countertransference feelings.
E.g. the therapist may find himself/herself frustrated,
angry, anxious, or threatened by the patients demand for
validation. With the work with own thoughts he/she can
recognize for instance23: This patient doesnt really want
to get better. All she wants to do is whine. Shes keeping
me from getting my job done. Im going to look like Im
incompetent because she wont do what she should do.
This patient is just irrational. She shouldnt be irrational.
It is immensely stress reducing and helpful to the patients
therapy when the therapist can identify and challenge
these negative countertransference thoughts. Challenges
to these thoughts include the following: Its irrational
to think people should be rational all the time. All of
us need validation some of the time. Reflecting, caring,
showing curiosity and respect, and being a good listener
are interventions.
In order to examine the countertransference, the therapist should examine the kinds of life problems that he/she
typically has. Is he/she someone who is concerned about
rejection or abandonment? Then he/she should examine
how these issues arise in his/her contact with patients.
Is he/she someone who always has to be right? Then
he must examine how he/she may be trying to defeat patients in debates, and thereby invalidate them. Is he/she
someone who is afraid of failing, because he/she thinks
that success or failure indicates how worthwile he/she is?
Then he/she must examine how he/she may be afraid of
dealing with difficult patients or afraid of taking chances
in therapy.

The way the therapist views or deals with therapyrelated thoughts and emotions may need some cognitive
restructuring to reduce intensity of negative affect or to
maintain adequate focus on therapy goals and objectives16.
It may be useful to contront any fears about therapist emotions being mistakes or indications of failure in therapy
and instead focus on ways of understanding the emotional
antecedents. Therapist reactions can stem from a number
of sources, including cultural of value-related beliefs, the
therapists view of his/her professional role, and unique
learning history, as well as from the interactions with the
patients problematic behaviors26. The therapist can also
use a self-directed inquiry of thoughts about a session,
a situation or working with a particular patient or problem and log these thoughts into a dysfunctional thought
record.
Especially in preparing to work professionally with patients suffering from personality disorders, hypochondria
or somatoform disorders, the therapist needs to be especially careful to be nonjudgmental. Once the therapist has
made the diagnosis, it is much better to avoid labels and
think in terms of beliefs, core and conditional schemas,
predictable reactions, behaviors and so forth. By trying to
put him-/herself in the patients shoes, perhaps imaging
him-/herself with the same set of sensitivities, sense of
helplessness, and vulnerability the therapist can better
understand the patient. At the same time, the therapist
has to be on guard not to become so involved with the
patients problems that objectivity is lost.

COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE AND SUPERVISION

Having a formulation shared with the patient can
help maintain the therapeutic alliance during difficult
re-enactments; or, in supervision, help understand potential re-enactments27. Ongoing discussion of the therapy
with colleagues and with supervisor is valuable (even for
experienced therapists) and is built into those therapies
that have been empirically validated28. Such discussions
enhance the therapist s ability to clarify the patients
transference and contain counter-transference anger and
resentment29.

Table 3. Therapists Dysfunctional Thoughtr Record16.

Situation
Patient arrives late; persists with dramatic storytelling; breake into sobs
when I redirecte to agenda
setting.

Emotion
Frustrated
Disappointed
Uncertain
Embarrassed

Automatic thoughts

Rational response

This patient will never

get is!
We are making no progress using cognitive behavioral therapy!
I dont know what to do
next. I must be ineffective with the approach.

Contempt on my part will not help, so I could avoid such eternalized judgments and be more sympathetic. She is showing
more skill in labeling affect, and identifying thoughts. Also,
Im focusing on the importance of making a list when her
obvious priority is interpersonal support. I need to respect
her values, help her learn to define problems, and not give up.
Just because I feel uncertain does not mean I am ineffective, or have commited any shameful action. My discomfort
comes from believing all patients must change quickly, and
if they dont its my fault. Does it make sense that an effective therapist never feels uncertain? I can brainstorm some
options to try next.

Transference and countertransference in cognitive behavioral therapy

Supervision should support the therapist, give another
perspective to problem-solve difficult clinical dilemmas,
bolster theoretical understanding to comprehend the patients current issues, and assist the therapist in maintaining a benevolent, caring, and curious attitude to the
patients vicissitudes. Effective supervision related to the
therapy should provide a safe place for the therapist to
disclose feelings and attitudes28.
Appreciation for the concept of transference might
inform the cognitive behavior therapists understanding of
a patients dysfunctional automatic thoughts and feelings.

CONCLUSION
The literature shows and it is our experience that both
transference and counter-transference issues should be
examined carefully and openly in CBT and must be an
integral component of the complete management of each
patient undergoing CBT. Analysis of transference aims to
improve interpersonal functioning. Transference elaborations in CBT seem to be especially important for patients
with long-standing problematic interpersonal relationships. Specifically, those patients who need to improve
the benefit the most.
Countertransference can be one of the most useful
tools in helping patients by providing a window into the
real-world effects that the patient has outside the therapy. This can be helpful in diagnosing his/her problem
and helping the patient understand how his/her behavior
may affect others.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was supported by the research grant IGA MZ
R NS 9752 3/2008.

REFERENCES
1. Goin MK. A current perspective on the psychotherapies.
Psychiatric Services 2005; 56:255257.
2. Beck JS. Cognitive Therapy: Basics and Beyond. New York,
Guilford 1995.
3. Beck AT, Rush AJ, Shaw BF, Emery G. Cognitive Therapy of
Depression. New York, Guilford 1979.
4. Persons J. Cognitive Therapy in Practice: A Case Formulation.
New York, WW Norton 1989.
5. Gluhoski V: Misconceptions of cognitive therapy. Psychotherapy
1994; 31:594600
6. Cutler JL, Goldyne A, Devlin MJ, and Glick RA. Comparing cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:15671573.
7. Young JE, Weishaar ME, and Klosko JS. Schema Therapy: A
Practitioners Guide. New York, Guilford 2003.

8. Frank JD, and Frank JB: Persuasion and Healing. A Comparative

Study of Psychotherapy. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press
1991.
9. Joyce AS, Piper WE. The immediate impact of transference in
short-term individual psychotherapy. Am J Psychother 1993;
47:508526.
10. Wampold BE. The Great Psychotherapy Debate: Models, Methods,
and Findings. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 2001.
11. Linehan MM. Dialectical behavioral therapy in groups: Treating
borderline personality disorders and suicidal behavior. In: Brody
CM (ed), Women in groups. New York, Springer 1987.
12. Sareen J, and Skakum K. Defining the core processes of psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:1549.
13. Giesen-Bloo J, van Dyck R, Spinhoven P, van Tilburg W, Dirksen
C, van Asselt T, Kremers I, Nadort M, Arntz A. Outpatient psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: randomized trial
of schema-focused therapy vs transference-focused psychotherapy.
Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63:649658.
14. Knapp H. Therapeutic Communication. Developing Professional
Skills. Sage Publications, Los Angeles 2007.
15. Breuer J and Freud S. Studies on hysteria. London: Hogarth Press
1955 (Original work published in 1895).
16. Beck AT, Freeman A, Davis DD and Associates: Cognitive therapy
of Personality Disorder. The Guilford Press, New York 2004.
17. Hoffart A, Hedley LM, Thornes K, Larsen SM, and Friis S.
Therapists emotional reactions to patients as a mediator in cognitive behavioural treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia.
Cogn Behav Ther 2006;35(3):17482.
18. Rossberg JI, Karterud S, Pedersen G, and Friis S. Specific personality traits evoke different countertransference reactions: an empirical
study. J Nerv Ment Dis 2008; 196:702708.
19. Robbins B. Under attack: devaluation and the challenge of tolerating the transference. J Psychother Pract Res 2000; 9(3):136141.
20. Spinhoven P, Giesen-Bloo J, van Dyck R, Kooiman CG, and Arntz
A. The therapeutic alliance in schema-focused therapy and transference-focused psychotherapy for Borderline Personality Disorder. J
Consul Clin Psych 2007; 75:104115.
21. Hglend P. Analysis of transference in psychodynamic psychotherapy: a review of empirical research. Can J Psychoanal 2004;
12:279300.
22. Luborsky L. Principles of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy: A Manual
for Supportive-Expressive (SE) Treatment. New York. Basic Books
1984.
23. Leahy RL. Overcoming Resistance in Cognitive Therapy. The
Guilford Press, New York 2003.
24. Betan E, Heim AK, Zittel Conklin C, Westen D. Counter transference phenomena and personality pathology in clinical practice:
an empirical investigation. Am J Psychiatry. 2005; 162(5):890898.
25. Meissner WW. Notes on countertransference in borderline conditions. Int J Psychoanal Psychother 19821983; 9:89124.
26. Kimmerling R, Zeiss A and Zeiss R. Therapist emotional responses
to patients: Building a learning-based language. Cogn Behav Pract
2000; 7:312321.
27. Margison FR, Barkham M, Evans C, McGrath G, Clark JM, Audin
K, and Connell J. Measurement and psychotherapy: Evidencebased practice and practice-based evidence. Br J Psych 2000;
177:123130.
28. Gunderson JG, and Links PS: Borderline Personality Disorder.
A Clinical Guide. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. Washington 2008.
29. Gabbard GO and Wilkinson SM. Management of Counter transference With Borderline Patients. American Psychiatric Press,
Washington, DC, 1994.