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KANSAS
CITY,
MO. PUBLIC LIBRARY
DOD1 035714S
DATE
DUE.
THE PEOPLE OF THE SIERRA
Alcali de la Sierra
J.
A.
PITT-RIVERS
THE PEOPLE
OF THE SIERRA
Introduction by
Professor E. E. Evans-Pritchard
CRITERION BOOKS
NEW YORK
Copyright^ iQ^fa by Criterion Books, Inc.
Printed in Great Britain by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, London
and
Beccles
For
JULIO CARO BAROJA

in admiration
and gratitude
f)70'177*-i*
Contents
Page
Foreword by Professor E. E. Evans-Pritchard

Introduction
I
El Pueblo,
II El Pueblo,
xiii
(i)
(ii)
III Occupation
The Boundaries
Status
and Wealth,
Sexes,
VII The
Sexes,
(ii)
VIII The
Sexes,
(iii)
Wealth,
the
World
14
34
Agriculture
(i)
(ii)
Industry and Trade
48
(i)
65
Courting: the Values of the Male
84
Marriage and the Family
98
The Values
of the Female
12
Political Structure
122
Friendship and Authority
137
XI Law and
Morality,
(i)
XII Law and
Morality,
(ii)
XIII Law and Morality,
(iii)
XIV
Community
and Age
VI The
IX
of the
The Community and
IV Occupation and
ix
Nicknames and the
Vito
160
Bandits and Gypsies
The Supernatural
189
78
Conclusion
202
Appendix: The Present and the Past
211
Glossary
224
Index
227
List of Illustrations
Alcala de la Sierra
Frontispiece
16
1.
The lower
fountain
2.
The upper
fountain
3.
Gathering Esparto grass
4.
The
5.
The Day
6.
Corpus Ghristi procession
113
7.
A sabia reciting an
128
8.
An
facing page
valley below the
17
town
of the Bull
old gypsy
32
oration
33
x
12
129
Foreword
I AM GRATEFUL to Dr. Julian Pitt-Rivers for asking me to
write a foreword to this book for he is in every sense a son of
Oxford and an Oxford anthropologist. His great-grand

father, General L. F. Pitt-Rivers, and Sir Edward Tylor
were the founders of anthropological studies in the Univer
The General's grandson and the Author's father.

Captain G. H. L. F. Pitt-Rivers, at one time a FellowCommoner of Worcester College, wrote a book on the peoples
of the Pacific which has long been recognised as an original
sity.
and outstanding study of primitive societies. Dr. Julian PittRivers himself, also a Commoner of Worcester College, read
history at Oxford before the last war. After operational
service in the Royal Dragoons he was for a time tutor to the
young King of Iraq. He then returned to Oxford to study
anthropology. After taking the Diploma in Anthropology
with distinction he devoted himself to the research in Anda
on which this book is based and for which he was

awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Social anthropologists have traditionally clone their re
search, and still usually do it, among so-called primitive
peoples and since the last war much research of the kind
has been carried out in Africa, Melanesia, Indonesia, South
America and elsewhere. Dr. Pitt-Rivers, however, was de
termined to show that the methods and concepts which have
been so successfully employed in studies of primitive societies
could equally well be used in the study of the social life of
lusia
our
own
civilisation.
This decision demanded not only
initi
ative but also courage because such studies have hitherto

generally been regarded as the preserve of the historian and
the sociologist, and the claim by anthropologists that they

have an original contribution to make to them from their
side has been treated with some scepticism. This book should
go a long way towards disarming criticism and gaining
acceptance of our claim that anthropological studies can be
FOREWORD
a work of sound scholarship and

is presented without the unnecessary and pretentious jargon
that has sometimes marred studies of this kind.
Dr. Pitt-Rivers makes it clear that this account of an Andalusian pueblo is an anthropological account. It is not based
on documents, though these have been used, but
made In any
society, for
it is
primarily
on
direct observation.
The people he
writes about are real
the printed page or

figures taken from
people and not
units in statistical tables.
He
lived for
many months
as
of the community he describes and he speaks

and accuracy. His study
with
quite remarkable ease
Spanish
is therefore an anthropological study, for what constitutes an
or among what sort of
anthropological study is not where
is being studied and how it is being
what
but
it
done
is
people
member
is a complicated set of inter

and the method of study is to get to know
well the persons involved and to see and hear what they do
and say.
studied.
What
is
being studied
personal relations
This sort of study
method employed
is
therefore limited
by the nature of the
to fairly small communities. But the prob

though viewed only in relation to a small
lems investigated,
community, are fundamental problems of the larger society
also, and the anthropologist can make a unique contribution
to their solution precisely because he, and only he, studies
them on a
scale where they present themselves as problems

of personal relationships. The abstractions of the poli
tical
and
social sciences
fiscal
system, political structure,
religious cult, legal codes, judicial institutions, educational

system, health service, class distinctions and so forth are
here set forth and studied as relations between persons

and in terms of what these abstractions mean for them: the
mayor, the policeman, the priest, the lawyer,

the school-master and the doctor, or perhaps we should
rather say the individuals who occupy these positions in the
inspector, the
pueblo.
I
make no attempt
to discuss the topics treated
by Dr.
Pitt-Rivers in his fascinating study of the pueblo of Alcald or

the anthropological conclusions he reaches in it. The reader
he needs no guidance from me, for all is set

forth with clarity. I have only to congratulate the Author on
will find that
FOREWORD
XI
having accomplished successful research in what must have

been very difficult circumstances and on having combined a
most interesting account with an acute commentary in such
a way that the description and the analysis are seen to be
both essential to our understanding.
Oxford
E. E.
EVANS-PRITCHARD
Introduction
THIS BOOK is about a Spanish town. More precisely, it

examines the social structure of a rural community in the
mountains of southern Spain. To demand the reader's
attention for a whole volume in order to interpret to him the
habitual goings-on in so insignificant a place might be asking
too much of him, but that in order to do this it has been
necessary or, might I say, through doing this it has been
to say a good deal about the nature of Andapossible ?
lusian society, and even to sketch certain hypotheses of
sociological theory. Yet this is not a discourse on the
principles of social organisation. On the contrary, my con
cern is to set forth facts and only such general formulations
as are required in order to relate them one to another. For
I believe that
every description of social
life
carries in the
method and terms it employs an implied theory of society,

while on the other hand theories which aim to lay down the
principles of sociology, however great their potential value,
remain until an observer can make use of them in a particular
instance something uncertain, unassessable as an unopened
seam of gold which may
not,
when brought
to the surface,
repay the cost of mining it.

Nevertheless, there is one point of theory to which I
would like to draw attention before I begin, and that con
cerns the meaning of the term Asocial structure", since this
is used by some writers in quite another way. They use it to
mean the composition of a society in terms of percentages
of persons belonging to one or another category of age, sex,
and so on. This is not what a

social anthropologist means by social structure. For him the
word "structure" implies something composed of inter
dependent parts, and the parts of a social structure are not
individuals but activities or institutions. A society is not an
monetary income or
status,
agglomeration of persons but a system of social relations.
INTRODUCTION
xjy
what is the nature of

exactly such a system "works",
matter
a
is
upon which much doubt
the logic governing it,
the same sense as a legal
in
a
Is a social
How
system
system
or an economic system, as systems of grammar or physiology,
or the solar system? This question is one which I prefer to
rests.
leave to philosophers to whom it properly belongs. But many

excellent monographs have examined different institutions
determine
among different peoples and have shown how they
and are determined by the other institutions of their society,

are consistent
how, in a word, their activities and beliefs
I
have
this
in
book,
attempted to
with one another. So,
to
Alcald
in
define the values attaching
possessions and
and
to
the
and
to sex
political authority
family,
status,
the moral code of the community, to the supernatural

and the natural and to show how they are related to
one another and to the
social
structure
of the
whole
country.
be seen that these values are not uniform in the

sense that they are not shared equally by all members of
the community, as one is led to believe is the case in simpler
It will
but rather they (and the social perception upon

which they depend) vary according to the position of the
individual within the structure. This variation which gives
rise to strife in certain contexts, leads also to logical incon
societies,
which yet are not sociologically inconsistent. They

devolve, rather, from the necessity to reconcile conflicting
social ties within the same community and within the same
individuals. The modes in which this reconciliation takes
sistencies
the structure of this society many of its

characteristics. If this book makes any contribution to
the conflict of
sociological theory it does so through tracing
place give
to
the divergent demands of the local community and the

central government and suggesting that, while the resolu
ties to
problem is peculiar to this place and time,

the problem itself is one which exists in all centralised
tion of the
states.
general level this book aims to throw light upon

the culture of Andalusia through defining its structural
background. Such typical features as the popular bull
At a
fight
less
and the bandit, the witch and the
cult of the gypsy, are
XV
INTRODUCTION
shown
as
components of this
structural raison
social system, as possessing their
d'etre.
appendix it attempts to reinterpret the social

sierra of Andalusia and in particular the
of
the
history
rise of the Anarchist Movement there in the nineteenth
In a
final
century.
This book makes no claim, on the other hand, to con

tribute anything to controversies regarding Spanish politics,
and any attempt to put the facts contained in it to polemical
use
is
likely to
do violence
to
them. In examining the values
of another society I have been at great pains to avoid,

"
myself, making any value judgements".
Those whom I would like to thank are many. There is,
first of all, the debt to be acknowledged in a first work to
my
teachers,
Meyer
Fortes
to those
who
Professor E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Professor

and the late Dr. Franz Steiner. Secondly,
lent me the assistance of their advice when I
approached the problems of Spanish culture and history.

I would particularly like to mention Mr. Gerald
Mr.
Raymond Carr of New College, Oxford, and
Brenan,
first
Of them
Mr. Arthur Lehning, formerly of the Institute of Social

History of Amsterdam. I am grateful to many other Spanish
friends who patiently forgave my ignorance and endeavoured
to help me towards an understanding of their culture. To
the Hon. Mrs. Joan Rayner I am indebted for her photo
graph which forms the frontispiece.
to express my friendship
Finally I take this opportunity
for
the
and my admiration
people of AJcald. Save for the
natural beauty of the land they live in, fate has given them
few material advantages. With less wealth they are more
In the face of greater
hospitable than more fortunate people.
more
finely upon feast days. The
disadvantages they dress
showered upon them yet
been
not
benefits of learning have
Their manners
they are often masters of the spoken word.
Convinced
refinement.
a
natural
and their feelings possess
what else would an English

man be doing in Alcald?), they behaved nevertheless with
the greatest kindness and courtesy.
I have been anxious to avoid indiscretions which would
most heinously the friendship which they gave me, and
at first that I
repay
must be a spy
(for
INTRODUCTION
XVI
have taken such steps as are necessary in order to prevent

implicating either directly or indirectly any living person.
Thus, for example, while all the nicknames mentioned are
authentic, I have not given
they belong. There are no

book.
them
to the people to
whom
individual personalities in this
CHAPTER
El Pueblo
(i)
The Boundaries of the Community
LIKE MANY
other Spanish place-names the name Alcala

It means a fortress, and it is
normally possible to discover in places which bear that name
the remains of Moorish fortifications. There are four towns
called Alcala in Lower Andalusia; Alcala de Guadaira,
where the bread of Seville is baked Alcala de los Gazules,
on a knoll in the southern plain Alcala del Valle lies in
broken country east of Olvera: while in the mountains
between Ronda and Jerez stands Alcala de la Sierra.
The name as well as the masonry of the town testify to its
Moorish history, but Alcala de la Sierra is older than the
Moors who built upon the site of a Roman town named
Lacidula. It appears to have come into prominence only
during the later Moorish period when it was the stronghold
of a Berber tribe. For some two hundred years it stood upon
the frontier of the kingdom of Granada, and the Christians
sacked it during the campaign which put an end to Moorish
rule in Spain. Nor was that the termination of its troubles
derives from
an Arabic word.
for nearly ninety years later, in 1571, it played a leading part

in the rebellion of the Moriscos and was the scene of another
year's embittered warfare during which it was burned down

again. After this, the town was resettled and rebuilt by people
from the plains to the west, and has remained ever since in a
backwater of the national life, uncelebrated in Spain's his
tory and unmarked upon its maps.
Richard Ford, that indefatigable traveller, visited it a
century ago and does not appear to have been seduced by
it. "Plastered like a martlet-nest upon the rocky hill," he
wrote, "it can only be approached by a narrow ledge. The
inhabitants, smugglers and robbers, beat back a whole
p.s.
EL PUEBLO
2
division,
of the French
who compared
it
to a land Gibraltar.
The wild women, as they wash their parti-coloured garments

in the bubbling stream, eye the traveller as if a perquisite of
worthy mates."
cannot claim to have been aware of being regarded in
their
I
that fashion, and I selected the town in the first place, among
many other considerations, because I was invited into the
casino, the club, and given a drink more promptly here than
had been. This was due,
in
any other place
so
much to the greater generosity of those
I think,
not
of Alcald, certainly
not to their greater wealth, but to the fact that, being more
cut-off than other towns, my appearance there in winter
was more of an "event" than elsewhere* This first encounter
was for me the prelude to an attachment which lasts still.
The mountains around Alcald look bare and very pre
cipitous, but they are not devoid of vegetation. Between the
rocks lie grassy hollows and glades of evergreen oaks whose
abundant acorns are the best fodder for pigs and whose
wood makes charcoal for the towns in the plain. Below the
grey crags and wooded spurs stretch valleys of not very
fertile soil. The hillsides are lined by watercourses which are
torrents for a few weeks and, for the rest of the year, dry
pebble-beds edged by the oleander and the iris. But the
bowls of the valleys are scattered with springs whose waters
zigzag down the slope, charted by poplar-trees, white farm
houses and the geometric patterns of irrigation* These
springs have never been known to dry up, for they are fed
by underground reservoirs replenished each winter from the
hollows in the high ground.
The towns of the sierra are much smaller than those of
the plains and appear on the map to be situated somewhat
only eight miles from Alcald as
is more like twenty miles
descends into the valley, skirts round the foot of
closer together. El Jaral
the raven
long, for
flies.,
it
is
but the road there
more to El JaraL The valley

which both towns look out is known as the campifia, the
the mountain and then rises once

across
is not called a
plain because it is flat but because
agriculture resembles that of the flat country to the
west, arable land divided in large properties with few trees.
That is the reality which the peasant's eye sees. The tourist's
plain* It
its
THE BOUNDARIES OF THE COMMUNITY
eye sees a rampageous landscape of swelling hillsides and

tilted escarpments brought at last to the sky-line by a flat-
topped crest upon which are strewn the broken columns

which once supported the temples of Accinipa.
Not quite as far as El Jaral in the other direction lies

Benalurin, where Napoleon's troops burned the church and
following the road round the mountain one comes to the
town of San Martin, no farther from Alcala than Benalurin
by donkey-track, but it must be a sturdy donkey to do the
journey. San Martin, back to back with Alcala and separated
from it by the mountain, faces Gddiz and the Atlantic eighty
miles away. Beneath the mountain in a cleft lies Jacinas and
beyond that the cork-covered and bandit-ridden foothills,
and beyond these the corn lands of the Andalusian plain.
:
These towns are much alike at first sight. The houses,

whitewashed and red-tiled all, cluster together on knoll or
mountain-flank overlooking their approaches. Jacinas is an
exception for its siting is based upon the reversed principle.
The rocks fold round it on three sides, and its lowness
it as much
protection as height does to the others.
The only town whose situation is not strategic is Guadalmesi,
affords
but
has grown into being in the

town in the area.
modern
only
it
last thirty years. It is the
Just outside each town, a matter of two or three hundred

yards, are the cemetery in one direction and the calvario>
the chapel, in the other. The cemetery is usually below the
town, the calvario above. There are no detached houses. The
built-up area begins
and ends
as
abruptly as the Spanish
day.
Outside the towns there are not many habitations. In the

plain the big farms are homes for no one, though the fore
man lodges there with his family. Labourers are housed
there while they are working, but they keep their families in
the town. There are sometimes apartments for the owner
where he may come with his family to spend a month during
the summer. Yet areas of small-holders' farms are commonly
found on irrigated land, or within one of the colonisation
schemes founded within the last thirty years. 1 The straggling
i "Interior
colonisation", as it is called, is not confined to the last thirty
years. In the village of Algar near Jerez a colonisation scheme was founded by a
El,
4
collection of mills
and
huertas,
PUEBLO
or irrigated gardens,
is
feature peculiar to the sierra.

The wealth of this area appears to have been declining
for a long time. The liberation of the Americas from Spanish
rule
damaged
Cddiz, and the
the commercial supremacy of the port of

loss of Cuba finally destroyed it. There are
few modern manufactures in the area. The development of

modern means of communication, of modern industry, the
improved technique of agriculture in the plain and the

phylloxera have each in one way and another contributed to
a general decline in prosperity among the towns of the sierra.
Jacinas with its flourishing leather-factories is an exception
but Alcald has been particularly hard hit by these develop
ments, for it formerly exported wine and in addition it
possessed a cloth industry which was the pride of the region.
Its products were once advertised as far afield as South
America. Ninety years ago the population was double what
:
it is
today.
Some people might
see in
this
economic decline an
explanation of the intensity of social unrest which developed

in the area during the latter years of the last century. The
trial which made the secret terrorist society called the Black
Hand famous
and
sierra,
in the eighties
local tradition has
active in Alcald
itself.
concerned people from this

it that the Black Hand was
At the beginning of the
Civil
War
in
1936 these towns were not lacking in revolutionary ardour.
But
The number of inhabitants

The number of dwellings is 604*
to return to Alcald today.
living in the
town
is
2,045.
Considering the size of the average family five to seven

is normal and up to ten is not
exceptional it
children
appears that there are sufficient houses for the number of

People complain of a housing shortage, but the
families.
relatively
income
is
low
rents (10 per cent of a day-labourer's monthly

normal), and the fact that few houses are lived in
by more than one family would indicate that
it is
not very
acute. Moreover, the population is still falling.

nobleman in the eighteenth century. An account of this, as well as of many
other features of the area, is contained in Viqje dt Espafia, by Antonio Ponz
(Madrid, 1787). See also Los riyesy la colonizctcidn interior
G. Bernaldo de Quiros (Madrid, 1929).
XVI d XIX, by
de Espafta dtsde el siglo
Houses vary in size. There are fine three-storeyed mansions

in the centre of the town, built in the eighteenth century
by the wealthy clothiers. But no house has any pretensions to
nobility,
and where arms are found over the door they are
those of one of the religious orders which, before the church
was
dispossessed,
owned property
here.
The
seigniorial
lordship of Alcala belonged to the Dukes of Arcos together

with that of three neighbouring towns, but there is no
evidence that they ever kept up a residence in any of them.
More modest
houses have two storeys whose top floor

the upper town is com
where the greater
of
mainly
dwellings
single-storeyed
posed
number of poor families live. Almost all have a yard at the
may be no more than an attic, while
back, including perhaps a stall for an animal, an open

veranda where the cooking is done and a trellised vine. The
only modern buildings are a cloth-factory and a gaudy villa
put up by a retired lawyer at the entrance to the town.
In spite of its incongruity it is much admired.
The hillside which folds round Alcala is scarred by what
were once streets which housed the greater population of a
former epoch. The buildings are of uncut stone, granite
boulders collected from the slopes, plastered both inside and
outside and whitewashed. From the houses which have fallen
into disuse the doors and roofs and windows have been
removed much material was taken by the builders of
Guadalmesi and the jagged walls, washed bare, have
become almost indistinguishable from the rocks behind them.
The ruins now serve as pens for animals. The buildings which
have been abandoned in this way lie on the outskirts so that
the town appears to have shrunk in upon its kernel, leaving
streets of goat- and hog-pens between the inhabited dwellings
and the
hill.
has retained the compact appearance

Nor is it strange that this
should be so, for, quite apart from the fact that the outlying
streets were inferior, more precipitous and the houses
rougher, the life of the community centres upon the fountain,
the church, the town hall and the shaded square where
people walk in the evening. The distance of a house from
these is something of a measure of its desirability. In
In
this
way
it
typical of the Andalusian town.
EL PUEBLO
addition, people do not like to live in isolation but prefer the

crowded atmosphere of the street. The climate is warm for
half the year and
much
time
is
spent out of doors.
The
old
doorways by day. The young people do

their courting there in the evening. The streets of Alcala
may be said, in fact, to be the social centre of a community
which stretches for eight kilometres around. This is called
the tirmino of AlcakL
This territory is the rural area of the township, and a
further 1,740 people live within its bounds. Of these about
half live in a village called Penaloja, which stands beyond
the mountain at the far end of the tfrmino. The remainder
may truly be regarded as country-dwellers, people living
women
upon
sit
in their
isolated farms or in the mills or cottages in the valley
below the town.
One
of the facts which an examination of the statistics
number of inhabitants
than
in
in the country. In
lower
the
town
very
Alcald it is i 3*4, while in the country it is i
5. This is
because the families who live in the country almost all own
houses in the town* These remain vacant for the greater part
of the year, being used only to store grain which must be
concealed from the visting inspector, and to house the family
when they go to stay in the town. Nor is this an innovation
which the black market in agricultural produce has made
reveals
is
that the relation of houses to
much
is
and also necessary possible through the increased

wealth of the small-holder and necessary on account of the
inspector's visits, though this explanation would seem reason
possible
able at first sight. On the contrary, it is an ancient tradition

that every family possess its house inside the town, and this
tradition is common to the greater part of Spain whose
empty countrysides bear witness to it. 1
This desire to
must
for the
compact communities for so we

it
is one of the prime con
structure of central and southern Spain,
live in
moment
ditions of the social
consider
and corresponds to that strong sentiment of local patriotism

which has been observed by many writers upon Spain,
*
The parts of the country where the agricultural population lives entirely
in central communities rather than in farms upon the land
corresponds very
roughly to the distinction between "dry" and "wet** Spain,

and which
a recurrent theme in Spanish literature.

Geographically, Alcald is something of an exception with
25 per cent of its souls living in the country. In its sentiments,
is
however, it is no exception.
This identity of place and community is clearly revealed
in the language. The word for "town", which might equally
"
be translated as village" since it covers any community of

from a few hundred to thirty thousand inhabitants, is
pueblo. And this word means, not only in the dictionary
but also in everyday parlance, both the place and also the
1
el
people who belong to that place. This conception of the

pueblo as a human community expressed in a geographical
idiom was well illustrated to me when people explained;
"Peiialoja is a street of Alcald." This in spite of the fact that
ten kilometres and a mountain pass separate the two places.
Moreover, the language reinforces this identity by a converse
The word
commonly heard in
example.
meaning population, is most

the sense of a populated place, a city,
poblacitin,
town or hamlet.
Membership of the pueblo is acquired primarily by birth.

Those born within the town remain "sons of the pueblo"
until their dying day, no matter where they go to live. They
will remain "sons of the pueblo" not only for legal purposes,
as in the parish register; "Hijo de Alcald, empadronado en
X ..." ("Son of Alcald, numbered among the neighbours of

X ..."), but also in people's minds, for
likely that they
it is
never bear any nickname other than that derived from

the place of their origin; "El Alcalareno" or "El de
Alcald", This does not follow if a man goes to such a dis
tance that the name of his town is unknown, or to a big city
will
where nicknames have not quite the same significance. A

man from another province may be known by his province,
or if from farther away still, by his region. Thus a man of
Alcald is; "Alcalareno", "Gaditano^ ("of the province of
Cddiz"), "Andaluz" ("Andalusian"). I was known in
Alcald as "el Ingl6s".
**
use the word "town" rather than village" because although it is the
residential unit of agricultural workers, 'it also has shops, a market and a
municipal administration. Moreover, I do not wish to use both words and make
a distinction where the language of the people themselves makes nonet
i
EL PUEBLO
Legal membership of the municipal commuity, vecindad

neighbourship, is acquired by the act of empadronamiento,
the
inscription in the parish register as a neighbour of
y
pueblo. This is performed automatically after two years'

continuous residence or after six months should it be
solicited. Public functionaries, on the other hand, receive the
legal status of neighbour upon taking up their post. This
status entitles a man to vote in municipal elections, to hold
municipal
office
and
to participate in the privileges of the
common
pastures and agricultural and

of
neighbour has greater effects
quality
in the sphere of law than the place of birth, yet the moral
quality derived from the latter enters into the definition of the
community such as
social benefits.
The
personality for legal purposes in a term
mystical
importance. The word
which reveals
naturale&z, nature,
its
means,
when applied to a person, simply his place of birth.

The inhabitants of a pueblo are frequently designated by
a collective nickname. 1 Those of Alcald are called "the
Lard-eaters", a reference to their fame for raising and
fattening pigs* Those of Benalurfn are the "Bumpkins '. In
5
the people of Penaloja are differentiated from

those of Alcald by a separate nickname.
this instance
In addition, each pueblo is distinguished by the posses

sion of a patron saint who stands in a particular relationship
to the
community. The pueblo
patron to
at
its
from
whom,
foundation.
is
under the protection of its
many cases, it was formally dedicated

The name of the town sometimes derives
in
Thus, Villaluenga del Rosario, Puerto Santa

Maria, San Pedro de Alcdntara, San Martin. The festival
of the patron is always a holiday of importance and in many
cases it is combined with the/m"#, the lay festival and market.
Though devotion is not accorded uniquely to the patron
of the pueblo, there tend to be strong feelings regarding him
and not only on the part of persons of religious zeal. In this
regard Alcald is distinguished once again from Pefialoja by
this fact.
separate patrons.
The sentiment of attachment to the pueblo
is
counter-
i There is an article
by Gabriel Maria Vergara Martin in the Boletin de la
Real Sodedad Geografica, Vol. XV, 1918, which gives a collection of such nick
names from different parts of Spain,

balanced, as
might be expected, by a corresponding
9
hostility
towards neighbouring pueblos. Thus, for the Alcalarefio,

those of Jacinas are boastful and false, those of Montejaque
cloddish and violent, those of Benalurin are mean, those of
El Jaral drunken and always drawing their knives. There
appears to be
such as exists
little
is
objective basis for such accusations, but

is a rich town with
worth noting. Jacinas
number of inhabitants now as Alcala. It threatens

on account of its greater wealth to oust Alcald from its place
as judicial centre of the region. There is far more animosity
twice the
in Alcald towards Jacinas than towards
any other town.

an
Montejaque
entirely pastoral community, and shep
herds' manners are held to be uncouth by agricultural
people. Benalurin is a poor pueblo which cannot afford to
pay high prices. While El Jaral is where the wine-growing
is
country begins.
This hostility finds expression in various customs. It is
usual for the boys of a pueblo to object to the visits of
"
a word which I shall translate as
outsiders",
forasteros
since it means a person born elsewhere for the purpose of
courting one of their girls. In some places they follow the
when he first
In
but
come
thereafter.
to
him
comes,
freely
allowing
him
him
when
and beat
others, however, they ambush
up
ever they are able to catch him there. Two Alcalarenos have
had to break off their engagements on account of the rough
treatment which they received in their fiancee's town. Such
a custom applies only to the town itself. A girl who lives on a
farm within the tirmino of another pueblo may be courted
with safety.
practice of ducking the visitor in the fountain
Each pueblo possesses a collection of ballads recording

and of sayings and rhymes in which the praises
of the pueblo are sung and derogatory observations are made
local history,
Casual conversation does not always reveal the animosity between pueblos,
for the educated tend to laugh at it, while the informant may feel the solidarity
of the area in face of a foreigner and give an account in which each pueblo seems
more marvellous than the last. When travelling, one day, up the valley of the
Rio Genal with a local man, I was amazed at the praises which he bestowed on
each pueblo in turn. Coming finally to the most miserable of them all, I asked
whether this was not a rotten place. "This one?" he replied, "No, indeed, a
fine pueblo.
A very rich pueblo.
It
has
many
acorns."
EL PUEBLO
10
of its neighbours. So, a common expression of denigration

to say of someone that he is
is
"Mas
Gastor,"
bruto que
of
Gastor."
El
than
the
mayor
Rougher
or
"Como la gente de Jerez que mientras no tocan no yen."5
"Like the people ofJerez who can't see without touching/
el alcalde del
"
A rhyme inspired
by the same spirit can usually be found

for any pueblo, and I give one which is known in Alcald
"In the pueblo of Zahara
"En el pueblo de Zahara
There are two things
dos
cosas
regulares
Hay
which aren't up to
:
Una
p'arriba y
Y en medio los
una p'abajo
much
One in the upper town
mula'res."
And
and one in the lower

in between are the
dung-heaps,"
In the folklore of its neighbours Alcald is represented in a
similar light, but within the pueblo its name is heard only
in the most complimentary contexts. A ballad recounts how
a visiting official was outwitted and put to shame by the
noble people of that place, and a more ancient saying tells
that after the Resurrection the Saviour stopped off on his
way to Heaven at the calvario of AlcalA, a signal honour which
has afforded the inhabitants special protection ever since
from the damage wrought by thunderstorms. In a rhyme
the excellence of Alcald is contrasted with the wretchedness
of its neighbours
:
"
El Jaral corral de cabras
Guadalmesf de cabritos
Benalurin de cabrones
Y Alcald de sefioritos."
The most proud saying of

Jimena, which challenges the
piteous contempt
"
El Jaral is a pen for she-goats

Guadalmesi for kids
Benalurfn is for he-goats 1

And Alcali for gentlemen/'
all
rest
comes from the town of

of the world in terms of
"Ay que pena

No ser de Jimena
!
"
!
"What a shame
Not
to
be from Jimena
n
!
The reader unacquainted with the symbolism of the Mediterranean

is referred to the word cabrfa in the
glossary.
countries
1 1
But, typically, the neighbouring pueblos have found a line

to
add
CC
ce
And
arrastrarse el culo en la arena."
drag your arse along in the sand.
35
for the people of Jimena enjoy a local reputation for being

short in the leg.
The
of the patron saint is the day upon which the

between pueblos are traditionally expressed. Upon
El JaraPs Saint's Day the young men are supposed to fight
with those of Villa Faderique, and it is told that upon the
festival
hostilities
day of St. Martin, in the village of that name, the young men
would hurl rocks down the hillside upon those of Jacinas
coming to attend the occasion. Another story recounts how
make away with the image of St.

Martin during an open-air ceremony, and how, foiled in their
design, they later stole the bull from San Martin's bull
fight (an affair in which the animal is hauled through the
streets by a rope attached to its horns) and dragged it half
way to Jacinas, when the boys of San Martin, rather than
submit to such an affront, slew it with a dagger upon the
border of their territory. A bull's head painted upon a rock
the latter attempted to
event. This kind of thing is common

throughout the greater part of Spain. The traditional fight
ing between two towns near Seville, Mairena and El Viso,
commemorates the
well known, though today it takes place only between the

school-children of the two towns. At the fiesta of Haro in the
Rioja, not many years ago, the bull-ring was festooned with
is
an announcement reading:
"A
hearty welcome
is
extended
to all outsiders with the exception of those from Logrono."

Pueblos are commonly linked in pairs, each one, sup
El Jaral
posedly, hating its rival above all others. Thus,
GrazaVilla Faderique, Montejaque Benaojan, Ubrique
lema, even, on a far greater scale, Cddiz and Jerez. Today,

with the rise of Jacinas, its rivalry with San Martin appears
have diminished, for the latter is poor now and econom

but at
ically dependent upon its more powerful neighbour,
to
the
same time
its
rise
has accentuated the tension with
declining Alcald.
Yet in none of these cases does fighting take place today.
EL PUEBLO
I2
Though
Saint's
there
Is
likely to
be indiscriminate fighting upon

is drunk then, it cannot be
Days because more wine
said to be anything but casual. So, it is permissible to wonder

whether these enmities are anything more than a piece of
folklore which people enjoy repeating, whether the fights
ever took place in fact or whether, as has been suggested in
the case of the ritual murder of the Shilluk kings, the myth
was not always sufficient. There are reasons to believe, how
ever, that these stories, though sometimes much exaggerated,

are in essence true and that recent times have brought a
weakening of the spirit of local chauvinism.
The body of custom, the folklore which was studied under

Machado who founded the review El Folktore Andaluz in 1890, is generally similar throughout Anda
the influence of
In speech there is a recognised Andalusian accent

to be funny by the rest of Spain (indeed it
as much a necessity for the stage comedian as is a Yorkshire
lusia.
which is thought
is
accent in the English music-hall). The methods and imple

ments employed in agriculture vary little save in accordance
with the demands of the terrain. The pattern of land-tenure
varies, but the same customary law, the same forms of
exploitation and co-operation are found. In spite of the con
tinual attribution of this or that characteristic to the people of
one province or another, there seems to be little variation in
the values underlying social behaviour throughout Andalusia.
Yet, if the spirit of custom is the same, there is a prolifera
tion in the detail which distinguishes one town from another.
There are differences of speech, both of accent and vocabu
lary from one pueblo to another, Benaocaz pronounces the
"11" as in Castile and not as a soft "j" like the surrounding
pueblos. There are distinctive intonations in the speech of
Zahara, Villa Faderique, Montejaque and Benalurfn which
make it possible, it is thought, to tell where a man is From as
soon as he opens his mouth. Between AlcalA and Jacinas
there is little difference in intonation, but there is a difference
in vocabulary and in the use of language. Differences are
particularly noticeable in the customary slang and in
obscene language. Women swear more and more shame

lessly in Jacinas than anywhere else, so the Alcalarefios say.
13
Courting is done in much the same way everywhere; but

in one town the young couples talk through the window, in
another they stand in the doorway. The modes of cele
The
brating religious festivals vary from place to place.
essentially dramatic interpretation of religion in Andalusia
clothes itself in individual customs in each pueblo. Moors
Christians, Romans and Jews, dancing acolytes and
dancing devils lend picturesqueness to the local fiesta,
and
And these
giving a distinct character to that of each pueblo.
distinctions are found not only in the feasts of the patron
saints but in most of the important days of the calendar, and
not only in the processions but in the pueblo's
the whole day.
activities for
Differences in material culture stress the same point. Men

carry their lunch in one town in a bag of woven palm-leaf,
in another in a basket, in a third in a cotton bag. In Alcald
mattresses are filled with wool, even in the houses of the
are less poor, many

poorest. In Guadalmesi, where people
Certain
straw.
with
filled
are
pueblos have established
observations are far
These
craft.
in
a
excellence
particular
from complete, nor are they

structure, in their detail.
significant to the study of social
What
is
significant
is
that they
should exist, for they are the ways whereby membership of

the community is defined. They maintain the basic premiss
of the Andalusian peasant's political thought, which is the
moral unity of the pueblo. Thus, it is sincerely believed that
the women of Benaocaz have stronger characters than their
1
menfolk and than the women of other pueblos. And even
where the veracity of such an assertion might be questioned,
the legitimacy of this method of generalisation

i
"En Benaocaz
la
hembra
na*
is
not.
ma'
Y en Villaluenga ni el macho ni la hembra

Y en Grazalema huye que te quema'"
"In Benaocaz only
And
And
the
women
(i.e.
are worth anything)
in Villaluenga neither the men nor the

in Grazalema flee lest they burn you."
women
This is the statement of a sociological truth, but the first line is founded upon
an historical legend. It is said that when the Catholic Monarchs visited the
town of Benaocaz only the women came out to greet them. There are several
variations of this legend. (Cf. Pedro Perez Clotet, La serrania de Ronda en la
de Cadiz, 1940.)
literatura, an address to the Ateneo
CHAPTER
II
El Pueblo
(ii)
The Community and
the
World
THE
cultural reality has been given before the facts of

is only in order to stress the more
political organisation, it
these
two
interrelated aspects of the com
of
permanent
IF
munity. Each in the long run acts upon the other but since
this is the study of a community and not of the political
structure of the country, it seems proper to begin by defining
;
the community as it exists upon the ground and in the minds

of its members, before examining the laws which regulate its
government. The same law applies, in Murcia or Galicia, to
pueblos whose social structure
is
very different.
When Granada was
conquered by the Christians it was

to
the
annexed
Kingdom of Castile, which was still separate
from the Kingdom of Aragon, the two being united only by
the marriage bond of their sovereigns. Since that date the
work of centralisation stretches down not without periods
of regression 1 to the present day. The local rights which
derived either from an autochthonous tradition or from
charters accorded to townships during the Middle Ages have
today virtually disappeared, except for certain regional

of private law* The country is governed
from Madrid. Yet the regions cling firmly to their cultural
diversities in matters
Within them, the provinces show only slight

but they, not the regions, are the political seg
ments of the structure of the state, It is also the regions not
traditions.
variations,
the provinces which are divided by natural barriers

historical tradition.
The
and by
provincial system was only Intro-
1
Notably through the sale by the Crown of seigniorial rights in the seven
teenth century, Garcia Oviedo (DtrechQ Administratiw* 1951, p. 315) sees a
tendency against centralisation from 1877 to 1935. This is discussed later,
p. 319.
THE COMMUNITY AND THE WORLD

duced during the
15
latter half of the eighteenth century,
and
the present division was established in 1834. Thus, while the

country as a whole is both a cultural and political unit, the
region
today chiefly a cultural unit and the province
is
How
chiefly a political one.

membership of these groups
defines a person has already been discussed. What this
membership means to the individual varies according to his

status and must be discussed elsewhere. For the
social
moment we
are concerned only with the lowest level of
political segmentation, the pueblo.
All the municipalities of the province come directly under

the orders and administration of its civil governor. The
province is divided, however, into partidospartido judicial is

the full term for certain purposes, the chief of which is the
organisation ofjustice. The advisory council of the governor,
the diputaci6n provincial, is made up of one mayor from each
partido elected by the others from among their number. The
Church also uses this unit in its administration, though the
dioceses
do not always correspond
to provincial territories.
The Civil Guard is also organised by partidos.

The syndicates, the government labour organisations,
from the provincial
controlled
directly
situated, normally, in the capital.
are
which is
syndical head
office
single
quarters in the pueblo under the secretary of the syndicates

administers the affairs of all those of Alcald.
At the
pueblo power centres in the hands of

the mayor, just as at provincial level it centres in the hands
of the governor. The mayor is responsible to the governor
and to no one else. All the other official bodies require the
co-operation of the Town Hall in one way or another, and
they are to a greater or lesser extent subject to the mayor's
level of the
authority.
these various organisations function in detail
How
must
be underlined here that, excluding
Penaloja whose mayor is a delegate of the mayor of Alcald
and whose presence within the tirmino appears in view of its
be
left till later.
Let
it
geographical position something of an anomaly, they all

centre in the town. Nor would it be practical for them to
operate in any other way, given the geographical and ideo
logical formation of the peublo. Power is therefore vested in
EL PUEBLO
a very few hands, those of the governing body of the pueblo,
the persons of influence: the officials and the resident
to
wealthy. The officials are mostly outsiders, appointed
the
their office by the state (though they may be paid by
Town Hall), and are only temporarily part of the com
munity of the pueblo. Neither the mayor, nor the priest,
nor the secretary of the Town Hall, nor the
nor the
judge,
nor three of the
Secretary of Justice, nor the Chief of Posts,
five schoolmasters, nor the doctor, the vet nor the chemist,
nor the state tax-collector, are sons of the pueblo. Nor the
head of the municipal guards, nor any of the civil guards,
with the latter that no man is ever
(It is a firm principle
to
his
own
pueblo.) While of the large landowners,
posted
the majority though sons of the pueblo live now in Malaga
or Jerez, sixty-odd miles away, and come to Alcald only for
the
summer months. The

a thing
sentiment of solidarity with the

for
these
felt far less
people,
strongly by
pueblo
whether sons of the pueblo or not, their ambitions and
far wider
interests, both social and material, revolve within
ever
is
"This
horizons.
dead", "Nothing
happens
place
is
here", they complain. Except perhaps for the elderly women,

very few of them would not move to a larger town if they
had the chance. (During the past forty years several wealthy
families
people
upon
have sold
all
their lands
lead lives whose
and moved elsewhere.) These
interests focus to
a large extent
objects outside the pueblo.
But the lives of the working-people are contained within

narrower horizons. The ttmino of their town defines the
extent of their relations with organised institutions. For a
man's health, there is the town's doctor; for his animals its
vet ; if he requires to borrow money, there is its branch of the
Monte de Piedad, the agricultural bank; for the rites of
1
birth, marriage and death, there is its priest, If he wishes to
prosper, he must be on reasonably good terms with the
authorities, for while they work together they are too
the other hand, the man who
be defied.
On
ful to
power
is
well
thought of by them need fear no outside interference. When

a man is arrested on suspicion in a strange place, the first
i
The
distinction
between
Republic, has been abolished.
civil
and
religious rites, introduced
under the
i .
The lower
fountain
'
'
-
'
'
'
;*
*if*

thing done by the
Civil
Guard
is
1J
to
communicate with the
commander of
the section in the man's pueblo. His subse

treatment
will depend largely upon the character
quent
which he is given. l Travel, other than on foot, is expensive
and to do so other than for business reasons is a luxury which
few can afford. From ten
to
twenty
men go down
every
year to the plain to work in the harvest, and others go from

time to time on various pretexts, but their families and their
remain in Alcald. A special pass is required to leave

Andalusia to work elsewhere. Some have never been to
Jacinas, and some have never seen Ronda. To have seen the
sea other than from the top of a mountain is to have travelled,
and though many have been as far as Africa or the Pyreninterests
nees in military service, this experience is something apart,

a relative in America, which gives knowledge of another
like
world but does not
affect everyday life in the community.

concentration of political powers at village level
appears so natural in Andalusia that, though it provided a
basis upon which the system of caciquismo 2 rested, the doctrine
of Anarchism, the movement which attacked that system,
never questioned it. The concept of the pueblo as the unique
political unit was so deeply embedded in the outlook of the
peasants that it became a corner-stone in Anarchist policy.
The Anarchists sought, in fact, not to break this political
monopoly, but rather to become empowered with it and to
eliminate the governing class which represented external
influences. An example of their activity may be drawn from
the neighbourhood of Alcala.
successful rising in the town
of El Gastor at the end of the last century was followed by a
declaration of the Republic of El Gastor. Its men marched
over to Alcald and invited the inhabitants to follow their
example and declare a republic also, entering into a defensive
The
They had been in secret touch with

and elsewhere and hoped to secure their
alliance with them.
people in AlcalA
1
The
traditional attention
which the law pays
to the
"good name" of a
to be found in the dispositions relating to Buena conducta. See Emilio

Juridico-Administrativo (1933),
Sanjuan,
Encyclopedia Manual
Galatayud
person
is
P- 3232
"
system of political bosses" which obtained during the period between
the second Carlist war and the first dictatorship. Gf. G. Brenan, The Spanish
Labyrinth (1942), who gives an extensive bibliography of the subject.
P.S.
PUEBLO
a series of these alliances. According to
position through
some accounts they marched over to conquer Alcald, While
under discussion, the forces of the Civil

and sent a column upon the scene, whereupon
the matter was
Guard
rallied
still
the Republic of El Gastor vanished into thin
air,
The insistence upon municipal independence in the policy

of the movement was tempered, as time went on, by practical
measure of centra
contingencies which required a certain
lised organisation. Yet this was an adaptation to the neces
for co-ordinated action rather than a change of heart.
sity
The same spirit reigned and was to be discerned in the events

of the Civil War. The rise to power of the Anarchists in the
towns of the sierra in June 1936 was followed by the establish
"
ment of communism" Money was abolished and a central
:
all
exchange bureau was set up in the pueblo which collected
it in accordance with a system of
redistributed
and
produce
Thus, though clearly the situation demanded

extraordinary measures and this example cannot be treated
rationing.
as conclusive, the assumption of
power by the Anarchists
rendered the pueblo not only, theoretically, an exclusive

exclusive economically as well. There are
political group but
some indications that this conception of the pueblo in the
minds of small-town Anarchists created tension between the
The Anarch
regional leadership and the local community.
the
in
interests of
ist leaders from the large towns attempted,
An
organisation, to interfere with what the small-town
archists regarded as the autonomous rights of the pueblo
which they themselves embodied, and in that they were
The very word pueblo cloaked the disagree*

ment. For, in addition to the two meanings which have
been given above, the word has a third meaning: "people"
often resisted. 1
and although the

it is for them
this
of
Alcald
meaning,
recognise
people
rich do not
the
for
the
other
with
meanings,
synonymous
which has
wider
world
but
to
that
the
to
really belong
pueblo
the
In
this
sense
as
theirs.
been
delimited
pueblo is a
already
in the sense ofpltbs as opposed to the rich,
potentially revolutionary force
which
at
any time may
rise
* Gf. Gamcl
Woolsey, Death's Other kingdom (1939) for an account of a rightwing person defended by the Anarchists of his village from those of Malaga on
the grounds of being "un hijo del pueblo" ("a son of the village")*
as in the rebellion of Fuenteoveto see that justice is done

1
a
or
as
in
told
of Jacinas, when the priest
story
juna,
apparently omitted to observe the same courtesies in the

had in the case of a wealthy
widow. The pueblo demanded the same treatment for both.
final
"Sin6 se levanta el pueblo", 2 said the story-teller.
the
is
in
the
of
of
the
of
words
one
leaders
example provided
a
the
When
in
man
named
Anarchists
Alcald,
"Argolla".
forces of the Right had taken Alcald they wished to avenge
the victims of the Left with a public execution, and this man
was given public trial. When he was charged with the murder
of those who had been shot there he replied that it was not
he who had condemned them but "el pueblo". He would
burial of a poor person as he
make no
other answer to the charge.
The main market for the products of the area is found in

the large towns of Ronda, Jerez, Cadiz, Seville and Algeciras.
And it is from them that manufactured articles reach Alcald.
It is by these centres of trade, rather than by the neighbour
ing pueblos of the sierra, that the economy of Alcala is
complemented today. Entrepreneurs from them establish
trading centres in the town to buy up such commodities as
game, eggs or esparto grass. The visiting copers buy the cattle
and wool. Contractors come with lorries to buy the charcoal,

or the merchants of Ronda come with donkey-trains to
fetch
on
it.
The
couriers of Alcald bear produce as far as Jerez
their donkeys, returning with such purchases as they are
charged with.
Yet there is a considerable volume of trade between the
towns of the locality. First of all, in controlled agricultural
produce. For the foodstuff-control organisation does not,
1 The
pueblo of Fuenteovejuna in the province of Gorddba, angered by the
in 1476 and murdered
tyrannical behaviour of the comendador, rose one night
him. When the judges came to inquire who was responsible for his death they
could get no answer but "Fuenteovejuna". Gf. Diaz del Moral, Historia de las
agitaciones campesinas Andaluzas (Madrid, 1929).

upon this incident.
Lope de Vega wrote
his play
Fuenteovejuna
risen." Diaz del Moral (op. cit. 9 p. 24)

popular revolt: "La muchedumbre se hace pueblo" ("The
multitude becomes a pueblo"), and refers to the seventeenth-century expres
sion: "La gente se levantaba en forma de pueblo'* ("The people rose in the
form of a pueblo"),
2
"Otherwise the pueblo would have
describes the
Ek PUEBLO
20
in fact, get
This
is
in the
its
hands on more than 50 per cent of the crop.
easy to understand.
town
The
officials
who
are responsible
for countersigning the returns of the farmers are
farmers themselves. Less than what is sown is declared, and

upon the declared area only about half the harvest is
admitted. It is always an inexplicably bad year. In addition,
the farmer is permitted to retain the grain to sow the follow
ing year and a certain amount for his subsistence in lieu

of rations. Since the price paid by the government for the
grain collected bears no relation to the real price, a farmer
honest declaration every year would soon be
official grain is taken away by the inspector,
and other grain, inferior, so people say, is sent to the town to
provide the inadequate bread-ration. This is milled by the
who made an
bankrupt. The
officially
authorised mill, an electrical one, situated in Alcald.

follows a different and
The crop which remains undeclared
unnatural course from producer to consumer. It is ground

and eventually it
illicitly in mills which are officially closed,
furnishes the unrationed bread which is sold openly through
out the country. There are a great many mills working
unofficially in the area, powered by the waters of the sierra,
Alcali has some fourteen of them, some of them converted
less
The grain which

of
Guadalmesf It
they grind comes mostly from the plain
is borne by donkeys which make the journey singly or in
from old
cloth-factories
and
fulling-mills.
pairs, sometimes at night, for fear of the inspector. There are

also two olive-mills in the valley, both of them authorised,
though how much of the oil produced is declared to the
inspector can only be a matter of conjecture* The miller

smiles and changes the conversation when he is asked how
much he mills.
One can see
then that agricultural produce flows in two

parallel channels the official and the illicit. But the latter
is so essential, so much more extensive and so generally
:
accepted, that it dwarfs the former and makes it appear not

so much as an attempt to keep down the cost of living of the
Six of these mills were matriculated already at the time the law making
illegal was introduced, and they are paid compensation for being denied
the right to mill (at the rate of 7,000 pesetas per annum). In fact they mill just
as much as those who are paid no compensation for not milling* All of them
i
them
pay the municipal tax upon
industry*
21
1
but rather as the central government's
poorer people,
method of levying tribute in favour of a parasitical hierachy,
the food-controllers. Be this as
may, the inspectors enjoy

and
a wide reputation for corruption,
popular feeling is high
against them the consumers on account of the inadequacy
and irregularity of the rations, the producers since they
would prefer to sell the whole crop at the unofficial price,
and both together because it is thought to be an immoral
organisation which meddles in the affairs of the town and
it
imposes unjust
fines.
Apart from illicit trading between pueblos there is a

certain body of local trade, though less than formerly. A
The
cork-factory in Benalurin supplies itself from the area.
cloth-factory in Alcala buys most of its wool locally. There
is a chair-factory in Penaloja whose products are common
throughout the area. There is also a certain trade in the
in
produce of the irrigated gardens, for crops ripen earlier
Farmers
no
have
while
some
irrigation.
pueblos
Jacinas,
sometimes send a son with a donkey-load to get the better
The high towns specialise in
price in a neighbouring town.
hams which cure
many
better at their altitude.
local industries
On the
have succumbed
to
other hand,
the economic
Alcala
changes of modern times. The cloth production of
much reduced. The leather industry of Jacinas uses
has been
less well cured.

imported leather today since local skins are
Mill-stones are no longer quarried locally but are imported
from Barcelona or from France. The blacksmiths of the
In many
pueblo no longer make agricultural implements.
items local craftsmanship has given way to the manu

factured product. These changes have meant not only a
but also a
change in the directions of economic co-operation
the area,
of
the
to
contribution
general impoverishment
modern
for
unsuitable
agricultural
which, being country
little from their improvements.
techniques, has benefited
the
leaves
The money which
community in this way does
not return in exchange for increased production.

receive fewer
1 There are three
rationing scales whereby the well-to-do
the black
rations than the poor. It is argued that they can afford to buy upon
of the
market. This argument involves a logical contradiction between the aims
control order and the aims of rationing, but its equity cannot be denied.
EL PUEBLO
22
The degree
which towns are economically independent

of one another can be inferred from a comparison of pricelevels which vary from place to place according to supply
and demand, and to the success with which traders manage
to corner an article in short supply, Manufactured articles
to
more expensive in Alcald than in Ronda, and,

when local crops come on the market, agricultural
produce also. The cost of transport, due partly to the nature
are always
except
of the country and partly to the bad conditions of the roads

and the shortage of motor vehicles, is responsible for this.
Motor transport is not used for local trade, and animal
transport is costly: for, apart from other considerations,
the quantities seldom justify the use of a two-ton lorry,
which
is the smallest
transport vehicle employed in the area.
What, in fact, has happened is that while great advances
have taken place during the last century in long-range
communication, local communications remain much as they
were one hundred years ago, In a sense they have deterio
rated, for the scarcity of beasts following upon the war has
made them more expensive, and their upkeep is relatively
more expensive
also.
built, they take longer
In addition, though roads have been

and less direct courses than the tracks
which, not being built for motor vehicles, use steeper

gradients. And since the roads exist, the upkeep of the tracks
has been allowed to fall off.
Another factor
is
the lack of economic uniformity at

means that there are
national or provincial level, which

stable
and general
prices only for things like newspapers,

patent medicines, etc., while the fiscal liberty which the
Town Hall possesses favours local variations. Variations in
sometimes considerable, and accentuate

the local variations in price level.
Wages also vary a great deal from one town to another.
local taxation are
During the harvest they reach, in Jacinas and in the plain of

Guadalmesf the figure of double the agricultural wage in
,
Alcald.
They
are always appreciably higher in the plain of

minimum wage is laid down for the
Jerez. Theoretically, a
whole province, but it is the custom for employment to be

worker can only
given with meals ("con la comida").
claim the wage-rate if he is employed without meals ("a
The
difference between
seco").
the wage-rate
23
what he
is
paid and the
technically a subtraction for his food. It is

recognised that the labour involved in cultivation of the lands
of Alcala and the poor return which they yield does not
is
permit payment of the same wages as in the plain. Yet, in

spite of this, men are unwilling to go there if they can find
a job in their own town. "It is all very well making a lot of
"
but away from home it costs twice as
money/' they say,
much to live, and you have no friends there so anyone may
take advantage of you." A labourer who is an outsider
appears to be at a disadvantage because he does not belong
community. The majority of those who go away to

so in answer to the summons of a friend already
established as a permanent employee upon a farm which
to the
work do
requires additional labour. Moreover, at certain times in

the past, the provincial governor has issued an order for
men to seek work outside their own pueblo. l The

Guard were then entrusted with the enforcement of this
bidding
Civil
order, sending home those who arrived from outside.

For the most part, the economic relations of Alcala
lie
towards the north and east, not towards the other towns of
its partido. The main road
passes to the north of Alcala. The
railway station lies to the east on the Ronda-Algeciras line.
Fish comes almost daily to the pueblo by one or other of
a man with a donkey meets the fish lorry from

Cddiz on the main road. It is also sometimes brought from
the railway station* Grain for the mills comes from the north
east, and it is in that direction that the transhuman flocks
go after the harvest. The wine drunk in Alcald, other than a
small quantity vinted in the town, comes from the same
these routes
direction.
The main shopping and business centre is Ronda. The

motor-bus runs in the morning from Jacinas to Ronda via
Alcald and returns by the same route in the evening. This
means that while
day
to
Ronda,
to
possible to go by that means for the

to Jacinas involves spending two nights
it is
go
Though one kilometre nearer by road, the

to
journey
Jacinas is more arduous to animals on account of
there as well.
i This was
originally the Ley de los tfrminos muncipaUs.of 1933. Similar legis
lation has been brought in at various times since the war.
EL PUEBLO
QA
the mountain pass. Also, Ronda is five times the size of

Jacinas, and a place of much greater importance.
An examination of the parish register gives some indication
of the range of human contacts. 1 Those born in other pueblos

number 13*4 per cent of the population. This includes both
families which have moved into Alcald, single persons who
have married into the town, and children born to Alcalarenian parents while away. In addition, it represents a
The total number of
time-span of the last seventy years or so.
is 433. Of these, 300 were born within
elsewhere
born
persons
a radius of fifty kilometres. If we break up these 300, we find
that 226 come from the north-east side of the mountains and
to the towns
only 74 from the south-west. Graded according
from which they come, the four highest figures are Monteand Ronda, 35.
jaque, 60; El Gastor, 50; El Jaral, 41;
Fifth in order comes Jacinas with 22, the highest figure from
:
the south-west
and from
thzpartido of Alcali.
of its
up, then, Alcald is tied to the other pueblos
the
material
a
common
sierra by
culture, by
exchanges of
similar
between
services
economies, by a certain
goods and
consider themselves
who
mountain
tradition of being
people
the plain because,
of
the
than
moral
more
people
tougher and
and
by membership of an adminis
perhaps, they are poorer,
trative unit, the partido judicial. It is linked to the north and
To sum
by a very different set of ties, by complementary

economies and by human contacts including kinship. The
difference in the nature of these two sets of ties might be
summed up as ties based upon similarity, and ties based upon
them corporate ties and
reciprocity, or one might also call
2
diffuse ties. At the present stage, rather than seek a pair of
"portmanteau" concepts into which to fit the various but
east
The hamlet of Peflaloja is torn between its administrative dependence upon
economic dependence upon the nearer and better communicated

from the statistical data here considered.
2 It
might be possible to say, using DurkheinVs terms, that Alcald possessed
"mechanical solidarity" with the mountain pueblos and "organic solidarity'*
with the towns of the plain. However, as will be seen, neither set of ties con
Alcate and
its
Jacinas. It
is
therefore excluded
Where I use the word solidarity I shall use it to mean

members of a group through a common allegiance in a
from non-members. I do
specific social situation, and their differentiation thereby
not wish to imply any necessary attachment between members of a group. It is
a sociological, not a psychological term. Groups, not individuals, possess it.
stitutes solidarity in itself.
the identification of
25
by no means complete observations which have been made,

it is more useful to make one further observation, namely,
that these ties are exercised in the main through two different
further examination of
elements of the society of Alcald.
the parish register brings this point to light.

Of persons living in the town itself 117 per cent were born
elsewhere, while of those living upon farms within the terri
tory of Alcald the percentage is 17-1 per cent. Yet the former
includes the families of all the officials who are outsiders, and
of the landowners
who
live in the large
towns where their
children are born these days. Together these two classes

make up about one-third of the outsiders resident within
the town. The following table shows the exact percentages
of outsiders (a) among the inhabitants of the town, and

of the country.
(6) among the inhabitants
Total
Place of
residence
(a]
(b)
The town:
The country:
11-7%
17-1%
From under
From
over
50 km.
50 km.
6 *9%
4-8%
2-5%
14-6%
The great majority of the officials and of the children of

the landowners were born more than fifty kilometres away,
and if, therefore, these be excluded, then the figures are
even more emphatic; there is double the percentage of out
the mills and farms than in the town. So that
siders
among
into the com

appears that the path towards assimilation
the
peripheral countryside. The reasons
munity lies through
To
for this are many.
begin with, those who live outside the
pueblo live correspondingly nearer to another town with
which trade and human contacts are easier in consequence.
In the second place, they are largely persons of a certain
substance tenant and owner-farmer, miller, charcoal
it
burner, and so on men of independence who work for

themselves 'and do not depend upon a daily wage. They
travel about in pursuit of their business, and their contacts
are more extended as a result. Millers are seen to change
their place of residence
more frequently than any other class,
not born outside, have passed part of

their liyes working in a mill in another valley. In addition,
their position today on the margin of legality alienates them
and many of them,
if
EL PUEBLO
26
from the official administration which centres in the town.

Owner-farmers are sometimes outsiders and so are tenantfarmers, brought in by landowners who may have interests
in other pueblos and who in at least one case prefer to employ
an outsider. 1 The outsider, who comes seeking work, goes
round the farms asking for a job rather than ask for it in the
town. Or he may come at the invitation of the farmer. He
lives upon the farm and returns home once the work is
finished. If he remains therefore as permanent employee, he
is
likely to do so as a country-dweller,
No doubt other reasons could be found to account for the
higher percentage of outsiders in the country than in the
town. For example, the importance of marriage in bringing
an outsider into the community and this will be discussed
enough for the moment to point out that the same

which are more free in their movements are those who
are most likely to marry a girl from another pueblo.
It may appear surprising that in a
place which has a high
birth-rate and a declining population there should be so
later. It is
classes
outsiders. The number of sons of the pueblo living

elsewhere is certainly far greater, though it is not possible to
know exact numbers* Prior to the Civil War, some went to
many
America.
Many went to Jerez during the last century. Today
they go in all directions
wherever
it is
possible to
make
living. Most of all have gone to the Campo de Gibraltar in

recent years, where the end of international hostilities has
brought a
boom
in
its traditional
industry, contraband.
has carried away many men and some
whole families, creating gaps which outsiders have filled,
dispersing people throughout the country. But for this, the
problem could be seen far more clearly.
The
Civil
War
Yet how do people behave towards outsiders? The

stranger, as in Ancient Greece where he was protected by
Zeus, enjoys a special status. It is a duty to assist him, for
the reputation of the pueblo is felt to be at stake in his
eyes.
The visitor of wealth or standing is treated with great
*
In somewhat the same way certain of the officials
prefer to get their
domestic servants from another village. "It is better,"
,
they say "if one's
servant-girl does not have a family in the village* The household money goes
<
further."
2y
hospitality. He is probably invited to a glass

of wine in the casino the club. People
inquire what brings
him and put themselves at his disposal.
This standard of hospitality is a very noble feature of the
courtesy and
Spanish people, yet its analysis would not be complete if one

were not to point out that it is also a means
whereby the
community defends itself against outside interference. For a
guest is a person who, while he must be entertained and
cherished, is dependent upon the goodwill of his hosts. He
has no rights and he can make no demands. On the other
hand, the good name of the pueblo is his protection. For the
sake of that, the members of the community
prevent one
another from taking advantage of him.
The vagrant labourer who comes in search of work is in
rather a different position to people who come for business
or pleasure. For one thing he is potentially
taking the bread
out of the mouths of the sons of the pueblo. He is also a
who will work for less than that which is

In addition, those who purport to come
seeking work may be in reality shameless vagabonds, ready to
steal or commit any felony. For a man who wishes to
escape
potential black-leg
1
being paid there.
criticism in his
own pueblo must go
elsewhere, where the
him. A man's
not necessarily the same once he has left home.
Among those who go away to seek a living, some are pre
pared to beg who would be ashamed to do so in their own
sanction of public opinion
behaviour
is less
effective over
is
village. Stories circulate in the valley telling
beggar from outside

village, to
whom
no
how this
or that
really a prosperous person in his own

one would dream of giving alms. Men
is
who rob the crops, seldom do so within the termino of their

own pueblo. To work as a prostitute is something which a
girl must go away for. To do so where she had a family
would be regarded as very shocking, quite apart from what
they might have power to do in order to prevent her. The
power of public opinion is very great. It is expressed in one
word el quedirdn the " what- will- they-say". It is recognised
that people are virtuous for fear of what will be said "por
i
The labour from
the poor villages of the mountains was used to break

an earlier period. Vide V. Blasco Ibanez, La
strikes in the plain of Jerez at
Bodega (Valencia, 1905).
PUEBLO
miedo
tlrmino
Those arrested for stealing in the

of Alcald are almost invariably from El Jaral, Villa
or El Gastor. In this way the low opinion of the
del quedirdn".
Faderique,
character of neighbouring pueblos is reinforced. Not that
is unknown, quite the con
stealing by residents of the valley
seldom comes before the
the
case
it
when
happens,
trary. Yet,
for to call in the Civil Guard
law. Private action is
preferred,
At
very "ugly".
against a neighbour would be
the same time, there is a far greater inducement to beg or rob
when away from home, in that other means of maintaining
considered
oneself are
no longer
available.
at first, if
seeking work they are treated
with the
contrasts
which
coldness
a
with
unknown,
affluent. 2 People are chary of
the
to
afforded
reception
do not know,
giving work to a man whose reputation they
for he may take advantage of the fact that his good name
When men come
they are
him away from his own pueblo. The first

of
asked
any outsider is: Where is he from? Yet if
question
a man has a friend there then he is alright, his friend is
can give him a good
responsible for him, and if someone
The
work.
find
he
then
importance of friendship
name,
may
and acquaintanceship is very great. One often hears men
boast: "Here everybody knows me" or "I am known in
5)
name is a
every town from here to wherever-it-is. A good
asset.
valuable
literally
Discussion of friendship as an institution must be put off
till later. The Andalusians are well known for the fineness
of their manners and the volatile quality of their sympathies.
Lovers of the new, they are quick to enter upon terms of
friendliness with a fresh acquaintance and people who settle
in a pueblo do not take long to be absorbed into its life. With
in a couple of years they will have developed relationships of
ventures such
trust, and enter into co-operative
matters
less to
reciprocal
as share-cropping with the people of the pueblo.
The senti*
Much of the murder and church-burning during the Civil War appears
have been committed by outsiders for, perhaps, the same reason. Cf. G.
Brenan, The Spanish Labyrinth^ footnote on p. 189.
distrust,
2 The two
contrary forms of behaviour contain a common factor
Whether he is entertained or treated ofF-handedly, in either case he is obliged
to keep his moral distance. The fact that he does not belong to the community
gives him a particular standing.
1
to
2Q
ment of hostility towards those of other pueblos and the

reality of co-operation appear to exist comfortably side by
How is
side.
this
compromise effected?
The hostility towards an enemy depends upon his remaining

in the enemy camp, and one who leaves his native town to
settle in
to
it
another escapes most of the distrust which is attached
by those among whom he goes
to live.
At
the
same time,
a tendency, among those who regard themselves as

educated persons, to consider such sentiments old-fashioned
there
is
and
brutish. Nevertheless, the prejudice persists for many

people in Alcald, and though it may be hidden in the daily
give-and-take of living,
When
it is
always liable to be brought out.
was moving into a farm-house in the valley where

the tenants were people from Jacinas who had come to
Alcala fourteen years earlier, I was warned by several
persons on no account to trust them, on the grounds of their
origin. One man, in particular, an intelligent craftsman,
ce
added great feeling to his warning, saying: My father was
a man of the world and of great wisdom, and he used to tell
me, 'Never trust a man from Jacinas, for not one has yet
"
been born who was not a twister
In fact, however, most of those who gave their warnings
against the family in question had additional grounds for
distrusting them present jealousy or a past quarrel. For
every person possesses a number of different guises under
which he may conduct social relations, and which one he
appears in is largely determined by the present circum
stances. He is not only an outsider, he is also a member of
many other categories of age, status or occupation. Conse
I
quently the suspicious origin of a person is recalled only

when the context warrants it, when, that is to say, he has
given offence or some past offence of his is remembered.
Then his antecedents are brought up as an explanation:
"What do you expect from him, he is from Jacinas?"
Until that
The
moment the fact of his birth-place was
overlooked.
a structural
personal tension becomes transfused into
one.
which he
sociologist may detect here a principle with
familiar in other contexts, whereby the tensions of the
internal structure are projected outside the group where they
The
is
EL PUEBLO
QQ
serve,
threat, to strengthen the group's

always the people of the next-door town who
an exterior
as
1
solidarity.
It is
are the cause of the trouble, who come stealing the crops,
whose wives are unfaithful, who swear more foully, are more
often drunk,
more addicted
to vice
and who do one down
in
business. In all things they serve as a scapegoat or as a
warning.
of proximity and
very principle implies a degree
are
to blame the people of the next
we
If
co-operation.
must have some share in our enterprises.
village, then they
If their shortcomings are to provide a compensation for our
we must be concerned in their affairs. It has been
Yet
this
own,
suggested earlier
that
the
ward a reason
for this.
between pueblos is
possible to put for
hostility
weaker today than formerly.
It
now
is
The pueblos of the sierra are no

The focus of their social
longer as closely co-operative.

relations has shifted.
centralised com
up, then, the pueblo is a highly
and
also
both
emotionally. In Spanish
structurally
munity,
"
unit of society
natural"
it is the
jurisprudence
To sum
political
compared with which the

In
many
aspects
it
state
is
an
artificial structure. 2
resembles other rural communities of the
composed of agricultural workers

a background of dryliving under urban conditions, with
All
cultivation.
possess a strong sense of
farming and olive
Mediterranean. All are
local patriotism; devotion to the patria chica

Spain; in
local campanile, the
the
to
attachment
Italy campanilismo,
conception of community
highest building in the village.
based upon locality runs through the cultural idiom of

Southern Europe, which is demonstrated in many ways:
for example, in their legal codes the preference for the
to the Germanic jus $anguini$;
principle ofjus soli> in contrast
in the institution of local patron saints, in everyday con
versation the importance attached to their place of birth.

In fact, the Greek word polis far more nearly translates
"pueblo" than any English word,

1
for the
Witchcraft and sorcery in primitive societies
this light.
2 Article
may
community
is
not
often be interpreted in
i of the Ley de Regimm Local puts the point succinctly: **E1 Estado
naturales que constituyen los
Espaftol se halla integrado por las Entidates
en
Provincias/*
temtorialmcnte
agrupados
Municipios,
3!
merely a geographical or political unit, but the unit of

society in every context. The pueblo furnishes a complete
ness of human relations which makes it the
prime concept of
all social
thought. That is why Argolla uses the word
"pueblo" in a way which recalls Sophocles. During the

Reconquest pueblos were founded, with special municipal
for the express
purpose of defence against the
in the archives of later
pueblos the vestiges of a
concept of purpose may be detected. Upon the foundation
of the town hall of La Carolina in
1835, the municipality
solemnly pledged the pueblo to defend, among other more
charters,
Moors.
And
temporal things, the "misterio de la Purisima Concepcion".

This moral unity of the pueblo is achieved
through a
lively and highly articulate public opinion. People live very
close to one another under conditions which make
privacy
difficult. Every event is
regarded as common property and
is
commented upon
frankness
endlessly.
Where good manners demand
perhaps natural to find that individuals are

well skilled in intrigue. Here the
subtlety of intrigue is only
matched by the wealth of imagination expended in unravel
it is
is
sharp, and they are quick to
each otheH^hind their backs. The least eccentricity
is rewarded
by a nickname which will be used universally
the
town. 1 Yet a man's nickname is particular
throughout
to the pueblo. If he moves to another
place it will find its own
nickname for him. Another pueblo will see him in a different
ling
it.
People's observation
satirise
light.
The public opinion of the pueblo is not only exclusive to

other pueblos. It possesses a unity derived from
physicial and
moral proximity, common knowledge and the acceptance of
common values. That is to say, the sanction of public criti
cism is exercised, not, as in the open society,
a number of
by
separate groups which largely ignore one another, but by a

single group, the pueblo. It is this which gives to public
opinion its strength, its sense of the completeness of human
is this which, as in a
primitive tribe, makes
custom king.
Looking, now, at the pattern of relations between pueblos,
what surprises one is not the tension which exists between
relations. It
See Chapter VI.
EL PUEBLO
No
them, but the lack of techniques for co-operation.
the
in this role which overlays
organised institution appears
frontiers of the teminos. No principle of exogamy, no county
cricket league, no Kula system, provides a framework within
which the relations between pueblos can be organised
structure of the state and the
other than that of the
political
Kinship has some small significance

but that honorary kinship provided by the
has not, as in Mexico,
compadrazco (co-godparenthood)
1
evolved in order to fulfil such a function, One institution
the economic co-operation
only, friendship, reinforces
between pueblos, and that exists upon an individual basis,
unencumbered-r-one might say, undefended by ritual of
social ties of the wealthy.
in this connection,
sort.
any
The
instability of this institution
and the reasons
are dealt with in Chapter V.

In fact, the exterior relations of the pueblo are conducted
different classes of people indifferent ways. The influential,
for
it
by
and wealthy people link it to the structure of the

These together
through political and "social contacts.
are designated in future as the ruling group"* They form
a group since they possess a solidarity which is essential to
2
the exercise of their power in the pueblo, and which finds
professional
state
its
institutional expression in the
"Movement",
the single
and common
political party. They possess
are
matters
by no means
though they
opinions upon many
common
values
are the people

always in agreement with one another. These
the
to
the
who represent
pueblo, and who
government
From the ambiguity

represent the pueblo to the government.
tensions
certain
of this position
merge. According to the
situation
they
may
behaviour, either
(a)
and
express solidarity in sentiment
rival
the
their
with
pueblo against
indebted for this observation to Mr. George M. Foster, whose book

an account of the compadrozco in Mexico.
is
2 The words
"group" and "class" appear to be much misused, A class a
number of objects which may be classified through the possession of a common
1
am
Empire's Children contains
in soci
Group, on the other hand, implies a proximity which "
to act
in the expression
ology one might interpret as solidarity, as for example
**
characteristic.
a group", Yet modern practice allows "a traitor to his class and "the
used indis
500-^750 per annum income-group". In fact, the terms art
that social solidarity is
criminately much of the time, and the assumption
them unquestioned. This assumption
purely an economic matter passes between
may be reasonable in Middletown ", in AlcalA it is not permissible.
as
* *
3.
Gathering Esparto grass
33
the Alcalarenos, against those of Jacinas",

power struggle for leadership of the partido ; or
"We,
pueblo
as in the
(b] with the ruling groups of other pueblos in the business

of administration and in commerce (this solidarity sometimes
shows a hostile attitude towards their social "inferiors",
sharpened by memories of the Civil War "We, the en
lightened and responsible people, against the uncultured
masses' ); or (c) alternatively with either or both of these
against the central government or its provincial representa
tives, as when the whole pueblo co-operates in order to
deceive the visiting inspector, and word is sent in order to
give warning of his approach "We, the responsible people,
defending the pueblo against the predatory bureaucracy."
Linking pueblos in a different way, though sometimes in
co-operation with members of the ruling group, are people
such as millers, farmers, owners of flocks, dealers, artisans.
These people carry on trade within the restricted area of the
neighbouring towns. They show no solidarity as a group,
3
is no situation in which they are juxtaposed to

any other group. They are, rather, the richer element of a
number of occupational classes, from the remainder of
which they are distinguished neither by manners, speech,
dress nor education. They are part of the pueblo in the full
sense of the word. These people move about in order to
since there
extend their relations beyond the boundaries of their towns,

gaining through such an extension both economic advan
tages and prestige. In contrast to them, there are those who
go away to seek a living because they cannot get one in their
own home journeymen

:
to
work
in the harvest in the plain
on the one hand, and on the other, beggars, doers of odd

jobs, hawkers of anything from lengths of cheap cloth to
religious medallions, gypsies who offer to clip a horse or
find a buyer for a donkey, the hangers-on at fairs; shoeshines, ice-cream vendors, prostitutes
people who, for
into
reason or another, have gone
vagabondage.
one
CHAPTE
RIII
Occupation and Wealth

(i) Agriculture
IN THE first two chapters Alcald was defined in relation to

the larger scale structures of province and state, and in
relation to other similar communities of its neighbourhood.
It is
It
now time to turn to the internal structure of the pueblo.

is common for authors of sociological studies to
employ
the concept of "social class" in order to classify the members

of a society, and this method seems adequate in dealing with
the modern Anglo-Saxon world. In reality, there is consider

able variation in the meanings which different authors have
attached to this term. 1 But quite apart from the dangers
arising from this fact, to accept any of the ready-made
theories of social structure implicit in the different definitions
would run contrary to the method of analysis of social
anthropology.
For analysis must always be preceded by

questions, therefore, which must be asked
description. The
"
are not:
What
are the social classes in this society?"
"
"How
are they differentiated ? ", but

tions are recognised in this society?",
:
What
and
social distinc
"In what
situations
are they evident?" and "What is their significance?" Only

by framing the problem in this way is it possible to avoid
assuming beforehand that which one seeks to discover, and

though in practice certain analytical distinctions must be
made
in the course of description,
it is
nevertheless wise to
begin by describing those aspects of the society which are

most evident, and which can be most unequivocally inter
preted, before venturing to use so ill-defined a category as
social class.
Social distinctions are discussed in the course of the fol*
Gf. in particular
1950).
T. H, Marshall,
Citizenship
and Social Class (Cambridge,
AGRICULTURE
35
lowing chapters under various headings, and the

I
propose to treat
is
first
which
occupation.
The majority of male occupations are connected directly

with the land. The termino of Alcald measures a total of some
twelve thousand hectares. Slightly more than half of these
are classified as forest, though this includes both the acornbearing holm-oaks on the high ground (about a quarter of
the total), the pine forests on the mountain and the fine
glades of cork-trees whose naked trunks glow like red velvet
after the descorche* It also includes areas of bushes
and scrub.
The
arable land, a tenth of the total area, is of poor quality

of second and third quality according to
for the most part
the official rating and it is hard and costly to cultivate on
account of the slope and the frequent boulders and outcrops
of rock. No modern machinery is used in the agriculture of
Alcald nor would it be feasible to use any save in a few
chosen places. There is no doubt that but for the high prices
of grain on the black market during the post-war years
(1939-50), much less land would be tilled than is the case.
Much
of the hillsides are terraced and formerly grew vines,

and the wine of Alcald is held in good repute; but the phyl
loxera destroyed the industry, and most of the vine-growing
olives or reverted to pasture. The
the cultivation of the olive, and many
groves have been planted within the last fifty years. There
are 175 hectares of olives, that is, 13 per cent of the arable
land was replanted with

soil is suitable for
land. Crops are grown beneath the olives in order to take

advantage of the ploughing which the ground must have.
Pasture accounts for 16 per cent of the total area and

another 19 per cent is classed as barren land though there
are few rocks where the hardy goat cannot find a mouthful.
There is a hillside of one hundred hectares covered by esparto
the pastures.
grass, and some more is to be found among
The irrigated land covers less than fifty hectares in all,
but its value under the meridional sun is out of all proportion
to its area. Up to three crops a years can be taken off it by
a
skilful
produce
maize.
farmer,
is
and
grown:
it
is
here that the most profitable

walnuts, vegetables,
the fruit crop,
OCCUPATION AND WEALTH
gt>
divided into properties of all sizes. Altogether

there are over eleven hundred properties, though of these
two-thirds are of less than two hectares in area. There
are a hundred properties of ten hectares or over. Expressed
in a different way, two-thirds of the total area of the
The land
tlrmino are
hundred
is
in twenty-five properties of over one

There are four properties of over 500
the other end of the scale 400 hectares are
owned
hectares.
hectares, while at
owned in a total of 800 properties.
There are, it must be pointed out, farmers who own more

than one property, and, as will be seen, there are areas where
the land-holdings have tended to agglomerate in recent
times. Yet there are still today 1 14 farmers of agricultural
lands of more than two hectares.
The smallest properties are agricultural land. Those of
medium size are either agricultural or of open pasture or of
and pasture. There

large properties are all forest
the
state. There are
of
the
are
which
lands
are also
property
which
for
flocks
the passage-ways
vary in width up
(c&nadas)
is
there
The
metres.
to one hundred
public. There is
grazing
The Town
land,
common
is
which
the
a hillside near
village
of
hectares
800
of
Hall owns a property
pasture and forest
olives.
The
administered today by the Ministry of Agriculture,

though its grazing rights are leased for three-yearly periods
the Town Hall. There were once common lands of far
which
is
by
on the market by the state

greater extent, but they were put
the
a century ago. In this regard
Spanish Liberals of the
nineteenth century achieved the same ends, though in
the pursuit of a different ideology, as the magnates of
the English eighteenth century.
The produce of these lands is as various as the methods of

livestock raised consists of pigs, goats,
exploiting them. The
sheep and cattle, the latter a hardy half-brave breed, giving
no milk and good only for veal in the market-towns or for
*
who have to
bull-baiting in the local pueblos, All the people
do with livestock, from the owner of a ranch of fighting-
The term " bull-baiting"
is
used in order to distinguish the various bullof Ronda,
festivals of the pueblos from the formal corridas de torosm the bull-rings
Malaga, etc., for which the true fighting-bull, toro bravo^ is bred.
AGRICULTURE
37
bulls in the plain
down
to the
humblest shepherd, are called
ganaderos.
The
large properties of grazing land are administered

directly by the owner or by his steward. The owners have
but they also frequently let off pasture for short

month or a few months. They employ ganaderos
and guards for a salary. Those who stay up in the sierra with
their flocks are usually employed on the basis of cabaneria, a
system whereby a reduced salary is augmented by monthly
supplies of victuals.
Apart from the large landowners there are also flockowners who own up to several hundred head but who have
no property, or not enough at any rate to suffice for their
flocks. Their flocks tend to move more than those of the large
landowners and, apart from the general transhumance, their
movements are adapted to the condition of the pastures. The
flocks,
periods of a
irregularity of the rainfall causes this to vary considerably

from year to year. These flock-owners are men who work
own hands, but they also employ a number of

men. Several of them have amassed sufficient wealth to buy
properties of several hundred hectares. It is one of these who
with their
rents the property of the Town Hall.

There are also smaller flocks of sheep, pigs
and goats
owned by independent
ganaderos, or by small farmers whose

children look after them. They do not employ a man regu
larly, though they may do so from time to time for shearing
or castrating. Every farm and also a number of households

in the pueblo keep two or three animals, which supply
household needs and graze upon the owner's plot of land
or on the neighbouring canada.
The animal from which most money is to be made is the

pig. The beasts which are to be fattened for killing are
castrated and sent up to the acorn-forests in the autumn when
the acorns begin to fall. They stay there for three or four
months and are killed during the cold winter weather. There
are no flies then, and the risk of the meat going bad is small.
These forests are populated not only with the animals of the
landowner. Additional animals are accepted both from the
herds of the ganaderos and also from the individual house
holds, for
it is
every family's ambition to fatten a pig or two,
og
spiced sausages arc the traditional

delicacies of Andalusian fare. The method of payment is to
and weigh
weigh the pig when it goes on to the property
when it comes away, and pay according to the
it
since the
hams and highly
again
it is the responsi
weight it has gained. While on the farm
if it dies it is the owner's
but
landowner's
the
of
ganadero,
bility
loss. The landowner, equally, gets paid nothing for having
disease upon his pastures may
kept it, so that an outbreak of
rob him at the
last
moment
of his year's gross profit. Pigs
upon maize in the farms in the valley,

is not a general practice. There is less risk of
this
though
for stock
disease, but it is more expensive. The animals kept
and the young animals cost little to keep they are fed on
household slops, grazed on the grass on the edge of the roads,
on the passage-ways, or on the properties, and thrown a
handful of maize or peas in the evening. Apart from the
are also fattened
acorn harvest there is rough grazing in the forests during the

rest of the year. Goats and the young pigs are kept there, but
when the pigs come into the woods to be fattened all other
animals must go.
There are other forms of co-operation in the raising of
stock. To have an animal "by halves" (llevar a mdias
or llevar a rmta) is one. Goats may be lent by their owner
to a ganadero for a specified time. In return, the ganadero
allowing the owner
one kid per four goats per annum, regardless of their pro
on his
ductivity. The owner, therefore, gets a small return
a
gilt-edged security,
stock, but he pays nothing; and it is
for the ganadero must bear all the risk. If one of the owner's
takes
the milk
and
also
the kids,
beasts dies then the ganadero must replace it. And the kids
which the owner receives are the best, for he may choose
them himself* They remain with

contractual period.
tion of sheep.
the herd until the end of the
A similar custom
exists for
the exploita
An arrangement based upon the same conceptions

common in the raising of pigs. The pregnant sow is given
is
to
another party to feed and care for until the piglets are
weaned. In return for this service he receives haljf the litter.
A valuable product of the forest is its wood. This is made
into charcoal. The owner of the forest may employ a char-
AGRICULTURE
39
coal-burner to work on his account. But a form of exploita

tion by halves is commoner. The representative of the
commission gives permission for the trees to be

felled. These are then marked, and the charcoal-burner
moves in. When his work is done he meets the owner's
forestry
and together they weigh it, dividing it into

equal shares. It is stacked on the edge of the property nearest
a road or track, and then mule- and donkey-drivers come and
representative
buy it to take to the big towns.

The cork is cut from the trees every nine years. A dealer
or the owner of the factory in Benalurfn comes and buys it on
He
then brings his men who cut it, weigh it in the

of
the
owner's representative and cart it away.
presence
Other produce of the non-agricultural land which provide
the tree.
employment in various ways are the timber of the pine-trees,

the esparto grass, and the partridges and rabbits.
The agricultural land of Andalusia has largely been held

in latifundia, ever since Roman times. 1 The complex of dryfarming, with its uncertain yearly returns and fluctuating
demand for manpower, may be seen throughout the history

of the Mediterranean to have tended to encourage the
agglomeration of property, and also of habitations, into
large units. The vast expanse cultivated by short-term, towndwelling labour for a single master is common not only to
Mancha and
much
of Italy as well.
This type of land-holding is typical only of the plains, 2
and it is rarely found today among the mountains. The soil
of the sierra tends to be poorer than that of the plain and is
more laborious to cultivate and more subject to erosion. In
Betica, la
any case
its
Castile,
unevenness makes
but to
it
unsuitable for large-scale
There are large properties in the campina of

Guadalmesf but they are almost all exploited by tenants in
small-holdings or parcelas, under the direction of a foreman
exploitation.
who
1
a
represents the owner, as well as himself cultivating
See Julio Gonzalez, Repartimiento de Sevilla (Madrid, 1951), pp.

Lvi-Provenalj UEspagne musulmane au Xtme sikle (Paris, 1932),
Also, E.
p. 161.
2 P.
Carridn,
Los latifwdios en Espana (Madrid, 1932), quoted by Brenan,

that 68 per cent of the land of the province of Cadiz is owned in
properties of over 350 hectares,
op. cit., states
40
Casual labourers unite with the small-holders for the

in the harvest, when labour
performance of certain tasks
forces of over a hundred men take the field on one property
parcela.
after another.
the smaller arable farms of Alcali these methods of

There are three main areas of
exploitation are not known
the
within
land
Urmino, the chief of which lies
agricultural
in the valley below the town. As has been seen, the farms vary
farther from the town,
greatly in size. On the lower land,
the holdings reach up to forty hectares. The richest farmers
own several of these and exploit them directly themselves.
Upon
Others are owned by people of Alcald, sometimes people

elsewhere, and are let to tenant farmers more
these days, they are owned by the farmers them
who reside
commonly
selves.
High
prices since the Civil
War
(particularly
on the
black market) and a law protecting the rights of tenants

the right of first refusal
giving them security of tenure and
in the case of sale
have enabled
many
to
buy
their farms.
the pueblo is poorer. Much of it

terraced where the vines once grew. Much has been
with olives. The holdings here tend to be smaller.
The higher land nearer

is
planted
There
are,
however,
olive-groves
of up
to
twenty-five
hectares.
Another type of agricultural property is the huerta or

small irrigated farm. 1 There are about twenty of these in
the valley. The average size is from one to three hectares,
though such farms often include an adjoining patch of nonthe
irrigated land. The area irrigated is determined by
Certain
them.
amount of water which is available to irrigate
springs are the property of the farmer upon whose land they
rise, and he can irrigate as much as the water-supply permits.
Some patches of irrigation are no more than half an acre
where a meagre trickle starts from the ground. But the main
water-supply derives from three strong sources on the hill
sides at the head of the valley. The water of these is not
tradi
privately owned, but rights to its use are attached by
tion to certain lands. The water belongs to the millers for
M
i The term huerta is also used for an
irrigated area as in the name la Huerta
de Benamahoma'*, In the case of a very small irrigated farm or the patches of
irrigated land which surround each mill, the term huerto is used*
AGRICULTURE
41
Tuesdays and Saturdays in between

St. John's Day (24th June) and St. Michael's (sgth Sept.) or
their industry, except for
such other days as the mayor, at the request of the hortelanos,

or cultivators of irrigated land, may proclaim. These days of
irrigation are divided up into periods of a few hours during
which each huerta receives its water. These periods were
formerly determined by the movement of the sun. When it
was light enough to distinguish which side up a coin lay in
the hand the right of the irrigators commenced. When the
sun's first rays struck a certain farm-house the right to the
water changed hands. When the shadow reached the navel
of the Infant Jesus which stands in the niche in the front of
another house the water must change its course once more.
For the most part these signs were shadows upon the rocks on
the far side of the valley. These rights have, today, become
converted by common consent into the hours of the clock,
but whenever a dispute arises concerning the rule, the old
farmers refer to the traditional senas del agua, the signs made
by the sun. The rights are supposed to devolve from the
regulations of the Confederation Hidraulica, which has
jurisdiction over them, but in fact during the period with
which we are concerned, the titles to water-rights were few,
out of date and of doubtful validity. Nobody had bothered
many years, and in the

meantime both the course of the water and the accepted
sur
practice in using it had changed. It is not, therefore,
in
the
arose
of
which
the
that
disputes
great majority
prising
to regularise their water-rights for
valley concerned water-rights.

The huertas are all farmed either
by tenant or owner with
the exception of the largest in the valley, which was exploited

by an employee until 1950 and after that by a system of
share-cropping which will be discussed later. As in the case
of the other small farms, the huerta is a family concern. The
farmers live with their families upon the land. Nevertheless,
does not preclude them from employing a man for a

few weeks at a time when extra help is needed. Equally, at
other times there are hands to spare, and a member of the
for a daily
family may well go out to work for a few days
this
and
wage. They are at different times both employer
employed.
42
a great number of plots of land owned by

people whose main source of income is the work of their
hands some eight hundred of under two hectares whose
Finally, there are
average
size is half an hectare.
kilometres of the town*
Most of these
The land
is
lie
within three
usually of poor quality
and there
is an area, called los terrajo$> composed almost

entirely of such holdings and dedicated mainly to the cultiva
tion of the vine. These were distributed from common lands
when
the
commons were put on
the market in the last
century. There has been a tendency for these small-holdings

to fall in recent years into the hands of wealthier people.
The two
vintners have been buying them up. Nevertheless,

most poor families still own a plot somewhere or other.
There are 440 labourers and the majority of these men are
employed by the day. Others are employed for a fixed period
at a slightly lower salary, and others yet again are employed
permanently at a further discount (jijos). The mean figure of
employment is 350, but this does not take into account the
periods of rain in the winter when work is laid off altogether,

and no one is employed other than the fijos* nor does it
include those
plain.
who go away
Employment by
to
work
the day
is
for the harvest in the
common
feature of
Mediterranean dry-farming, and the general practice in

Andalusia used to be, and still is in many places, to collect
in the central square at
daybreak in order to contract for the

work.
This system is used in Guadalmesl, for example,
day's
but not in Alcald where the arrangement is made privately,
usually the night before.
Another system of employment is by piece-work. This

l
is used for
weeding sometimes, and is general in the
harvesting of olives which is paid according to the quantity
gathered. The olive harvest of 1951 was so abundant that
there was a shortage of labour to collect it. Very favourable
terms were offered to induce people to come. One small
farmer even offered to go halves with anyone who would
system
it b contrary to syndical regulations, Piece-work was

opposed by the Anarchist movement in Andalusia, which regarded it
as abusive. It is not generally resented today in Alcal&, for it is practised only
in the case of an individual arrangement between employer and employee.
This is called un ajuste*
*
In which instance
bitterly
AGRICULTURE
43
come and pick
though the normal reward is oneninth or one-tenth of the quantity picked.

variety of other forms of co-operation in agriculture
exist which are reminiscent of those already mentioned in
for him,
connection with pasturing. Plots of land on the large farms

of the lower valley, small plots in the huertas or in the
terrajos, are exploited in partnership by two men, whose
motives are often social as much as economic. These are
called aparcerias. The various requirements of the enterprise,
land (irrigated or dry), seed, manure, and the various tasks
which the cultivation demands, are shared between the

two, and the crop is divided at the end. In theory it is the
co-operation of two men, each of whom has something to
offer, but who lacks either the time or material to venture on
the undertaking alone. The man who needs grain to sow
seeks a partner rather than pay for it and risk its loss if the
year turns out badly the man who needs labour because he
is himself
engaged in other work (or expects to be) makes an
than pay the money of a daily wage. So that
rather
aparceria
the system has the aspect of an insurance policy. The risk is
divided between the two participants, and the shared
interest induces a keener co-operation than that which wages
can elicit. It is nevertheless frequently difficult to see why a
man has accepted to exploit his land in this way other than
in order to render neighbourly service, repay a favour or
cement a friendship. He may well be partner in an aparceria
upon his own land, and at the same time upon the land of
;
another. Moreover, he
may
also subdivide his share in the
enterprise, bringing in an additional partner.

Another variant of the aparceria is the partnership between
the landowner and the landless labourer, the former putting
up all the capital and equipment and the latter doing all the
work.
The landowner
recovers
it
lends the seed to the enterprise and

is halved. Yet another form applies
before the crop
to the clearing of
woodland and
be made
its
conversion into arable.
a few months for a potato crop,

Aparcerias may
or for the full three-yearly cycle of the land. The essence of
this type of arrangement is the freely made contract, and as
such its form is always liable to fluctuate. A certain stiffening
in the demands of landlords has been noticeable since the
for
44
war on account of the greatly increased demand for land

and the high prices of agricultural produce. In fact, any
arrangement, un convenio, may be made provided both parties
agree. Thus, for example, the large huerta already mentioned
is cultivated under an arrangement whereby plots of land
are given over to different fanners of the valley in return
for a fixed quantity of the crop sown, while the ground
beneath the olives, which produces only a poor crop, is

sometimes given over for nothing for the sake of the plough
ing it will receive. If it is a good year the farmer makes a
present to the owner of the land of a measure of grain, a
gesture evoked by the social code and not by any legal
obligation.
It
can be seen that money
the following ways
is
made from
the land in
(1) Through ownership only. Rent is paid yearly on

landlord has no responsibilities
St. Michael's Day.
The
other than the paying of taxes. Formerly, when tenants

were not protected in their tenure and rents were uncon
trolled, the landlords were prepared to put money into
the land and deal with major repairs, now they tend not
to. The traditional forms of contract l were clearly designed
in order to protect the interest of the landlord and free
responsibilities. They were normally made for
three years (or multiples of three). The rented farms are
all agricultural land with the exception of the property
of the Town Hall, which is exceptional in every way. All
tenancies date from before the introduction of the law
which gives the tenants security of tenure, for no one will
put a tenant in now that he cannot be evicted save by
paying heavy compensation, Today there are more owner-
him from
farmers than tenants.

exploitation through an
the system on which the
large pastoral properties are run. The part played by the
owner in the direction of the land varies a great deal. There
(2)
Through ownership and
employee, an
encargado. This
is
the absentee landlord who seldom visits his land; the

landlord who lives elsewhere but comes frequently and
takes an active part in its management ; the resident landis
Sec Zoilo Espejo, Costumbres de demhoy economia rural (Madrid, 1900).
AGRICULTURE
45
who
leaves to the encargado no more than the duty of

that
his orders are carried out. The degree of
seeing
responsibility with which the encargado is entrusted varies.
"
Overseer" would be a good translation in many cases.
He works with his own hands and is not differentiated
from the mass of farmers and farm-labourers by any
cultural standard. Few small properties are run in this
way, and in Alcala it is generally considered unsatisfactory
lord
as a
method of exploitation, save on the large pastoral

which require very little administration, or
owner is a practical farmer who directs the
properties
when the
enterprise himself.
(3)
own
may
Through ownership and exploitation by the owner's

hands, together with such additional labour as he
require. This is the commonest form of exploitation
of agricultural property.
(4)
Through ownership combined
in partnership in
an
aparceria. This has already been discussed.

(5) Through the exploitation of rented property.
(6) Through the work of a man's hands in return for a
daily wage, contracted for the day or a short period, or as
a permanent employee. The wage varies according to the
nature of the work.

(7)
Through a man
assets as
he
may
offering his labour

possess in partnership.
and such other
either
(8) Through independent action ; hunting game
with gun or more usually by snaring or trapping; picking,
preparing and sometimes working esparto grass, picking
wild asparagus, making picdn, a kind of charcoal made
from small wood by a simple and rapid process, or work
ing a lime-kiln. These are methods used by those who can
find no work or who prefer their independence. They are
mainly outside the letter of the law since, in the majority
of cases, they involve either poaching (though shootingrights are not generally enforced by the owners of prop
erty) or pilfering.
The variety of forms of co-operation and also the con

tinual fluctuations in the price-levels, both of produce and
labour, which have already been mentioned, can be seen to
relate, in the first place, to the insecurity which attaches as
much to the role of exploiter as to that of employee (or
46
formerly to the insecurity of tenure itself). All arrangements

are short-term ones, for no one can have confidence in the
future. Every harvest is a gamble, and the history of Anda
lusia is one of alternating plenty and famine. Under such
conditions one would hardly expect to find a steadily
balanced system of exploitation such as is usual in countries

of reliable climate and adequate rainfall
What is more, this instability is visible not only in the
system of exploitation but in the distribution of landed
property itself,
tendencies are
In the evolution of land-ownership two

simultaneously apparent in the valley:
agglomeration and dispersion. The first owes its existence, in

enrichment of the larger farmers.
this instance, to the recent
their profits into land, and where possible

have enlarged their holdings by the acquisition of neighbour
ing ground, or they have bought other farms. In this manner
a number of the larger properties have been built up out of
They have put
smaller holdings in the last fifteen years. The tendency

towards dispersion is caused by the fission of property which
the law of inheritance imposes.
The
need not be examined here.
general effect
Its
intricacies of this
and
law
in this
the values of family life is to divide all

inheritance equally among the children of both sexes.
Families tend to be large, and while in some instances the
it is
in
harmony with
heirs sell their share to
one of
their
number, in others the
divided up. In this way a number of

small-holdings have sprung up in the lower valley, where
young men have built themselves a house upon their share
inheritance itself
is
down to farm it* A change

and marketing values or a few bad harvests
of a larger property and settled

in the controls
might well reverse

uneconomical to
this situation, for these
exploit.
In
fact,
small-holdings are
tendencies are
both
inherent in the land-tenure of Andalusia, which might be

described as either stagnant or dynamic from one period to
another, but never as stable.
In ri$um&) this instability finds its most obvious correla

tions in the uncertainties which surround the exploitation of
and
in the hazards of the law of inheritance, but

must be counted the lack of a mystical
these
alongside
attitude towards the land, the value system of a people who
land,
AGRICULTURE
47
dwell in towns from which they go out to cultivate the earth,
but
who do not
love
it. 1
i This characteristic of the

agriculture of Alcala, like many others, is typical
of the whole Mediterranean, though it contrasts with the north-west of the
Iberian peninsula. Gf. "Amour et labeur ont egalement manque" a la terre
syrienne ; le fellah la cultive sans doute, mais comme a regret, et sans que son
exploitation sache voir au dela des ne'cessite's imme"diates ; il travaille pour lui
et non pour sa terre; il ne sent pas que celle-ci le dpasse et le prolonge."
J. Weulersse, Paysans de Syrie et du proche- Orient (Paris, 1946), p. 173.
CHAPTER
IV
Occupation and Wealth

(ii)
Industry
and Trade
THE
possession of land bestows no social virtue and its

cultivation, so far from being a sacred duty or a labour of
IF
love,
is
simply a hard and unrewarding
way of making a
living, it follows that the distinction between persons accord

ing to whether they are engaged in agriculture or not carries
no more than a purely
practical significance.
Occupation
is
a matter of choice, not of calling, and the nature of a person

is not thought to be influenced by his occupation in the same
way as it is, for example, by the place of his birth. It is true
that the distinction between labourers and herdsmen is the
subject of certain generalisations and the basis of not a few
who work the land sometimes jeer at the uncouthness and lack of ambition of the goatherds who are
prepared to spend weeks at a time away in the mountains ;
jokes. People
while the latter are proud of the independence which their

life gives them. Yet in no situation do the two elements
confront one another and in no sense are they opposed.
Indeed, a great number of people have at one time or an
other followed both the goat and the plough. In the same
way we shall see that occupational distinctions, such as that
between the millers and the hortelanos, even when they lead
to opposition of material interests, are never extended beyond
the occupation itself, never become the basis of a cleavage in
the community. Neither millers nor hortetanos are thought
even by the rival faction to be in any way different from the
rest of the society. Some irrigate and some mill and both
want the water, but there the matter ends.
This conception is the antithesis of the notion of caste, a
notion which will also find its place in this study when the
gypsies
come
to
be dealt with, but which
is
not found within
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
49
the structure of the pueblo. Here, indeed, we touch upon

essential values of the pueblo which is the equality,
in the sense of the identity of nature, of all those who are
one of the
born in the same place. Whatever they may do and precisely

because of the lack of such distinctions their versatility is
very great they remain by nature the same. The dichotomy
between the agricultural and the urban classes which has
dominated English history down to the present day is one
which cannot be made. Here everyone, conceptually at any
rate, is a town-dweller. How he gets his living is another
matter.
An
important number of the dwellers in the valley are

occupied in exploiting the source of power provided by its
waters. These were once, before the advent of mechanical
energy, at a greater premium than they are today. The cloth
owed its existence in Alcala to the mountain pastures

which produced the wool and to the streams which powered
its numerous fulling-mills. The technical advances of modern
industry, and Alcaldes lack of communications, had already
industry
prosperity when the electrically powered

built there in 1938. In recent years, the
lack of electrical current almost brought that enterprise to a
standstill, so that its owners started another venture, revert
almost ruined
its
cloth-factory was
ing to the traditional technique and rehabilitating one of the

old water-worked factories in the valley. Until 1951 the
factory in the pueblo worked on an average only two or
three hours in the day, and it is still threatened with power-
men and
women
of various ages.
factory in the valley will employ perhaps half as many
cuts. It
employs eight
The
when it is working.
The milling industry
six
has encountered fewer difficulties.

few ruined
There are fourteen grain mills in the valley.
in the
and
those
central
the
banks
of
the
edifices litter
stream,
confluent valley whose water-supply enabled them to work in

the winter months only, have disappeared altogether. Several
of the mills working today were converted from old fulling-
though in their total number there are only two more

than there were two hundred years ago (according to the
census taken in 1 752 by the Intendant-General of theKingdom
mills,
p.s.
cO
of Granada, the Marquds de Campo Verde). The activity

of these mills is continuous and profitable, particularly since
the war. There is an electrical mill in the village which is
restricted by power-cuts to the same hours as the factory. It
controls.
is the only mill authorised by the present economic
it manages to mill
restrictions
its
with
even
Nevertheless,
a bit more
all the flour required by the rationing system, and
on the side which is more lucrative to the miller, but gets
into trouble periodically with the inspectors.
are all entirely
Being officially closed the water-mills
him
devoted to the black market, but grain from the campifia of

Guadalmesi keeps them fully occupied. The techniques of
have altered little since the Marques de Campo
milling
Verde's day. All the mills now employ stones imported from
harder than the
France, or failing that Barcelona, which are
local granite, but only one has so far equipped itself with a
a local and imperfect
ball-bearing for its central pivot,
a
few months* The re
after
down
broke
which
invention
mainder continue with the traditional brass post-and-socket

is not
great, and no
bearing. The volume of the mill-stream
stone.
one
than
more
has
mill
Output depends upon the
at which the stone can be driven, which again
speed
the summer
depends upon the amount of water. During
also
is
water
and
diminish
months the springs
required for
irrigation.
a family unit and can be worked by a single

adult male aided by wife and children,* but the work really
at least two grown men. Several millers keep one
The
mill
is
requires
and one is exploited

permanent employee. One mill is rented
the property of the
are
remainder
The
on a system of halves.
millers. The millers are therefore independent men whose
livelihood is made outside the economic structure which
the state recognises, though the illicit nature of their work
is never
and, indeed, in such a society as this, never could
be a cause for moral reproach, Nevertheless, they are not
of their calling. The
lacking in the traditional qualities
know all about mixing a little plaster in with

dampening it in order to increase its weight, and so
millers of Alcald
the flour,
and their reputation for craftiness rests upon these prac

tices and has nothing to do with their relations with the
on,
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
51
hierarchy. Like the farmers of the valley, they also
official
have profited by the high prices.

In addition to the flour-mills there are two olive-mills. One
is worked
by electricity (though a petrol engine has been
used in recent years to supplement
other makes
its
own
electrical
its meagre
source). The
power from a small dynamo
turned by a mill-wheel. Since olives are milled during the

winter months the miller is not hampered by shortage of
water as much as are the millers of grain during the summer
and autumn. Both these mills are larger and much more
lucrative concerns than the flour-mills and
they employ
men during the milling season.

Since both the owners are persons of influence and will be
referred to later, it is convenient to introduce them at this
several
point
The owner
of "la Pileta", the mill worked by electricity,

He is the son of a former landowner in
Alcald who was also the chemist of the village. He himself has
studied for the career of lawyer. His father was shot by
the "Reds" together with his brother. Don Antonio has
is
Don
Antonio.
properties in Jacinas and Seville apart from the olive-lands

and huerta of the Pileta, and he himself lives the greater part
of the year in Seville where his children are being educated.

His two spinster sisters live in the family's house in the
pueblo and go
down
to the Pileta in the
autumn for the olive
The
family reunites there for Christmas. The sisters

a
play
leading part in Church affairs in the pueblo. While
in residence in the valley the priest comes from time
are
they
harvest.
mass in the chapel which is part of the building.

employee goes round the farms to give notice and those
who wish (and also those who wish for the favour of the
Pileta) attend. The sisters supervise the milling and keep
the count of the loads of olives which are brought in, but the
family is not popular. The majority take their olives to be
to time to say
An
milled, at a
more favourable
price
and more promptly,
it is
said, in "el Juncal".
This
is
the
name
of the other olive-mill which was set up
fourteen years ago in an old fulling-mill. The owner is

"Fernandito Pinas", the son of a tenant farmer of Alcald.
bachelor of fifty-five, he is the youngest of four brothers, but
52
he who "has the voice which sings"*

story is told that
the origin of his fortune was a treasure which a bandit hid
upon his father's farm. He was not rich before the war but
it Is
was a leading personality among the farmers so that he was

made Mayor of Alcala after the flight of the "Reds". He did
not remain mayor for long but has since been one of the two
He
chiefs of the farmers' syndicate.
has
made much money
and bought much land, so that he is now the largest farmer

and landowner in the valley. He lives in the Juncal in a
modest manner, works hard and follows the way of life he
was born to. He does, however, sometimes use the local taxi.
He goes frequently to the pueblo and wields great influence
in local affairs. He is a man of impressive appearance and
old-fashioned manners, courteous but without social preten
shrewd and tough in business but charitable and a
sions,
good employer, on which account he is popular. His heirs are

two sisters' sons.
The relationship of these two men to the community of the
valley could not be more diverse. To begin with Don Antonio
is seldom there. His sisters are in charge of the olive-mill
most of the time. This limits the part played by the Pileta in
by the fact that since it is

do
not
require the water of the
powered by electricity they
Their
huerta
its
own
valley.
possesses
spring. It is sometimes
to
water
that
his
title
the
is false and that it is
suggested
really
the water of the community. There does not appear to be
local affairs. It
is
also limited
any justification for this suggestion. The Pileta derives its

influence in the valley through property, through its power
to employ and to provide an alternative to Fernando Pinas*
mill,
tions
and through its relationship with the church organisa

"
and the Movement", the officially sponsored political
organisation.
Fernando Pinas
to it as a person.
than the
Pileta,
is
He
far closer to the

lives there.
He
community* He belongs
also employs more men
and more people take
their olives to him.
He
also has great importance on account of the fact that he has

the right to employ water for milling, In the ill-defined
condition of water-rights it is not difficult for the hortelanos

(garden cultivators) to take advantage of the millers, since
the latter, on account of the
illicit
nature of their occupation,
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
53
traditional right exists to irrigate with
cannot go to law.
the romanienteS) (properly remanentes)^ the water which seeps

down the main channel after it has been cut off above. The
millers use this to irrigate plots around their mills, but, in
recent times, other farmers owning land on the banks of the

channel have begun to use this water in order to irrigate land
which has no claim to it. Hortelanos have tended to extend
their hours of irrigation at the expense of the millers. In this
situation a key position is held by those who use the waters of
the valley for power in a licit manner, the owner of the cloth-
factory in the upper valley, and, lower down, Fernando

Pinas on the waters of the Juncal. They are able to go to law
and can defend
their rights, and they therefore become

champions of the rights of the millers. When four years ago
a meeting was called to discuss a project of employing a
water-guard between the millers and hortelanos, it met at the
cloth-factory. Agreement broke down over the question of

the division of the expenses involved. Since then quarrels over
water-rights have occurred every
summer.
Modern
trends have treated the craftsmen of the pueblo

well than the millers and have contributed in ways which
have already been mentioned to the general economic de
less
cline of the area of the sierra. The destruction of the archives

of Alcala by the Anarchists makes an exact comparison im
but it is not rash to surmise that the percentage of

craftsmen in the total population is considerably lower than
it was, say, one hundred
years ago, even without considering
those of the wool industry. In the days when cloth-making
was at its height, it provided work in various crafts. The
fulling-mills, the water-worked looms with their various
possible,
processes, the washing of the wool, the spinning, the weaving,

combined into single buildings as time went on (though the
spinning of wool by hand and also hand-weaving as
home
industries did not disappear until the nineteen- thirties), the

dyeing and all the dealing in a trade which was traditional
throughout Europe at that time for the wealth which it

brought made Alcala an exceptionally wealthy place for its
size. Antonio Ponz 1 noted at the end of the eighteenth
l
Op.cit.
54
century that in Alcali mendicancy was unknown thanks to

the wool industry. But this is not the only craft to have
declined. Soap is no longer made in the pueblo for sale,
though many households make
their year's
supply at the
The soap offered for sale in the

brought from Ronda, whereas in 1846, according to
Madoz, 1 there were two factories in Alcala. The sugar
time of the olive-milling.

shops
is
shortage of present times has virtually ended the manufac

ture of chocolate. The copper foundry in Penaloja has closed
down and sold out. The blacksmiths of Alcald no longer

make the agricultural tools nor perform more than elementary
repairs. Serious repairs are sent to the workshops of Ronda
which have oxy-acetylcne welding plants. The decline of
population has produced a glut of building materials so that
the tile-kiln of the area has gone out of business. Now modern
building is beginning to employ bricks where none were used
before, and reinforced concrete makes its appearance among
the plastered granite. These modern materials are imported
into the pueblo, which was hitherto able to satisfy all its
requirements from its own resources, its tiles and timber and
its sand and stone. The plaster-burner still deals with the
locality's requirements, and there is a kiln in the valley and
another up on the hillside. Lime-kilns are numerous and are
exploited by craftsmen either working independently or as

employees of the owner of the land where the kiln stands.
This, however, is not a whole-time occupation for anyone*
The chair industry in Penaloja, powered partly by water and
partly
by
electricity,
continues to work.
In Alcali one
carpenter uses electrical power. One in the valley is buying

piece by piece the machinery necessary to use water-power.
The craftsmen are independently minded people, though
they are by no means so independent in fact as the millers.

builders are employed by the day, and in wet weather
they must usually stop work. The carpenters are employed
The
either by the job, by the day or for a longer period. The

blacksmiths work by the job in their shop.
The only industry which seems not to have suffered in
modern times is the shoe-maker's. Alcali has a long tradition
in this art
l
P.
and men come from other villages
Madoz,
Dicrion&rw G&ogrqficQ*G$tadi$tUQ~histom0
to get their boots
Expatta (Madrid, 1846).
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
55
better than
heavy rough-hide boots which wear

the products of the shops of Ronda. Yet the curing of hides
and inexpertly.
is no longer done in Alcala except sporadically
there, the
As early as 1862 Mateos Gago, a politician of eminence

and a son of Alcala, directed a report to the government
which was being projected to
pleading that the railway,
connect the area of the sierra, should take the path of the
of Jerez to Ronda,
valley of the Guadalete from the plain
of bringing transport
the
reasons
his
necessity
giving among
facilities within range of his native pueblo if its wool industry
was to be maintained in prosperity. His plea failed, and the
The gloomy
railway was built to Ronda from Algeciras.
course fulfilled.
in
due
was
man
this
of
far-sighted
prophecy
The first motor-road reached Alcald in 1917 from the main
was also connected
Jerez-Ronda road. By 1935 the town
El
to
road
another
and
to Jacinas,
Jaral over the mountains
not finished until after
it
was
under
was
construction, though
was
the
down
road
A
local
the war.
valley to the main road
Since the war a road was built over the
in
completed
pass to link
in which to
1930.
not easy country

up Penaloja with Alcald. It is
and
sudden
The
roads.
make
heavy rainfalls on
such steep slopes undermine all but the most soundly built
and had by 1930 carried away segments of both mountain
roads cutting off Penaloja from its parent. It can now only be
reached by car by a roundabout route nearly fifty kilometres
if the roads are not to
Continual work is
in
required
length.
are a state re
during the bad weather. The roads
and
the
from
provincial capital,
sponsibility administered
a
local
are
towns
the
charge
they
only within the confines of
which
why Andalusian roads tend to
be
lost
explains, perhaps,
to a pueblo. The state-employed
disintegrate at the entrance
from
staff are mostly men from the area but not necessarily
lives
the
for
the pueblo, and a foreman responsible
tfamno^
the
in
is
roads
of
put
in Alcala. The building or improvement
also
is
labour
employed in
hands of contractors, but extra
and the
foreman
the
between
the winter
by arrangement
the roads
and partly
mayor, partly for the sake of

measure to deal with the unemployment.
On weekdays a bus runs from Jacinas
to
as a
Ronda and
56
returns In the evening. There is one taxi in the town and no

of transport is general throughout the
lorry. The scarcity
are in a much worse state than they
the
roads
and
country,
were in the days of General Primo de Rivera. Before the war

Alcald had three taxis and a lorry. Now lorries come only
the charcoal which
occasionally, bringing goods, or collecting
is
is
stacked by the roadside near the large properties.

For the daily needs of the community the form of transport
the pack animal horse, mule or donkey. Carts were once
:
and such things as

used, though only to transport machinery
there are none.
could be moved in no other way.
Now
sierra which
system of tracks connects the pueblos of the
a
state
the
of
the
before
roads,
responsibility,
building
were,
which were the responsibility

have fallen into disrepair,
both
Nowadays
and where they were cobbled there are now only scattered
stones. A number of mule-and donkey-teams were owned by
members of the community which carried the products
though there were
of the
Town
also tracks
Hall.
of the sierra far afield. Alcald, for example, even^ supplied

Cddiz and Seville with ice, packed snow conserved in pits on
the top of the mountain and carried down on mule-back
during the summer. Today there is only one donkey-team

travels between Alcald and Jerez, Donkeyleft, which
and mule-teams also come from Ronda to collect charcoal
from the properties. Individuals who own a donkey and have

no other work sometimes make up a team and go to Ronda
with a similar load. The high price and high maintenance
cost probably account for the fact that there are not more
teams in the village. The farmers and millers own their own
beasts.
AlcalA receives mail on six days a week provided the bus

does not break down, and the newspapers come from Cidiz
the
only a day late. A single telephone post is open during
day-time.
The high cost of transport, whether by motor vehicle or

beast of burden, has an important effect upon the structure of
the pueblo's economy through the inequality of price-levels
which exists from place to place and from time to time.
Buying and selling is an activity which can be very profitable,
and the ambitious small capitalist turns to speculation. There
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
57
no
clearly defined limit to the class of people devoted to

trade. No social barrier separates those who trade from those
is
who do
not, and, except for the largest landowners who have

neither the incentive nor the possibility since they do not
continuously in the pueblo, most of those who consider

themselves sharp enough indulge in some form of exchange
from time to time. Trade, in fact, is a general activity in
live
which some
specialise
more than
others.
To
begin, however, with the pueblo's shops as in all small

communities the degree of specialisation is small. The shops
architecturally are no different to other houses. There are
:
no show windows. Everybody knows what
is
sold in
which
The shopkeeper is nevertheless distinguished from the

private person who happens to have something to sell by the
house.
fact that
he pays a municipal
tax, the matricula, for the right
to trade.
The prices in the shops of Alcala are, on an average, 10 per

cent higher than in the shops in Ronda. Not only are there
the costs of transport. Manufactured goods are frequently
bought from dealers in Ronda or Malaga so that they have
in addition to their cost price the percentage which the latter
regards as his due. Wines and spirits pay a municipal charge
on entering the pueblo. Those who have enough to buy to

make it worth their while go to Ronda on the bus to make
their purchases, and those who go there for any other reason
take advantage of the opportunity. As in many other con
texts things are
cheaper for the
rich.
conductor makes
In addition, the bus-
his position a profitable one

for
them in return for a tip.
people's shopping
decides what his tip shall be.
The shopkeepers
by doing
He
himself
buying local produce

in bulk when the prices
also act as dealers,
products of the pig),

selling it later at a much higher price when the
scarcity has set in ; for the yearly fluctuations are very great,
and those who can afford to, buy their supplies for the year
(e.g. oil, grain,
are low
and
when the price is lowest. This, as much as anything,

has enabled the shopkeepers to become as rich as they are.
in bulk
Those who have done well have bought farms.

But there are others who have started a shop in order
to
supplement other sources of income. The chemist
is
Cj8
holding a state appointment, but he makes

more of his income from his shop than from his salary. The
former chemist was, in addition, a largish landowner. Other
professional
man
small landowners of a social standing equivalent to that of the

classes have shops, In El Jaral the Justice of the
professional
Peace is a large landowner,, brother of the doctor and mem

ber of the most distinguished family of the town, yet his
wife keeps a shop.
In addition to the general store-keepers there are those
who have a small shop or keep a stall in the market; the
bakers,
who
in three out of four cases are the close relatives
of millers ; the two vintners, who make wine, sell it and also
trade in an odd article or two ; the barbers and the keepers of
bars. While on a smaller scale still, yet also aiding in the
distributive system, are persons mainly widows with children,
or
women who
for other reasons find themselves obliged to
seek a living,
who buy the farmers* produce in bulk when they
arrive in the
town with
it
and then
resell
it,
either officially
in the market, paying the small charge (5 reales) or privately

in their houses. Then there are women poorer still who go
round the farms buying or begging produce which they
sell
in the pueblo, The Civil War has

many such people,
and who conse
side
widows of men who died on the wrong
or an aged
a
quently have no pension, who have few children
parent to keep* They circulate over all Andalusia, specialis
items and contra
ing, though not uniquely, in black-market
band from Gibraltar, carrying things in baskets beneath their
left
black shawls from places where they cost less to places where
n
a
they can be sold for more, "buscando la vida ("seeking
of
their
the
in
a
Their
strength
is,
way,
poverty
living ').
5
a fine, all
position for if they are caught they cannot pay
that can be done to them is to confiscate their goods. There
are others who gain their living in a more legal but not
:
dissimilar
way
the
men and women who buy
shops and the agents

;
game
for the shops
eggs for the

of the big towns who buy
as soon as the season opens. l

in the
There are a number of brokers
town, ten altogether.
i This causes the

the
price to rise sharply. Game is caught and sold before
season opens, but the rmltmcia is too conspicuous an organisation to be per
mitted to function then. It must await the official date*
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
They buy and
sell,
their chief function
deal in anything
59
contract for one thing
and another, but
to act as agents to arrange sales. They

from a farm to a goat. Since theirs is a
is
recognised profession they are liable to pay the matricula.

The Town Hall of Alcala, unlike that of wealthier Jacinas,
has not insisted upon this, and in fact none of them pay.
These are the picturesque figures, with their long, forked

and wide hat, who are seen at all the fairs of
Andalusia. Those of Alcald do not all live up to the tradi
tional image, yet they have the same reputation for good
humour and sharp practice as all the world over. There will
be more to say about them in the discussion of the technique
walking-stick
of bargaining.
The
distribution of wealth, as has been seen, is far from

in
this society. Both in terms of spending-power and
equal
also of the means of acquiring spending-power there is much
variation. The large landowners receive considerable rents in
Alcald without spending more than a few months there in
the year, while poor labourers scrape along working seven
days a week when there is work in order to feed a large
when no wages are

and
bread
must
be
baker on credit.
from
the
paid
begged
are
and
raise
They
tough people
they
healthy children
on meagre incomes, but they are proud and perhaps the
humiliation of their circumstances pains them more than
family, dreading the long weeks of rain
their material wants. It
is
a curious fact that the rich towns
of the plain with their beggars and their dirty children give
the casual observer an impression of far greater misery than
the pueblos of the sierra whose economic situation is worse.
Yet the economic structure of a society is one thing and the

social meaning of the rights which it engenders is another.
We are concerned to know, therefore, not only who possesses
or acquires or spends (and how and where) but what social
values attach to possession, acquisition or disbursement.
There is no doubt that the ideal behaviour is very much
opposed to close-fistedness, but lavishness in one direction

usually imposes restrictions in another. Here people like
to make gestures of generosity towards the friend, the
acquaintance and the stranger, and they
of their generosity.
We
shall see
like to
make a show
that generosity
is
more
60
than a matter of the individual disposition but a require
ment of the system of friendship. The accusation of meanness

very damaging to a person's reputation, for such prestige
from money derives not from its possession but
from generosity with it. Wealth in itself is not, as in much
of European society, an intrinsic merit* Conversely, poverty
implies no inferiority in other spheres than the economic,
and only the inability to respond to generosity places a person
in a position of humiliation, for it exposes him to the accusa
is
as derives
That
is only where
moral
inferiority
inferiority
that it involves loss of prestige* It is precisely where all men
are conceptually equal that this translation is able to be
made because no subordination is recognised which might
exonerate one man from returning the favour of another.
These values are clearly illustrated by the behaviour of
beggars, in which two distinct approaches to the problem are
distinguishable. There is, to begin with, what might be
tion of being grasping.
economic
is
is
to
say, it
translatable into
described as the gypsy technique in begging. This consists in

flattering, fawning, inspiring pity and using any conceivable
line of moral blackmail to extract alms. The implication of
meanness
the chief weapon in blackmail, and it is used not

only directly in the form of a reproach but also behind the
person's back. Thus, when Lola, the old gypsy, comes round
is
the farms begging she takes from her basket all the things
which she has been given elsewhere and shows them off.
"... This bread was given me by so-and-so* These tomatoes

they gave me at the mill And here is the orange which
Fulano gave me a rich man like him and all he can find to
woman
in need is an orange. Shame upon his

This method is used by habitual beggars,
gypsies and persons who have lost their shame. The approach
of the "honourable beggar is very different. 1 He is a man
who would be ashamed to beg in his own village, but begs
because he is travelling in search of his living and has run out
of money* He asks for food or alms or work, and he asks for it
quietly and proudly, basing his claim to help upon a duty
give a poor
stinginess!"
9*
which
is
thought to
exist
everywhere
i An excellent
portrait of such a beggar
Alhambra (London, 1833), Introduction.
is
that he
who
has must
given by Washington Irving, The
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
61
him who has not. Such a beggar tends to be very

shy and to stand at a distance waiting to be asked what he
wants. He does not sacrifice his pride willingly and he feels
troubled by it in such a situation. At times such people cover
up their shyness by a brusque and insolent manner as if to
deny that they are asking a favour which they cannot repay,
give to
and leave giving no thanks, for shame to utter the conven

"May God repay you" of the beggars.
The idea that he who has must give to him who has not is
not only a precept of religion, but a moral imperative of the
pueblo. It is visible in the manners of the people of Spain who
tional
not eat in the presence of friend or stranger without first

offering their food, a gesture in which this sentiment of the
community of humankind is kept alive. Inevitably this
"egalitarian" sentiment comes into conflict with the freedom
to dispose of his property which every individual possesses.
The idea of individual ownership is clear and strong, 1 and
the total right of an owner to do what he likes with his
property is never questioned. On the other hand, there are a
very limited number of things he can do with money inside
the pueblo, other than buy property to divide among his
will
There are no expensive sports, no regular entertain

home, no competition in conspicuous waste. All
are whitewashed inside and out. Floors are all
houses
the
is more plentiful in the houses of the rich, but
Furniture
tiled.
no
there is
great difference in quality. All families, even the
senoritos, eat the puchero (vegetable stew). With his money, a
man can put his house in order, buy good clothes for himself
and his family, good contraband coffee and tobacco, send
his children away to be educated for a career, but beyond
that point there is virtually no way of spending money other
children.
ing in the
is well illustrated by the tenacity with which the rural Anarchists

to the idea of the reparto, the division of the land into individual hold
of the movement. Gf. Diaz del
ings in the face of the communistic doctrine
"
Moral, op. cit., p. 61 ; Y, disfrazado o no con sus falsos motes, el reparto ha
l
This
hung on
la magica palabra que ha

seguido siendo en todas las exaltaciones campesinas
electrizado a las muchedumbres. No ya solo en las revueltas de la Internacional
del
y en las de 1882 y 1892, sino en las agitaciones anarquistas de principios
sigloXX y en las sindicalistasde los ultimos anos, el estado llano de las sociedades
de los elementos directores y, a veces con el asentimiento de
obreras, a
despecho
es decir,
&tos, ha aspirado siempre a distribute la tierra en lotes individuals,
a ingresar en las filas de la burguesia agricultora."
62
than on charity or on excursions to the big towns in search of

mcio. It is felt that rich people who go away to spend money
el
are betraying the pueblo, and the reason often given for
the economic decline of Alcald is the departure of a few rich
families to the big towns of the plain. Most ways of spending
other than in satisfying the needs of simple living

away from the pueblo and are regarded as
money
involve going
wicked.
the rich, are always wicked when treated generthe poor.

ically. They are responsible for the hardships of
their
ambitions.
the
social
order
have
through
They
perverted
Los
They
are
is
ricos,
are the source of corruption. Who the particular ricos

obscure, but they are generally thought of as being
distant personalities far richer than anyone in the pueblo,

These opinions, although encouraged by the political creeds
of the Left are by no means inspired by them, nor are they
necessarily found in company with them. They are, rather,
part of the value system of the pueblo.

The moneyed people of the place are thought of by many,
in many social contexts, as evil. Their fatness is pointed out
as a proof of their over-indulgence and idleness. The shop
keepers in particular come in for adverse comment, and the
advantages which wealthier people have, particularly with
regard to what they are able to do for their children, are
bitterly resented.
Yet here, already, the sentiment of moral
indignation has made way for personal jealousy* It is felt

that such advantages are wrong, and yet few will not admit
that they would take them if they had the chance.
The
follows.
values relating to money may be summed up as

1
They are not those of protestant capitalism. The
money here is in no way a sign of grace, or a

moral distinctions. It is morally neutral. But the ways
which it is acquired or spent are subject to moral judge
possession of
basis for
in
ment. If it
is
gained at the expense of others,

avariciously, if it is
it is
it is ill-gotten.
spent in self-indulgence,
If
it is
guarded
If it is gained by intelligence or hard work, if it is spent
in meeting moral obligations, then it is good* Money is
something which enables a man to be what he wants. It gives
evil.
Of.
Max
Weber, The
Protestant Ethic
Talcott Parsons (London, 1930).
and
the Spirit
of G<xpitdim> trans.
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
him power, power
to
63
be either good or
evil.
It
bestows
prestige only if it is employed in a morally approved manner.

This clearly leaves the door open to a certain ambiguity. For
the moment I will go no further into the question than to add

that persons who become involved in the system of patronage
tend to regard
this as the
proper manner of using wealth-
The
successful patron, thanks to his wealth, acquires great

prestige within the orbit of his influence and escapes, thereby,
the condemnation which
is reserved for los ricos.

are the values relating to money those of nineteenthcentury liberalism. Transactions with money are not opera
Nor
an impersonal economic law but a form of personal

relationship in which people establish or express mutual
regard through an exchange of goods. We have already seen
in agriculture co-operative ventures which resemble arrange*
ments to take in one another's washing. Articles are not
thought of as having an intrinsic money value, but are
tions of
who exchange them,

not "worth such-and-such a price" in itself, but
only in relation to a specific vendor and a specific buyer, The
idea that the vendor is bound to sell at a certain price be
cause it is the price that others are asking is not generally
accepted on the contrary, it is thought right that a wealthy
person should pay more for things than a poor person unless
the vendor wishes to honour him. A shopkeeper favours an
influential client by making him a special price. Since he likes
to favour all his clients, no one, in the end, is charged the
subject to the relationship of the persons
An
item
is
price advertised in the window. Money payments for services

are particularly liable to fluctuation in this way in a com
munity where many men are employed singly for a short
service performed for money

period or for a specific task.
remains none the less a service and commits the recipient to
moral obligations even though he
may have paid through the
nose.
subjection of economic values to moral and social

values is illustrated rp. the technique of bargaining. For while
fit into the framework of estab
and
The
marketing
purchasing
lished social relationships, or serve to establish them, the

not. The vendor of an
negotiations with capital values do
animal or a property wants to sell it to the person who will
64
give him the most for it, and he wants as much as he can
possibly get, for it is an event which will not recur. On the
other hand, to do this involves him in a violation of the moral
code. To admit that one has asked an exorbitant figure or
offered an inadequate one is to confess oneself grasping or
to lose face. Yet not to get as much as one can is
money, and be made a fool of. The essential hostility
between the two bargainers is not only itself potentially anti
social, it leads to a commitment of pride which makes it
impossible for the two to reach an agreement. Hence, the
mean and
to lose
role of the professional corredor, or broker, who steers the

bargain to a clinch, saving the face of the bargainers through
his intermediary position. He, or there may be two of them
each representing his client, acts as a friend, pleading, argu
ing, flattering, lying, using all his guile to induce the buyer
to raise his price, the seller to lower his, enabling each to
maintain the fiction that he is not really keen upon the deal,
that he enters it only to oblige the other. To drop this fiction
means to lose the bargain.

There are also, of course, sales between friends, but these
are conducted in private and there is no need for a corredor,
They fit into the scheme of friendship, as a favour which
creates or fulfils an obligation. Men are sometimes heard to
complain that they have been obliged by friendship to sell
something which they had no wish to part with* Sometimes,
moreover,
this is quite true.
CHAPTER V
Status
and Age
ALREADY
in examining the values which attach to money

raised the question of the significance of possessions
in differentiating one man from another. This was discussed
in terms of prestige. The question of status was deliberately
we have
on one side, though it may have occurred to the reader

that the prestige derived from wealth might nevertheless play
an important part in determining status and in defining
social class. 1 This question is the subject of the present
left
chapter.
We have discerned in the pueblo a strong reluctance to

accord superior status to its members Who are economically
superior, and in the pages which follow the different bases of
differentiation will be examined and some attempt made to
detect where they give rise to a superiority of status. We must
be on our guard against assuming that status will necessarily
be recognised by the same attitudes and sentiments as in our
own
society. Already in the seventeenth

visitors were astonished by the familiarity
century foreign
with which the
grandees were treated by their retainers, and the traveller of

today is frequently struck by the distinction which the Andalusians., and indeed all Spaniards, seem to make between the
personality and the social position of others, a distinction
which gives to their manners a particular warmth and deli
cacy. Nor is it to be detected only in their behaviour towards
i I use the word "status" in the sense current in modern
sociology, as, for
cc
Status may be based
example, Professors Maclver and Page when they write
upon differences of birth, wealth, occupation, political power, race, or, as in
the case of traditional China, intellectual attainment. Frequently status is
determined by a combination of two or more of these factors." (Society, p. 353.)
It is well to bear in mind that status is not necessarily a matter of hierarchy,
but simply of differentiated social position. Hence the status of a guest. However,
:
for
Maclver and Page,
it is
the criterion of social class where
"a
hierarchy of
exists (Society, p. 348), and the essence of class-distinction is the

"social distance" which this hierarchy imposes between its different levels.
status
groups"
P.S.
STATUS AND AGE
whose strangeness and whose special status might

be expected to provoke a form of conduct which is excep
tional. It is a distinction which is fundamental to the system
of values of this society and which underlies all social be
haviour. It might be expressed in various ways, as a respect
foreigners,
for human rights, or as

personality rather than
the belief in all men's equality in the sight of God, or in the
of the mortal condition, or, at any rate, as
ultimate
for
human
futility
a lack of faith in man's ability to control his own destiny.

This regard for personality is present in the adult's behaviour
towards the child and in the Justice's behaviour to the crimi
nal and in the criminal's behaviour to his victim. It cannot
in sociological terms, and yet
in Andalusia in every social context.
be expressed
It will
those
it is
be apparent that a certain status
who occupy
official
is
recognisable
accorded to
in the pueblo.
positions
These
and professional men, are first of

people, the administrators
to the structure of government,
relation
in
not
all considered,
the
of
members
but as
community. The high proportion of
has already been noted. With the
them
outsiders
among
all the professional

exception of some of the schoolmasters,
another
from
come
the
state
area, and if
men appointed by
do
nor
is
not
it
here,
they have a
they own any property
moved in
to
be
since
motive to acquire any here
they aspire
times
Recent
due course to a more important post.
appear to
The
class.
in
this
outsiders
of
have increased the number
of certain other towns as well) is today

an outsider, a state of affairs which could never, it is thought,
have occurred a generation ago. The doctor and the chemist
are also outsiders today, while formerly both posts were filled
and
by sons of Alcall The yearly salaries of professional
in
of
source
other
administrative people, if they have no
of
the
come, give them a standard of living far below that
with the
up
appearances"
landowners,
they
"keep
yet
large
rest of the resident wealthy. Members of the smaller propertyas
owning families also fill certain administrative posts, such
Mayor of Alcald (and
Monte de Piedad, of the Property Registry,

of their members have been taken away
other
while
etc.,
to
distant parts of the country. They are
careers
their
by
director of the
STATUS AND AGE
67
distinguished from the richer farmers, in several cases con

siderably wealthier than they are, by education and by the
refinement of manners which accompanies it. They do not

keep apart from them socially, however, but may be seen
together in the casino talking at the same table or playing
cards.
exactly, comprises what I have called the ruling

in what ways are they differentiated from the rest
and
group,
of the community? Other than landowners and the pro
Who,
fessional people, there are the owners of the larger business

enterprises and also the occupiers of municipal office, legal
who have influence in syndical or Church

the people in whose hands effective power resides.
Power, however, means much more than the occupation of
office
or those
affairs
a post endowed with authority. It means
any
relationship to
command
"the capacity in
the service or the compliance
:
l
the control of social sanctions. Thus economic
the
means
ability to apply economic sanctions, to offer
power
rewards in the form of material advantage, or to refuse them,
of others"
to employ or sack, to buy, sell, allow credit, quash a

fine or to favour materially in any other way. For this reason
the owners of large properties are all to be included in the
power
ruling group, though their importance within
it, the use they

much
economic
of
their
make
upon the
power, depends very
of
their
lives.
the
circumstances
and
individual personality
cannot
much
in
town
the
Those who do not live
play
part
in local politics.
Political
power means the
ability to enforce sanctions
derive, ultimately, from the laws of the state, that is,

through the institutions recognised in those laws. These are
which
various
and
relate to such matters as municipal government,
the organisation of Justice, the constitution of the Civil

Guard, the syndicates, and so forth.
Power also derives from medicine. The doctor, the vet
and the chemist possess power, since, quite apart from the
official documents which may require their signature, they
have the monopoly of services which people need. In the same
way the priest is an important member of the ruling group.
He
can appeal to the

i
religious conscience of those
Maclver, The Web of Government (1947), p. 82.
who
are
STATUS AND AGE
68
such an appeal.
the rites of the Church.
sensitive to
The members
He
alone has power to perform
of the ruling group share certain
common
standards of conduct, the most important of which is their

adherence to the Church. These standards are necessary to
the cohesion of the group and are never questioned by its
members. For power, while
it
enables those
who
possess
it
to
influence the conduct of others, makes them at the same time

more sensitive to the sanctions of others. An anti-clerical
schoolmaster or doctor would not hold his job down for long.
A landowner who aroused the antagonism of the other mem
bers of the group, particularly the municipality, would find
himself at a disadvantage in a number of situations, which
later. Equally, the landowner who
the
pueblo can get no good labour. (There have
antagonises
been instances of this in Alcald.) But the old man who lives
will
become evident
and eats berries, can say what he likes,

he
not forfeit the charity of all.
does
provided
The ruling group owes its integration, then, to its structural
in a cave, begs
situation, not to the possession of overt characteristics. It is

significant that no word exists in current usage in Alcald to
designate this group of people genetically precisely because

they are not a class but a group. When they are referred to it
title "los que mandan en el pueblo"
who command in the pueblo"). There is no uni
formity among them either of dress, education, birth, wealth
or way of life. This is made plain by a consideration of the
is
by the nebulous
("those
ways
in
which the
different elements of the
community are
differentiated.
First, dress.
There is a clear distinction
to
be made between
working-clothes and smart clothes. The aspect of the pueblo

on a festive day is quite different from its usual appearance.
There are few men, then, who do not dress in "urban"
clothes
cloth suit, leather shoes, collar and tie. Those who

keep their festive clothes in their house in
live in the valley
They never wear them in the country, but they

wear them in Alcald for special occasions and for courting,
and they would not go shopping to Ronda if they could not
wear therh, for the Andalusian is extremely sensitive in
the pueblo.
matters of appearance.
STATUS AND AGE
69
The
sombrero de ala ancha, or wide-brimmed hat, is an

festive and also working-dress. It bears a
particular association with ganado (livestock) and is always
article
both of
worn with
the short jacket and tight trousers of cattle herds

bullfighters wear it in this way for charity fights
out of season. It is worn as working-dress by
men. But
shepherds
whom
brim protects both from sun and rain. In wet weather a

mackintosh cover is put on. It is worn by many farmers also,
though agricultural labourers tend to wear berets or soft hats
instead. The landowner also wears it if he goes into the
country, particularly if he goes on horseback. Yet it is worn
without a tie for it must never be worn with a tie on
its
festive occasions
by poor people as part of their smart dress,

and it is also worn by the sophisticated at fairs and bullfights.
(To wear it at the bullfight is the mark of the enthusiast.)
The professional and administrative classes do not wear it,
for it implies an association with ganado which in them would
appear pretentious.
It
feria (the festival, fair
is
because of the associations of the

spirit of
the theatrical dress of flamenco
and cattle-market) with the
merry-making that it is
singers and dancers.
Apart from the occupational nature of working-dress which
manual workers, distinction of the degree of

a
of
man
is not easily made. Few of the members
importance
of the ruling group wear ties every day ; the majority do not
shave every morning. Some of them wear berets. In general,
distinguishes the
the distinction which in
summer
eye in matters of
dress is not between persons of different social category of the
pueblo, so much as that between persons of the pueblo and
summer
visitors.
strikes the
In dress the professional
the fashions of the
summer
visitors
and
men
vary between
those of the leading
families of the pueblo.
Nor does the female dress reveal any clearer distinctions.

As with the men, those who work are clearly distinguished on
working-days. But on festive days the young all struggle to
array themselves more splendidly than the rest, and some
idea can be gained of the economic position of the family
from the quality of their clothes. Hair-styles are hardly
significant, unless the tightly waved permanente be taken to
mark a lack of sophistication. No women ever wear hats. For
STATUS AND AGE
70
church
all
wear the small black
lace vdo in
variation can be detected as to size
women
brimmed
and
dress in black. Just as for fairs

hat of the ganadero 3 so girls put
all
which a certain
quality. Elderly
men don
the wide-
on the spotted and
flounced cotton dress of the gypsies. But, today, at the fair of

Alcald almost all the girls who do this are summer visitors
with the exception of a few small children whose adoring

parents wish to show them off.
There is certainly no lack of display, and the general

standard of dress reached is indeed quite remarkable, con
sidering the material possibilities of the people of Alcald. The
idea of display is formulated in the verb lucir, meaning
thence to distinguish oneself or to show
is often a Cinderella who will not
something
go to
the fair because she has nothing to show off, and will be put
literally, to shine,
off.
There
shame and made pitiful in front of her friends, But the

motives for showing off are not those which might be deduced
"
from the theory of a leisure class". 1 The display is not
directed towards the object of differentiating oneself from
to
others considered of inferior social standing, and economic

differences do not give rise to differences of style. In the
small society where everyone is known personally there is

neither advantage nor need for visual differentiation as in the
society of the city. Here display aims at a differ
ent target, that of personal aesthetic triumph, the conquest
of admiration and the humiliation of one's equals.
anonymous
The variation of speech and accent from one pueblo to

another has been mentioned already in Chapter I. There is
no variation in accent between persons of different social
position other than such as may be ascribed to education. All
the upper classes of Andalusia speak with a strong regional
accent. Education
means the elimination of a number of
2
"rusticisms", but the word "education" means a great
deal more in this community than book-learning, and refine
ment of manner and speech are
things
which may be found
See T. Veblen, The Th&ory of the Ldsun Class (New York, 1922).
the wealthy of the large towns are to be found those who affect a
vulgar mode of speech in order to stress their affiliation with the country,
landed property, bullfarms and old-established riches.
1
Among
STATUS AND AGE
71
quite independently of schooling. This, however,
is
a matter
which cannot be objectively assessed, nor is illiteracy some

thing which can be measured statistically, though such
statistics are to be found in the municipal register and
statistics of illiteracy of the country are published. Over and
above the completely and self-confessed illiterates are those
who read and write with more or less fluency. The total
figure,
though
of Alcald
it
represents only those of the adult population
who have no
pretensions to literacy, is worth

all in the higher age
found above
examining.
Illiterates are
categories.
The percentage among
Looked
at
the over-sixties
is
very
from another angle the element which shows
high.
the highest figure is that of old-fashioned farmers, for the
reason, perhaps, that they were more frequently raised upon
farms too distant for them to attend school. 1 Contemptuous
reference is often made to the lack of education of the farmers
of the lower valley, the richest area of the territory, and of

the wealthier flock-owners. Illiteracy is not therefore confined
to the economically weakest element of the community, and
does not appear to handicap the man who farms a single
farm.
These country-dwellers were not entirely denied the possi

ambulant teacher,
bility of education, for the profession of
maestro rural, is an old-established one in the sierra. Men
whose qualifications extend little beyond a cursory know
ledge of the three R's visit the distant farms to give the
children lessons, and gain thereby a wage barely greater than
that of a labourer. Today in Alcala there are five men who
make their living in this way. If there are reasons to suspect
that their pains do not always lead to success, the existence
of such an institution does, at any rate, testify to the desire
and respect which the people of Alcala have for the accom
plishments of the mind.

The consideration to which a career entitles a person is far
evoke. Within the
greater than that which mere wealth can
the
of
framework of the egalitarian values
pueblo it supplies
I am by no means convinced that the assumption made here is justified,
that illiterate people are those who were not taught as children to read and
write. It is quite possible that some who had acquired these arts at twenty had
lost them again through lack of practice by the age of sixty.
*
i.e.
STATUS AND AGE
72
a reason for respecting a person in himself and not merely on

account of what are regarded as fortuitous circumstances,
that
is
to
say.,
his possessions.
People assert that the courtesy title of Don is the privilege

of those who hold a university degree, who have a "career".
In practice the use is heavily influenced by other criteria,
such as age, wealth, appearance and occupation. Thus, very

few unmarried men are addressed as Don, until they reach
middle-age, the exceptions being a young doctor, and
a young lawyer who is the Secretary of Justice. All four
schoolmasters are addressed as Don, but not the young man of
twenty who is schoolmaster in the school in the valley. The
priest is Don, but his brother who lives with him is not Don.
By no means all the ruling group are Don. Of the two Justices
of the Peace, one is rarely, the other never, Don. But the
corporal of the Civil Guard is sometimes Don, a gesture of
full
deference to his authority.

The circumstances in which the
title may or may not be

used are of great significance. There is all the difference
between addressing a person directly and referring to him to
a third party. Who this third party is, is also important.
Official occasions again demand a distinct mode of speech.
In daily life all other categories are heavily influenced by the
respect which is felt for a person on account of his character.
A reluctance to refer to some of the resident landowners as
Don behind their backs is noticeable, even though they may
be persons of age holding important administrative posts.
The largest resident landowner called " el Senorito " is usually

called Don if referred to by his name, but his son, a young
man
of twenty-six, never, either directly or indirectly. He is

by his Christian name like any other member of the
called
pueblo.
While the
title is
freely
accorded to those
who
are con
(and the professional men are so con

sidered regardless of their popularity), a great deal of
resentment is directed against those who like to be called it
without the full conformity of the pueblo. The family of a
sidered to merit
it
young and able business-man

father
came
is
commonly
to live in the
called
furnishes a case in point. His

Rodrigo, and the family first
Don
pueblo eight years ago.
On
one occasion
STATUS AND AGE
73
a craftsman and his friend, a small farmer, were overheard

"
What is his
discussing him "He's no more Don than I am."
career I'd like to know?" "He's nothing but a silly old fool
who gives himself airs." "If he is Don Rodrigo then we're all
:
am Don
Andres and you are Don Manuel." When

questioned about the son they firmly asserted that he would
"
never be called Don. Some of his employees refer to him as el
Senorito Pepe", but otherwise no one calls him anything but
Pepe. He is married to a member of one of the leading
families of the pueblo and has considerable social ambition.
It remains to be seen whether the craftsman's assertion will
be disproved. When asked whether Fernando Pinas was
called Don when he was Mayor of Alcala they replied
I
Don,
some addressed him like that, but only with their

tongue in their cheek to curry favour, for in those days
there were many in need of his favour. Today nobody
calls him Don. This, though he is one of the leading
personalities of the ruling group, and one of the largest
that
landowners.
The reason why such people can never be accorded the
title is because they are felt to be no different from others.
They are part of the pueblo. This is the point at which the
identity of the two distinct meanings of the word is demon
As has already been stated, the pueblo is at the same

time the members of the community and also the people in
the sense ofplebs. If a person is raised to the status of a career
he no longer belongs entirely to Alcald but to the wider
*
community of the educated. People no longer feel equal with
strated.
such a person.
He is no longer judged by the same standards.
of Don is used, we may say, to

But this difference has
difference.
express recognition of this
a
nothing to do with blood, it is question of a degree of refine
He
is
different.
The
title
ment acquired through up-bringing and education, which

involves him in a different world and makes him a different
kind of person.
The
ments and
for
i
also used in all official contexts, in legal docu

on envelopes or on the town hall notice-board,
title is
any adult person. The

Cf. Blasco Ibanez, op.
Fernando" by the workers.
cit.
state denies its
The Anarchist preacher
is
competence to
addressed as "Don
STATUS AND AGE
74
determine who is or is not to be called Don by calling every

one so. Or, expressed from the point of view of the pueblo,
when a person enters into relations with the world of "official
dom" he becomes a temporary member of the community
of the educated.
word of prime importance
to the question of social
Don, it is a term which

denotes respect or "social distance". In general, it is used as
a term of address to a stranger, or by children to adults, or
distinction
when
Like the
is Setter*
title
receiving an order, or pompously for emphasis: "Si,

"
(" Yes, Sir ") It is also used to address and to refer
Senor
to God.
!
Its original
indicates a person
pueblo
respect It
meaning
is
seigneur.
unknown or unnamed,
In everyday use it
or, as a specifically
a person-worthy-of-respect. Within the

title for elderly persons-worthy-ofthe Christian name in the same
to
prefixed
term,
descriptive
it
is
is
used as a
title Don is given to a person of

from the pueblo by
but
differentiated
maturity,
of the pueblo whose
members
the
to
title
Setter
is
status,
given
from active work.
is
have
retired
and
who
maturity
past,
There is no strict property qualification, but it is accorded
more freely to the successful old farmers than to people who
live in the pueblo. One must be a "fine old boy" to be given
it. Indigence, drunkenness or any serious moral shortcoming
disqualify one completely. The feminine form Senora (Sena)
appears to be bestowed a little more freely. In such contexts
it is used by
persons of superior social status with a nuance of
manner
as Don.
Whereas the
full social
condescension.
The diminutive
of this
word has
different connotations.
"
Miss", but senorita

as such it may
be used to refer to a young married woman, Senorito is used as
a term of affectionate respect with reference to or in address
There
is
is,
at the
to begin with, Senorita
same time the feminine
meaning
ofsettorito
and
ing the young adult of superior status. Servants use it.

Employees sometimes use it. Gypsy beggars use it to any
person dressed in urban dress, for the attribution of youth
Using it carries an implication of subservience. It

can mean the most important person in a place, the boss,
provided he has the necessary status. As such it comes to be
flatters,
STATUS AND AGE
75
the nickname of "el Senorito", the largest resident land

owner, the son of a former cacique.
It is a term which easily becomes sarcastic, so that it may
mean not only a "person worthy of respect" but also a
person with social pretensions. Used to denote a social
it means the well-to-do without necessarily implying
any respect. "The senoritos of this place ", I was once told in
a town of another province, "are a rotten lot. They are
always putting their servant-girls in the family way, and
category
won't pay a decent wage to anybody." In this sense, as the

propertied people, it was used as a political weapon by
the Left, which coined the word senoritismo, the oppression of
the have-nots
by the
haves.
The communist underground
propaganda discourses insistently on this theme.

In the widest sense it means a person who is not obliged
to work for his living, who wears a collar and tie all the time
and keeps
his shoes clean.
But
it
has not for that reason lost
use as a term of respect. Maria la Castana, the widow of

a small tenant farmer, can tell a real senorito when she sees
one from one of those fellows who are just trying to look like
its
them about these days!" you

to people, she maintains. Do
behave
way they
in
senoritos
order to be real senoritos?
be
born
to
have
they
She is not sure, but they have to be brought up as real senoritos
otherwise no amount of money can make them what they
one
can
"and
tell
there's a lot of
by the
are not.
How
those
The
the behaviour of real senoritos varies from that of
who do
not deserve the appellation is not easily said.

but an inclusive view
criteria are necessarily subjective,
approximates to the following

(1)
The
senorito
has education and manners.
He
rough.
(2)
He
is
generous with money, even care-free.
the hall-mark of the nouveau-riche,

this view is expressed in the saying
ness
is
it is
Ni
"
pidas a
el
el
sirvas
que pidio
que sirvi6."
Neither beg of him
Nor
serve
who begged
him who once
not
Mean
thought, and
"Ni
is
served."
STATUS AND AGE
76
He looks
dependents and uses his influence

to be patron to them.
(4) He does not tolerate humiliation nor accept to be
put under specified obligations to people who are not also
senoritos. He will not permit such
people to buy him a
drink. He knows how to be friendly, simpatico, and to talk
with people on an equal footing, yet without relinquishing
his status. He uses the second person singular towards his
53
dependents "with whom he has confidence and provided
they are of his generation or younger, but he does not
allow them to use anything but the third person to him.
(5) His family does not observe all the customs of the
(3)
after his
to protect them.
pueblo
(e.g. in
He willingly accepts
the
naming of children and
their
upbring
ing, etc.),
can be seen that ideally the distinction between the

and the pueblo is very clear. In practice, of course,
it is not in the least so. There are
many marginal cases on
which judgements vary. The smorito who is thought not to
be a real senorito is nevertheless treated as such on the surface.
Even "el Senorito" comes in sometimes for a piece of adverse
comment behind his back and is compared unfavourably
with the summer visitors. It is hard to find the personification
of an ideal in someone who is always there.
Brenan has observed that the anti-clericalism of the
Anarchists was in part inspired by the feeling that the Church
It
senoritos
had betrayed the
ideals of Christianity. l Analogously, antiwith a nostalgia for the betrayed ideal
senorito talk often rings
of aristocracy.
How far do these facts assist in answering the questions put

forward on page 34 ?
The distinction between pueblo (plebs) and the sefioritos has
been made. Otherwise the pueblo has been treated as a
culturally homogeneous whole. Is such treatment justified ?
To begin with, it has been shown that there is no "hierarchy
of status groups". There is a differentiation of status relating
to upbringing and education and this is, by and
large, what
is called a distinction of social
class, but this is not clearly
defined nor does it correspond to similar differentiations in
i
0/.
tit. 9
191.
STATUS AND AGE
77
or wealth. There are certain cultural varia
political power
tions whereby la gentefina (fine folk) are differentiated from
the pueblo, but these relate to territorial horizon as well as
to standard of education. The pueblo recognises that the

indigenous senoritos are lessjinos than the fine folk of the big
towns. In their cultural standards the intermediate position
of the senoritos of Alcald, devolving from their dual association
with the pueblo and with the upper class of the province, is
manifest. Within the pueblo they tend to conform to the
cultural standards of the pueblo, which are limited in
material matters such as housing and food and which in
matters of dress, or recreations, offer them no incentive to
When they go away, on the other

hand, they tend to conform to the standards of those whom
they regard as their equals.
When the word pueblo is used it means all those who be
long to the pueblo except where it is used in juxtaposition to
the senoritos. When there is an assembly all the pueblo
including the senoritos are there by right. There are no recrea
tional societies, no associations 1 which have membership,
no formalised groups. The cafes and bars tend to have their
clientele but they are by no means exclusive, and if a customer
is habitual it is because of convenience of location, taste for
the company or for the particular wine sold there. During
differentiate themselves.
the festivals the
mayor and his friends make a point of holding
their reunions in a different establishment each time in order
that the profits of the occasion shall not go all into one
pocket. The need to form exclusive groups is not felt, and
indeed such a segmentation would run contrary to their

of the pueblo
feeling of what the pueblo is. Co-membership
with
relations
any other
provides an adequate basis for social
member. Other than

there is no precedence,
that accorded to the "authorities"

overt or tacit, of the nature of status.
In the processions the children go first, followed by the

women, rich and poor intermingled without distinction. The
authorities follow the priest, though without any determined
but they cannot be said
i There were
political parties before the Civil War,
within the pueblo to have corresponded to status groups. An exception is the
differentiates it from the pueblo
casino, whose relationship to the ruling group
societies are in no sense corporate groups. They never
The
(plebs).
meet.
religious
STATUS AND AGE
jQ
order.
The men
Where
follow.
There are no fixed places
the pueblo divides up,
it
in church.
divides along the lines of
and age-differentiation only.

There is one exception to this. Upon a
sex
certain
day
in the
into
year the pueblo differentiates itself geographically
the upper half of the town and the lower half. This day is the
Monday of Our Lady of Carmen which is celebrated by a
bull-festival 1
A bull is let out into the streets with a long rope
horns, and the young men of the pueblo run in

front of it showing off their bravery.
group of youths clings
to the far end of the rope, making it fast to the iron bars of
tied to
its
the windows, so that
when
the bull turns
and charges them
house or by climbing
they can escape by fleeing into the
clear of his horns. A traditional rivalry exists in this connec
tion between the young men of the two halves of the town,
which is demonstrated in the endeavours of each faction to
take the bull to its quarter and keep it there as long as possible.
The two factions are called "Jopones" and "Jopiches", the
of the wozdjopo meaning a
exaggerative and the diminutive
of
the
are
those
tail. The Jopones
upper town and pride them
the
than
selves on being tougher
Jopiches, perhaps because
of the greater number of shepherds among them who are

because the
supposed to be rougher than the rest, perhaps
The
distinc
town.
the
lower
in
majority of the senoritos live
For
division.
clear
to
tion does not correspond
though
any
the
th^re is an implication that it was once based upon
and
and the poor quarter
rivalry between the rich quarter
in the centre of the poor quarter was the Asamblea, the tradi
tional meeting-place of the workers
rivalry itself implies a
of equality, and an account of the festival
relationship
written at the end of the last century indicates that difference
in wealth between the two quarters was not significant. The
between the two quarters once extended into
antagonism
of the bull may
everyday life, and the struggle for possession
be supposed to have grown up during the period when feeling
was most violent. The terms are still used today to describe a
save among the
person of one quarter or the other, but,
i
"Un toro a la cuerda." A similar festival took place until recently and in a
number
of other Spanish pueblos. Louis
Dumont, La
p. 195, describes a similar festival in Tarascon, France.
Tarasque (Paris, 1951),
STATUS
AND AGE
children, the rivalry
than
it
79
is
The pueblo
gone.
is
much
smaller
was formerly, and the antagonism never possessed
anything like the seriousness of inter-pueblo feeling.

Geographical proximity, neighbourhood, is the principle
according to which fission takes place because it is the prin
ciple
on which integration
is
based. There
is
no
ec
corporate
consciousness" attaching today to any unit smaller than the
pueblo. Many facts are related to this truth. Here one only
will be mentioned. Apart from the economic instability
which is endemic, the inheritance law makes it impossible
for the family's standard of wealth to be maintained with any
regularity by the children. The economic unit breaks up on
the death of the father if there are more than a few children,
so that the family cannot be said to possess much permanency
as
a property-owning institution.
(The
senoritos^
in
that
standards of class are here involved, face the greatest difficulty

with regards this problem. Their families are noticeably
smaller than the farmers .) A certain amount of marriage
3
between farmers
families with the motive of

but
they show little sign of developing
maintaining property,
a corporate consciousness. They feel superior, but only on
account of their wealth personally superior to those who
are less wealthy, but the comment of one person on another
is never related to class, because the conception of superiority
derived from membership of a class does not exist in the
takes place
pueblo.
At the same time there are possibilities that children of
the pueblo will acquire superior status. The two daughters of
one not very large farmer go to school at a convent in Ronda
where the children ofsenoritos go. They are his only children.
The son of one very small farmer is being educated for the
priesthood. Attempts were made to find a patron for the clever
young boy of a miller so that he could have further education.
There is a very intelligent young man who owns a herd of
goats with his brother but hopes to make a career for himself
in the police.
change of status, as opposed to making
money, whatever the means, involves leaving the pueblo and

seeking a place in the wider society of Spain. Many have
succeeded in this as the pages of Spanish history will testify,
but many fail. And among the failures must be counted those,
STATUS AND
80
AGE
not to be found in pueblos such as Alcala, whose fidelity to

is maintained even after its economic founda
their ambitions
tions
have collapsed. The gentleman, too proud for manual

to eat, dates from at least as far back as
work and too poor

Cervantes. l
This description has been written so far from the point of

view of the pueblo (plebs) Seen from that of the senoritos of
the pueblo it is a different picture. It has been shown that on
one side they are part of the pueblo and on the other they are
not. The world to which this second side belongs is far more
attractive to them, and that is why many have gone to live
in the big towns where social life has more to offer a person
.
who
has money to spend. Where the forces of the pueblo do

not operate, attitudes of "competitive class feeling" emerge.
Display begins to take on the function of social differentia
tion. The summer visitors are mostly aware of their superior
social status or of a status which they themselves feel to be
superior to the leading families of Alcald. They are richer,
they live in more important places, they take a holiday for
c<
There are only", one of them said, "three

families of this pueblo whom you could call 'society'."
At this level a word makes its appearance whose meaning
cum it
is not understood by the majority of the pueblo
means socially pretentious, affecting a refinement (and there
by claiming a social status) which one cannot justify. This
word is the weapon with which the upper-class families of
Spain have, during the last century, defended themselves
the summer.
against the claim to equal status of those
garded
as their inferiors.
The
whom
they re
social setting where this word

"
to the
open-class structures"
appears exhibits resemblances

described by modern American sociologists; appearance
kept up at great cost in order to qualify for a social status
which can barely be afforded. Pio Baroja, in Las noches del
buen retirO) describes a Madrid family who shut up their house
in the
summer
in order that people should think they
gone on holiday. Yet even though resemblances

l
This "social mobility"
is
"el, tendero
el hijo
caballero
el nicto
pordiosero."
expressed in an Andalusian saying:
"He a
had
exist it
shop-keeper
His son a gentleman
His grandson a beggar."
STATUS AND AGE
81
would be a mistake to assume that the systems are identical

and that the feelings and motives of the middle classes of
Andalusia are the same as those of any other part of the
world. We are not concerned here to fit the data provided by

Alcala into the definitions derived from the study of other
societies,
structure
but rather to formulate our own principles of social

which shall have validity here, and these can only
be discovered by considering matters such as status within

the totality of human relations. Without an examination of
members of the different

and how they combine within the same society,
the nature of the system necessarily remains obscure, and so
far only the outward characteristics of status and social class
the reciprocal interaction of the
status levels
have been discussed. 1 In order to define the relationship of

pueblo to senoritos in structural terms, it will be necessary
first to examine the categories of sex and age which cross-cut
the distinctions of status, and then to describe the political
structure of the community.
The
Don
not given to young men, I have said, and

given only to the elderly. Middle-class
tends
to
use
the title Don towards its elderly and
society
the
title
title
Senor
is
is
respectable members in the same way as the pueblo uses

but the two forms of address are not otherwise similar.
Senor ,
Yet both are expressions of respect. Respect, however, is

shown in a diversity of situations and must first of all, if all
are to be explained, be distinguished
undefined
standing" and "respect for
"respect
Undefined
standing demands respect
superior standing".
the uses of these
since
it is
of Don.
as
titles
for
as
potentially superior standing. Hence the official use

is called Senor and is referred to
The unknown person
"Senor So-and-so" because
his
standing
is
not recognised
1 Cf. T. H.
Marshall, op. cit., examines the cuirent definitions of social class
and concludes (p. 106) "I prefer to stress the institutional character of classes
and to think in terms of a force rather than of groups."
It is perhaps a mistake, in any case, to attempt to formulate a definition of
social class which shall have validity in any society, since only in relation to the
total social system does a social class come to possess its particular characteristics.
Put more precisely, the institutions of a society are functions of the total social
structure. A biology which sought to furnish a definition of the foreleg which
would be equally valid for the horse and for the lobster is obviously absurd. In
:
sociology such methodological errors ar

P.S.
less
apparent.
STATUS AND AGE
82
by both speaker and
listener.
The
title
might be said to
on the status of
express the "social distance" dependent
the title is used
other
the
to
is
stranger
stranger. Since each
"
"
Formal language is everywhere respectful be

at maintaining, or establishing, this kind of
aims
cause
social distance. One can see, then, that social distance in
dicated by the form of address Senor may be related to:
reciprocally.
it
(a]
Non-membership of the category formed by acquain

by means of which status is recognised.
tanceship,
Superior social status, as to employer or senorito.

in the hierarchy of age, the child(c) Superior standing
adult relationship or the adult-elder relationship.
(V)
a commonplace of social anthropology that full adult

standing is only attained with marriage and parenthood.
Here, the married and unmarried are not separated formally
It
is
be proper
married
person among the group, or vice versa. "Standing derived
from age" is not formalised, and, though marriage certainly
affects a person's standing, the variation of age at which
people marry and the existence of bachelors of advanced age
make any such formalisation impossible. l
The standing of full adult of the pueblo is no t superior to
anyone but the children and youths. Full membership of
the pueblo entitles to nothing more than equality. Therefore,
the idiom of manners is generally very informal. Persons of
both sexes use the second person singular to one another, and
on any occasion. Certain

to unmarried people, but
activities are
it is
common
thought
to
to discover a
the respectful third person

persons of greater age.
is
reserved only for the parents
and
strong, and children always

address their parents in the third person, save among the
modern-minded senoritos. Boys do not smoke or drink in the
Respect for the parents
is
The
respect for the elderly derives

partly from their similarity with the parents, but also from
the respect which the younger person paid to the elder when
presence of their fathers.
he was
still
a child. If they work together, which necessarily
i
Boys do, in fact, sometimes marry before going to do their military service
though this is not well regarded. Among the sefioritos they must wait until they
have finished their career , i.e. the s tudies for it, before they think of marriage.
* '
' '
STATUS
AND AGE
8<*
entails a relationship of
equality, then the respect paid to the
elder tends to disappear. But by the time a
has reached
man
adulthood (around the age of thirty) the

parents and
their contemporaries are
verging on retirement. Retirement
full
in this
community of, traditionally, poor tenant farmers and

day-labourers means becoming an economic drag on the
family and an idler who no longer fits directly into the net
work of reciprocal services, but also a person who is
privileged
not to work. It means on the one hand a fall in
practical
importance, and on the other, the attainment of the state of
which his life has been lived. These old men
fulfilment for
and women who have successfully reached elderhood and

have retained the respect of the pueblo, become the
guardians
of tradition and the old-fashioned ways, and are called
<c
"Sefior Juan" or
Sen Andr<". Their loss of material
is
importance
compensated by a gain in moral importance.
incarnate
the goal which everyone would reach.
They
?
Status differences are defined, then, by various criteria and

are appreciated in different ways by different
people in
different situations. Many factors enter into the establishment
of the degree of prestige necessary in order to be called Don,
but what is particularly significant for our understanding of

the nature of status in this society is the importance in
relation to
it
of age. This cross-cutting of the status category
by the age category reveals that social status differentiates a

persoh from the pueblo, not from birth, not even when he
reaches manhood, but when he reaches the age to play an
effective part in the affairs of the pueblo. The difference be
tween the quality of respect derived from
status in Alcala
and
in the conservative peasantry of northern Europe, in

western France for example or in western England, is already
clear to anyone acquainted with the latter. I suggest that

the quality of respect attached to status deriving from a
monocratic social structure, such as the feudal system, differs
from that of Alcala on account of the uniqueness of the

patrician in the locality. The lord of the manor is a symbol of
the whole community, the senorito is not. He is not a being
differentiated by nature and by his unique relationship to the
community, but only by accomplishments and circumstances.
CHAPTER
VI
The Sexes
Courting : the values of the
(i)
THE CATEGORIES
Male
discussed so far have not taken into con
sideration the dichotomy of the sexes. The analysis of this

facet of the social structure comprises in the first place the
institutions
and
and behaviour in which they are differentiated,

and behaviour in which
in the second the institutions
they are united.

As soon as they can talk children become conscious of the
sex to which they belong. Their membership of one category
or the other is continually stressed in speech. Their behaviour
is applauded or condemned by reference to rules
expressed in
upon the
correct conduct for
boys or
a pretty little
"
etc. The identification of the individual child with one
boy
sex or the other is reinforced at every point by adults who
see the child not only as he is but also as he will become, a
man or woman. Children are encouraged from an early age
to imitate adults of the same sex. The small girl follows the
mother or elder sister about the house with a small broom in
her hand while she is still too young to be of any effective
assistance. At four years old, the little boy may already be
seen pasturing a piglet which he controls by m'eans of a string
attached to its hind leg. By the time he is nine he goes out
with his whip and zdea (sheep-skin) to spend the day pastur
ing animals. When the child plays in the street it is with a
group of his own sex. When at six he goes to school it is to a
boys' or girls' school taught by an adult of his own sex. The
school in the valley is an exception to this since there is only
one teacher, but it is a rare exception, for elsewhere the
generalisations
"
little girls.
Little girls don't
do that",
little
"What
schools are all situated in the pueblos. Education, whether in

school or at home, separates the sexes, for the tasks which the
COURTING THE VALUES OF THE MALE
85
child will perform, the norms of behaviour to which it will

submit, and the values which it will adopt, differ according
to sex. Most tasks are the prerogative either of man or of
woman, and there are few examples of persons who undertake
those considered to be proper to the other sex. The only

occupation which is pursued equally by both sexes is that of
shop-keeping.
The role of
women, as in all societies, centres upon the

home. All work to do with the home, the care of children
and clothes is theirs. Of the animals, only chickens and
rabbits fall within their province. Girls may sometimes be
seen pasturing goats, but this is only because the family is
poor and there is no male child of the appropriate age. The
matanza, the killing of the household pigs, shows a clear
differentiation of the roles of the two sexes. It is something of
a celebration and relatives who no longer form part of the

household are often present. Some skill and experience is
required in killing, and, if no member of the family possesses
known for his ability in this respect,
it, a son-in-law or uncle,
avoid having to employ a pro
would
This
may be invited.
ec
fessional
matador" (meaning in
this instance, "pig-killer",
The men prepare
not bullfighter)
heat the water, rig up the
.
the patio, light

the pig, hold
catch
sling,
fires to
down
The blood is
it
and the matador

which it is the task or privilege of the lady
of the house to hold and stir. When the pig is dead, the men
clean the hair and dirt off with scrapers, while the women
upon
cuts
the table,
its
throat.
collected in a basin
serve them, pouring the boiling water on to the carcass. The

men then sling the animal up by its hind legs, and the
matador butchers it. The role of the men ends when they
have borne the meat into the house. There the women clean
it and make sausages and prepare the meat in other ways.
The men perform one other task, the preparation of the

hams. Though this is not clearly defined as men's work, it
and the matador
requires a certain amount of knowledge,
in order to extract the
supervises the pressing of the veins
blood. If this is not done properly, the hams will go bad. The
hams are the most valuable part of the pig and are sold for
money, though one
may be kept for the use
The money recovered
in this
way
of the household.
serves to finance the next
THE SEXES
86
year's pigs. This division of labour is not governed

recognised rules ; indeed, any attempt to discover a
by any
formu
lated role of conduct meets here with the response, all too
frequent in this society: "Each one does as he thinks fit", or
"Each family has its way of doing it" "Gada pais su ley y
cada casa sus costumbres", the saying goes ("Each country

55
has its law and each house its customs ). Men's and
women's tasks devolve "naturally" from the conception
which people have of what men or women do best. No taboo
steps in to prevent women from scraping or men from making
sausages, and they may well be asked to assist in the role
normally filled by the opposite sex, if another pair of hands is
u
needed. They would not thereby be thought to be effem
inate" or "unfeminine", it would simply not be expected
that they do it very well, and, since they have not been
brought up to do it, the expectation would be justified.
In Alcald women do not normally work in the fields for
hire, though it is common in the plains of Andalusia for girls
and even elderly women to go out in parties to weed upon
the large farms. They are most commonly seen there working
separately from the men. It is said that once the women
worked in the fields in Alcald because there was more work
than there is today. There are today only four women in
the pueblo
who go out for
hired work.
On
the other hand,
it
quite frequent for wives or daughters of poor

help in work upon the family plot of land, weeding or
harvesting, or sowing the seed. Women are most commonly
families to
is
seen working in this way in the tenajos, and the spraying and
harvesting of grapes is mainly women's work. There is one
form of work, however, in which a great number of
women
take part, and for gain the olive-harvest. This takes place in
the autumn when the men are busy ploughing. It is paid as
piece-work. Teams are formed among families and friends,
:
four or five people in each, including children of almost any

age. One at least must be a man or growing lad, for his role
is
to
climb into the
pole.
trees
The women and
and beat the branches with a slender

children collect the olives from, the
ground.
When women desire

their husband's
to make money, either to supplement

income or because they have no husband,

:
87
they do so by performing other women's work for them:

domestic work, sewing, fetching water, looking after chil
dren ; or by petty trading.
These generalisations, even were they one hundred per

cent accurate, would describe a differentiation which is
purely ideal. The realism of these people quickly admits
exceptions. Necessity forces people into activities which they
do not undertake from free choice. There is a girl who works
with her father and brothers at the heavy work of picking

"as if she were a man". And yet she remains
esparto grass
in all other ways entirely feminine. "What a shame!"
people say, "for she is a pretty girl and look at her hands
now. They are like a man's."
It is not only occupation which differentiates the sexes. In
recreation the same dichotomy is maintained. Women do not
go into cafes but stay in their houses where they visit one
another. Women do not smoke. The rich people of the big
towns differ from them in these ways, and the families of the
senoritos once again demonstrate their intermediate position.
Though they are never seen smoking, they will on feast-days
make up parties of both sexes at a table outside the casino.
For the women of the pueblo the shops, the fountains and
above all the wash-house or the stream-bank, where washing
is
also done, are meeting-places, so that being in the pueblo

day they do not have the same incentives for social
all
reunion in the evening, quite apart from the household duties

which attend them on the return of their menfolk from work.
The extreme cleanliness in regard to clothing, which is
characteristic of Andalusia, is not unrelated to the need for
someone from each household to go daily to the wash-house,
if the family is to keep well informed upon the issues of the
day.
In relation to religion the sexes are again separated. In

they walk apart. The funeral is followed
the
menfolk once it leaves the church The
normally only by
the
church
in
reflects the same division. Men, un
seating
festive processions
accompanied by
women and
their wives, stand at the back, while the

who stay beside their family, sit on the
those
seats in front.
Some men
womenfolk and
prefer to remain apart from their

to stand with their own sex at the back.
THE SEXES
88
of solidarity exists between persons of the same

sex in the face of the other, which is illustrated in the sympa
thetic attitude of women towards a woman whose husband
men whose employer, a lady, is
causes her distress or
spirit
among
difficult.
opposite
Generalisations of a critical nature concerning the

sex are often made when persons of one sex are
someone
when
gathered together, or in mixed gatherings
wishes to adopt a tone of humorous raillery towards the other
sex.
The behaviour of the unmarried people during the evening

the solidarity of the sexes, though
paseo (stroll) accentuates
not in such a way that can easily be reduced to generalisation.
with arms
Groups of up to five or six girls walk together
and
eye them as they pass or walk in twos
the
end
to
attached
is
a
them.
Sometimes
threes behind
boy
to
one
a
of
virtue
of the line of girls by
specific relationship
walk
fiances
in
But
fianoi
by
of the girls, brother or
general,
themselves in pairs on the road at the entrance to the town.
Yet this solidarity does not exclude either quarrelling or
linked.
The boys
themselves. Occasional fights among women

break out, usually at the fountains where, particularly in the
summer when the water supply is less plentiful, it may be
fighting
among
a pitcher. 1
necessary to wait for some time in order to fill
of course
Fights cannot take place between the sexes, except
within the institution of marriage, though quarrelling occurs
over
money and
business.
When
Diego Perez'
aparcera,
hectares of cultivable land, de

faulted on her obligations, he took her to law. Had it been a
man he would, he asserted, have beaten him up instead.
woman who owned two
There are few situations in which persons of different sexes

collaborate outside the family.
good deal of chaff passes
where groups of young people of opposite sex confront one
another, but there is no camaraderie. Friendship is essentially
a relationship between persons of the same sex. So, a man

shake hands
visiting a friend on a farm may often be seen to
with the male members of the family and not with the
i The
is "first come, first
fights arise over the order or precedence which
served" unless a person renounces her right, yet it is typical that people in this
of
society seldom form queues they are far too much alive to the presence
others to need such a demonstrative method of maintaining the order.
;

:
89
female. For to do so might be to demand an intimacy with

the family which he did not possess.
The only person whose

dichotomy
When
to
is
position in relation to the sexual

is the elderly woman.
somewhat mitigated
past the age of sexual attraction her behaviour tends

freer with regards the other sex. Widowhood
become
brings, for the first time, full legal and economic responsibility
as well as the greater influence which she enjoys within the
family. Her role in business is more active, though she is not

in general reckoned by men to be any good at it. The word
common
titles of business enterprises

a
dominance
age
formerly dormant is
There
one
old
woman
who used once
to
was
even
appear.
apt
to play cards and drink wine with the men in the caf<6. She
was considered eccentric and disgraceful, but nothing was
viuda
(widow)
in Andalusia.
done
is
At
in the
this
to prevent her.
to define the standards of behaviour
To attempt
between
the sexes in terms of prohibitions and obligations would be

difficult. Conversation is free and no subject is taboo, pro
vided it is not discussed indelicately in the presence of the
opposite sex. The restraints in behaviour proceed from

the conceptions which the situation bring into play. In the
organisation of conduct, not only in situations where a

member of the opposite sex is present, a primordial impor
tance attaches to the ideal types of either sex. It would be
tedious to attempt to enumerate the moral qualities attach
ing to manliness or womanliness for in general they are the
same as in our own traditional culture: "Knights are bold
5'
and ladies are fair. Courage and strength are emphasised

as male attributes. Beauty and frailty are for women. The
saying: "El hombre como el oso, mientras mas feo mas
hermoso" ("Man like the bear, the uglier the handsomer")
while the grace of the
expresses this aspect of manliness,
women in carriage and gesture reveals the value which is
to delicacy and beauty in the feminine ideal. The fact
given
that moral judgements are expressed in terms of beauty and

of the feminine ideal, is a point whose
ugliness, the idiom
significance will
be brought out
later.
readiness to
quintessence of manliness is fearlessness,
defend one's own pride and that of one's family. It is ascribed
The
THE SEXES
and the idiom in which it is
To be manly is to have
expressed is frankly physiological.
cojones (testicles), and the farmyard furnishes its testimony
directly to a physical origin
in support of the theory. Castrated animals are manso (tame),

castrated dog,
a castrated ox is not dangerous like a bull.
run away from an uncastrated one.
will
it is
always
thought,
A man who fails
show fearlessness is lacking in manliness

or manso. While it is not supposed
castrated
and, by analogy,
that he is literally devoid of the male physiological attributes,
he is, figuratively, so. That part of his person does not possess
to
the moral qualities properly associated with it.

The bullfight is an occasion when the full figurative force
of this conception is displayed. The bull which is manso is
booed from the ring. The dead bull which has shown courage
applauded as his carcass is dragged out. The bullfighter,

even though he may be lacking in skill and grace, is not
that he has valour.
despised as long as he is still able to show
Yet if he fails or fears to kill the bull he is utterly disgraced.
For the essence of the bullfight is the ritual revindication of
manliness and if this value is debased then the whole human
is defiled. The virility of the bull has not passed into
is
species
to redeem
slayer. The champion who took the ring
of
male
sacred
pride has
quality
through his bravery the
its
failed
greets him with contemptuous fury.

terms relating to this conception are heard not only
and the crowd
The
in the bullring but continually in everyday life. Thus, for

example, in a quarrel concerning water-rights, one hortelano
him
(garden-cultivator) said to the other, who had given
offence
by repeatedly
appointed hour
failing to relinquish the
water at the
"Estare en el ca'o a la hora de cortar y si tienes cojones

ven." (" When the hour comes to cut off your water and send
it
down
to
my kuerta I shall cut it off myself [the place where
the water is changed

try to stop
is
if
lies
inside the other hortelano" s huertd\
you dare!"
Literally:
"If thou hast
and
cojones,
35
It is a challenge to fight The implication is that

the other does not come, it is either that his antagonist
right and he admits that he must cut off his water at that
come!
if
me
hour, or alternatively that he has no cojones , that is to say that

he is lacking in the full social personality of an adult male,
COURTING: THE VALUES OF THE MALE
91
a person who can be overridden with impunity. In

fact, by the time the challenge is issued there is already a
dispute of some standing. The challenge is intended to settle
the question of water-rights neither by law, nor by an appeal
and
is
to force, for it settles nothing if the other hortelano comes and

they fight. To be beaten in a fight does not prove lack of
courage (any more than the bullfighter is disgraced if he is
carried wounded from the ring. He is only disgraced if he is
physically able, but lacks the courage, to kill the bull). The
challenge is intended to settle the matter, because the
hortelano stakes his social personality on the issue. The other
man knows
that he is in the wrong in fact and under those

conditions he will not come, for if there is a fight the matter
is likely to be brought before the law and his fault will be
displayed; but having failed to come, he cannot then con

tinue to steal his neighbour's water without admitting that
he lacks manliness and was too frightened to uphold his

rights openly, that he is a sneak-thief. The challenge served
therefore to force a renunciation from the other hortelano of
The social significance of the conception in relation

and a later chapter will discuss
to the political structure
a
man who loses his manliness,
in
this:
that
resides
this
his claim.
standing as a full adult male and through this

of prestige he loses his value in the system of co-operation.
The word which serves literally to translate manliness
(hombria) also contributes to the same conception
"The modern race is degenerate/' said a friend once, "in
the days of our grandfathers there was more manliness than
today." To be "muy hombre" is to have an abundance of
forfeits his
loss
that moral quality which we have been discussing, and,

through it, to command the respect of one's fellows.
Other words which might be discussed if the length of this
chapter permitted are soberbia and orgullo which express the
:
idea of excessive self-regard, and amorpropio and honor which

are intimately connected with manliness. Pundonoroso (meticu
lous as regards honour) is a popular epithet for bullfighters.
Clearly, such a conceptual evaluation of sexual virility
leads to a certain proclivity to justify manliness literally, and
the moral precepts taught in education tend to be out
weighed by the desire for such justification. Success with
THE SEXES
g2
a powerful gratification to the self-esteem of the

Andalusian. The appreciation of feminine beauty and the
attitude of ready courtship which it inspires are expressed
in the piropo, a word which means literally a ruby and also
means a compliment paid to a lady. It is a tribute paid
a source of joy and,
disinterestedly to one whose presence is
women
is
without any ulterior motive. It may

be paid publicly to an unknown lady as she passes down the
theoretically at
any
rate,
no response from her, and the freedom

and charm of such a custom has done much to recommend
street, for it requires
the
of Andalusia to the pretty tourist. Opportunities

pueblo where every
attractiveness
feminine
of
an
but
known,
appreciation
cities
for this kind ofpiropo barely exist in the
one
is
is
nevertheless not scant in Alcala.
The
restraints
upon the
from
sexually aggressive behaviour of men derive, it appears,
sanctions of a social nature rather than from the prohibitions
of the individual conscience. However, before considering
them we do well to turn to the institutions and behaviour in
which the
sexes are united.
There are
situations in everyday
life
in
which the category
is
by the categories of age or social status.
The respect due to age or official position may go far, to
obliterate the significance of the criterion of sex in a specific
overruled
of sex
situation.
patients
The employees must obey
must
visit
the employer.
The
the doctor. Persons of different sex are
grouped together in juxtaposition to a person distinguished

from them by another category. But we are concerned here
to examine the relations between the sexes in situations
where the difference of sex is prerequisite to the relationship
of the participants.
The only
institution
which binds the
sexes together
is
the
family. Primarily through marriage, but also through all the

relationships established by it. The form of the individual
continually changing in time, but we may take as

starting-point the moment when the young person
family
its
is
abandons the companionship of his own sex and family, and

an individual relationship with a person of
seeks to establish
the opposite sex and another family.

As the children grow up through adolescence the segrega-
93
'.
tion of the sexes takes a
new turn. The interest in the
opposite
sex, unrelated hitherto to structural issues, begins to offer the

possibility of a lasting attachment which will alter the
standing of the couple radically. The boy deserts the "dirtygroup of his fellows to go courting his girl.
Typically, the farming families of the valley, in contrast to
wealthier families of the pueblo, tend to form attachments of
a serious nature as early as fifteen to eighteen years, and to
regard each other thenceforward as novios (sweethearts), in
all the structural implications of the term. Novios are
boy and
girl who will eventually be man and wife. The noviazgo
(courtship) is the prelude to the foundation of the family. It
is characteristically long in this society, always of a few
years'
duration, though the length depends on the age of the parti
cipants and also on their economic position. Yet it should not
be regarded as a time of delay necessary for the establishment
of the economic foundations of the family, though it fulfils
that function. It is, rather, a steadily developing relationship
which ends in marriage. The degrees of seriousness which
attach to the term and give it at times a certain ambiguity
derive from the fact that it covers all the stages of courtship
story-telling"
from acquaintance to marriage. The dog which deserts the

farm at night in search of a bitch is said to go "buscando la
novia" ("searching for a novia") and the word may even be
used as a euphemism for a married person's lover. But the
term does not imply sexual intimacy when referring to
an established relationship between boy and girl. It is
thought proper to "respect" the
woman who
will
be your
wife.
The first step in the formation of this relationship is made

when two young people leave the group in order to talk to
one another alone. They sit together or go for a walk apart
at some reunion, and this establishes a tentative beginning.
If this behaviour recurs then people say that they are "talking
one another". The expression is important for it sums up

an aspect of the noviazgo. It covers all the period of informal
relations, extending from the first stage up till the "demand
for the hand". During this time the relationship deepens but
it is not yet irrevocable. Andr6s V., speaking of his former
novia said "I spoke with her for twelve years and at the end
to
THE SEXES
g4
she turned out a whore." This period of twelve years was

of the speaker
exceptionally long owing to the fecklessness
to follow with one job for any length of time.
and his
inability
When finally it became
evident that he would not marry her,
he laid the blame on her.
The idea of this talking together is that the novios get to

know each other really well. The swiftness of the men to enter
a sexual relationship of no structural importance contrasts
with the care and delay with which they enter into matri
mony. But the nature of this talk, though it inevitably varies,
has a particular quality associated with courtship and which
serves to forward the purpose of that institution. Its purpose
to bind the emotions of each to the other so securely that
the attachment will last a lifetime. The word camelar expresses
is
kind of talk. It means and it is above all the man who

"
to compliment", "to show gallantry to",
does the talking
"to cause to fall in love". It is subsumed that adulation is
this
and this theory is found in

word: "to deceive with
the secondary meaning
form camelo comes in
nominal
the
In
this
adulation".
way
mean:
to
the end
"nonsense", "line-shooting", "a tall
no one but a fool would be taken in
which
tale
story", "a
what
causes people to
fall
in love,
of the
generally asserted that the essential attribute for

success with women is knowledge of how to talk to them. The
Don Juan must know how to deceive women with words.
by".
It
is
However, in the case of courtship, this knowledge is put to

the service of matrimony. Love is an essential to a happy
marriage. And this is not only the opinion of romantic
senoritas. Andres el Bano, a hardheaded and intelligent small
farmer says: "You can see clearly which marriages were
made for money. They spend their whole lives quarrelling.
marry for love." "How is a man to spend all

working for a woman if he has no illusion' about
her?" For it is admitted that love is an illusion to fall out
Sensible people
his life
of love
is
"quitarse la ilusi6n" ("to lose one's illusion").
But in marriage it is a necessary illusion. Each person knows

that he or she is not in fact the most wonderful person in the
world, but through camelos one can be made to feel it and to
feel the same about the other. The attachment formed by
this
mutually inspired self-esteem bridges the gulf of sex-
95
differentiation
built,
and forms the bond on which the family
is
Courting takes place traditionally, in Andalusia, at the

reja (the grill which covers every window), and sentimental
numbers in the music-halls and the romantic postcards sold
on news-stalls portray a novio so ardent that only iron bars
can safeguard the purity of his love. The reality is less
theatrical, of course. In summer the novios can go for walks
together in the immediate vicinity of the town. To stray too
far, to be out after dark, excites suspicious comment in the
pueblo. Men who work and are away until dusk must do
their courting after nightfall, and upon Thursdays and Sun
days, the days for courting, boys will walk five or six miles,
even after the day's work, in order to keep a rendezvous with

a girl. Courting takes place at the girl's home. In Alcala the
doorway is used rather than the window. The visiting novio
stands on the threshold to talk to his girl while she stands
within. The girl's family pay no attention to the couple. If
the father comes out he pretends not to notice the novio.
Formerly
by him
it
was considered an
affront to the father to be seen
courting his daughter, the suitor
would
retire
while
the father was in sight, but today he separates slightly from

the girl and lets go her hand. To hold hands is considered
proper behaviour for novios, save in the presence of a member
of her family.
When the couple decide to get married, the novio makes a
formal call upon the father of his novia in order to ask for her
hand. His mother calls upon her mother. The girl's father is
supposed not to answer but finally to allow himself to be
persuaded by her mother. When the request is granted the

2
young man hands over a sum of money to the girl with
which she is to buy the requirements and furniture of the

house, and the wedding day is fixed usually for a date three
or four months ahead. The noviazgo then enters upon its final
stage and although it remains theoretically repudiable, it
would by now be extremely difficult for the novio to escape.
1
The word "ilusidn"
is
also used with conscious cynicism as
a euphemism
for "lust".
2
In the case of farming families working as a centralised economic unit the

parents. This fact certainly contributes to the length
money is provided by the
of courtships in the valley.
THE SEXES
g6
who will become linked in

parents have been brought in
the relationship of consuegro (co-parent-in-law). The money
has been paid. From that moment onwards the marriage is
assured. But until the demand for the hand the ties which
The
bind the two together are purely personal. The longer an

engagement lasts the stronger becomes the obligation to
if there were
marry, the worse a repudiation would appear
all one
above
is
The
faithlessness.
but
no excuse for it
danger
off it
broken
is
a
once
for the girl, because
long engagement
The
suitor.
a
second
find
her
to
for
girl who
may not be easy
has had other novios is not sought after in the same way, for
the pride of the second novio must, to a greater or lesser
in the footsteps of
extent, be sacrificed if he is to follow
another. If his novia were not a virgin
it
would make him a
this is not believed, she

retrospective cuckold, but even if
attractive
a
be
less
would nevertheless
proposition than
is
broken off tend
first
engagement
previously. Girls whose
to
marry
It
less easily
subsequently.
can be seen, then, that a
girl of, say, twenty-five,
whose
a long courtship is in a
engagement falls through
has
If
she
difficult position.
beauty or the prospect of in
no
will
have
difficulty in finding a new novio.
heritance, she
after
But if not, then she may have missed her opportunity. Andres
V/s novia remained a spinster. The moral feelings of the
pueblo supply a powerful sanction against such faithlessness,
for it involves the other members of both families. But
to work
noviazgos are in danger above all when boys go
of the
the
sanctions
and
a
for
elsewhere
time,
thereby escape
with
the
but
break
return
not
do
sometimes
pueblo. They
where
in
the
and
town
novia of their home
they
marry
place
are working, where they may never admit having had a
will have
previous novia, and where in any case the matter
little
importance.
danger for which, should it materialise, the

redress, it is not surprising to find the super
society offers
into
natural coming
play. There is a wealth of folklore which
and
to
relates
finding
holding novios and much of the practice
Faced with
this
no
devoted to resolving this problem.

to
novio
look at other girls with interest,
whose
The girl
begins
or
writes to her less frequently, in
visits her less regularly
of ihtsabia (wise
woman)
is

I
97
short, gives her reason to believe that her hold over him is
weakening, may go to the sabia. For the sabia has power to
discover whether he still loves her or not, and is also able to
perform love-magic in order to secure his constancy. She
uses her love-magic, in this context, in support of the social
The love-magic which she is able to do for men is

thought to be employed for a more sinister purpose, which
will be discussed in Chapter XII.
order.
p.s.
CHAPTER
VII
The Sexes
(ii)
Marriage and
the
Family
THE NATURE
of the relationship established in courtship

changes fundamentally with marriage. Here ends the free,
personal, purely emotional bond. Marriage is part of the
overt structure of the community. Ties are created not only
between the novios but between persons who were previously
linked
by no more than common membership of the pueblo,

Other ties are weakened by the formation of these
if by that.
new
new pattern of social relations emerges. The

of
system
naming serves well as an introduction to the
structure of the family.
ones.
The young woman adds her husband's patronym to her

own names. Let us say that he is Manuel Castro Barea,' and
she: Ana Ruiz Menacho. Then she becomes: Senora de
Castro, or (her official form of address) Senora Dona Ana
Ruiz Menacho de Castro. The pueblo will continue to call
her Ana Ruiz without her husband's patronym.
The dual surnames are composed of the patronym of the
:
paternal and maternal grandfathers. In the same way, the

children of this marriage will bear the surnames Castro Ruiz.
Within the pueblo, but not among the families of the

the children will be given Christian names in accord
ance with those of the grandparents so that if Manuel Castro
Barea is the son of Andres Castro and Maria Barea, then the
first child of each sex will be named
(after the paternal
grandparents) Andres and Maria. The second child of each
sex will be named after its mother's parents. The grand
senoritos,
children are regarded as the descendants of one

pair of
grandparents as much as of the other, and this accords
logically with the fact that they will have an equal claim
upon
the inheritance of both.
MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY
The law
regards the family formed by this marriage as a
single unit with, in
many
aspects,
a single legal personality. 1
The
wife becomes subject to her husband's

tutelage, for in
the eyes of the law he is the representative of this
The
single
wife, if she
over twenty-one years of age,

will have become vecina
(neighbour) of the pueblo. On her
marriage she ceases to be so but becomes instead casada, the
wife of a vecino. She also loses the right to control her
worldly
property, though she can prevent her husband, who ad
ministers it as he wishes, from disposing of it. Yet she cannot
buy or sell property without his consent. The property of
both is regarded as a single unit which the husband controls.
Neither are likely to have any property from the
parents
while the latter are still active, though the new
couple may
be given charge of a farm or mill belonging to one of the
personality.
is
parents. If any dowry is given, which is rare, it represents

either an advance of the share of inheritance of the
girl's
parents, or a free gift on their part which they can only make
from the property which they have acquired otherwise than
through inheritance. As a general rule property does not
pass until death.
The people of Alcald feel very strongly that every family

should possess its own house, and to marry without
setting
up a separate home is regarded as a make-shift arrangement.
The poorer people are the more insistent upon this need for
independence, and the economic advantages which might
accrue from forming a larger family unit are offset
by the
desire to be free of the tensions which make
family life im
possible
where there
is
more than one family
in a house.
"Cada uno en su casa" ("Each one in his own house") that

is the only
way to live peacefully. "Casada casa quiere"
("housewife wants house"), the saying rubs in the point.
For while a joint family might collaborate in spending
money, they cannot collaborate in making it, where each
man's income derives from a daily wage. The husband must
rent a house for his bride, and with the housing situation as
at present it is not an impossibility even for the landless
daylabourer. On the farms of the valley where family relation
ships
are
made
i
clearer
by geographical distance and
Viz. Civil Code, Title IV, Chapters I and II.
THE SEXES
100
conservative tendencies, it can be seen that the marriage of a

child of either sex involves, or should involve, his withdrawal
from the family unit. The modern custom, followed only by

some is for parents to pay the sons who work upon their farm
a daily wage once they are fully grown up, in order that they
start to prepare to found a family. But on some of the
farms they keep the family finances integrated until a son
may
when he must have his daily wage to keep his wife.

keep her in the pueblo in a house of his own (rarely
in the parents house even though they seldom go there) while
he goes down to the valley every day to work. He may set up
house in the valley or even build a house there, or he may
also bring her to live with his parents or, more frequently, go
himself to live with and work for hers. He may work for her
parents and keep her in a house in the pueblo.
An old tradition of the farmers, followed by few nowadays,
ordains that the elderly parents keep the daughter,, or
daughter-in-law to live with them for the first year of her
marriage. In one family where this is followed, the son works
elsewhere and visits his parents farm on Sundays to see his
wife. At the same time the farm is worked by a son-in-law,
the husband of an elder daughter who has a large family andi
lives in the pueblo. So that the elderly parents live on the
farm with one son-in-law and one daughter-in-law while
their seven children all live elsewhere. Living with the old
people there is also one grandson, the son of the son-in-law,
and a boy-employee of fourteen years. The object of keeping
the daughter or daughter-in-law with the parents is to assist
the newly married couple to set up a home, for in this
way
all the husband's pay can be saved. The wife lives for
nothing
with the old people and in return she does the housework and
looks after them. This arrangement is clearly only possible
while she has no children of her own, and this may explain
why it is an arrangement for the first year of marriage only.
In general, sons-in-law get on well with their wife's
marries,
He may
and there are
several farms where they live and are

employed in preference to a son. The virtual avoidance be
tween father- and son-in-law while the girl is courted ends
with marriage, and gives way to an easier relationship than
that of the father with his own sons, who must
preserve
parents,
01
a stricter respect for him than must his sons-in-law. The

daughter-in-law, on the other hand, very seldom gets on well
with her husband's parents once she has a family of her own
and even before that her relationship is always formal and
;
to his parents when

the son marries her, for she has remained with her parents
while her novio came to court her at their house. Little by
somewhat frigid. She is a virtual stranger
he has adapted himself to the ways of her parents'

He has made friends with her brothers. 1 After the
demand for her hand the avoidance of the father has lapsed
and he has been invited into her house. She has had no such
opportunity to become acquainted with his parents, and
when she comes to them it is not to ask a favour, but as the
little,
house.
established wife. Parental love
is
warm, and
it is
through her
loosened. In such a situation, rivalry

between a man's wife and his mother for his chief regard
that the parental
tie is
seldom fails to produce sparks. Living in the same house they

must collaborate more closely than the men-folk in the fields,
and for this reason a mother always prefers to have her own
daughter to work for her who is used to her authority and
the ways of her house.
An Andalusian saying points out the tendency to matrilocality.
"Tu
hijo se casa
"Your son
Y pierdes
And you
And you
a tu hijo
Tu hija se casa
ganas otro."
gets married
lose your son
Your daughter
marries
get another one."
In the determination of locality, the moral and legal

with
equality of children regardless of their sex, combined
the
where
a
situation
create
the unity of the married couple,
assert
life
in
themselves,
emotional tensions inherent
family
and the identification of the woman with the home overrides
the principle of patriliny. 2
1 Not
and for some time he
straight away. The father formally ignores him,
to know whether
regarded with suspicion by the brothers. The family requires
his intentions are serious or not. Antonio, son of Andre's el Bano said of the boy
who had already courted his sister faithfully for four years : "Hasta ahora se ha
towards us"). But in
portado bien con nosotros" ("So far he has behaved well
time this suspicion gives way to friendship.
2 The
participation of the maternal grandparents through surname,
in the lives of their daughter's children must not
Christian names and
is
property,
THE SEXES
102
This pattern of relations is also illustrated in a subsequent

no
stage of the evolution of the family. Elderly parents,
are
dependent
longer able to work and look after themselves,
it is noticeable that the
But
them.
to
children
their
keep
upon
children with whom the parents choose to stay are, in a slight
It is only surprising
majority, daughters rather than sons.
that the disproportion is not greater, for elderly widowed
in their daughter-in-law's house.
mothers are seldom
happy
This sacred duty which requires poor people who work hard
to devote part of their income and much of their time to the
care of aged parents is generally respected, though it is said
that before the initiation of the old-age pensions scheme old
than today. Dutiful
people were more often abandoned
children are the insurance against a wretched old age or one
Parents who do not
spent in an institution in another pueblo.
will be faced
"education"
moral
children
their
proper
give
in old age with shameless children who neglect them.
rule.
Respect for parents is not based upon authoritarian
Children are punished very little and are never expected to
emulate their elders prematurely. They learn through
imitation and are encouraged much with kisses and applause,
enormously senti
mental and demonstrative
comparison with that of
mother nor father, brother
neither
and
Northern Europeans,
or
stiff
nor sister is ever either
emotionally restrained towards
for the love of children
is
great here. It
is
in
them. At the same time, the identity of the child with its
with other
parents is continually stressed in its relations
youngsters in the pueblo, so that the child's social personality
is defined in relation to its parents. Children are always
known as the children of so-and-so. In the advance of age the
material
tie
between children and parents grows weaker, but
It is the mother's patronym which she gives to her

children, not her matronym. In so far as this society is lineal at all it is patrilineal. The lineal principle, however, is incompatible with the social structure
of the pueblo and has little importance there. In the tradition of the aristocracy,
be confused with matriliny.
found together with a

patrilineal descent was, of course, important, and was
whole number of structural elements which contrasted with th6se of the pueblo ;
a monocratic relationship to community through the senorio (lordship) and a

system of inheritance through the mayorazgo (entailment), which maintained
the unity of property preferentially in the male line. It is noteworthy, however,
that the majority of Spanish titles pass through the female line in default of a
male line in the same degree of kinship.

the moral
103
remains full of vigour. Within a community

which knows no other principle of grouping, and where other
relationships tend to be unstable and kinship ties are weak,
tie
the strength of the family stands out in

solitary
relief.
The statement that kinship ties are weak requires to be

Where kinship is associated with political structure,
justified.
locality or
economic production., one
is
accustomed
to find
that the extensions of the elementary

family are endowed
with structural importance. Enough has
already been said
to make it clear that this is not the case in Alcala.
People
are seldom able to give a

comprehensive account of their
families further than their first cousins.
Property alone pro
vides an incentive to strengthen the ties with
persons
outside the elementary family.
The law of inheritance greatly influences the structure of

the family, and the diversity of the traditional laws of inherit
ance of the different regions of Spain points to an equal
diversity in their family structure. There is no regional tradi
tion in Andalusia in the matter of inheritance. Its law is the
When the property-owner dies his property is

divided in half. One half is subdivided equally among all his
children, the other goes to his widow for the duration of her
law of Castile.
after which it also is divided

among the children. During
the widow's lifetime the division does not often take
place,
but when neither of the parents remain and the grandchildren
life
are already fully grown it becomes necessary, in the interests

of family independence, to make the partition. In fact, the
way in which the property will be split up is usually fore
shadowed in the arrangements which are made for its exploita

tion when the owner becomes too old to control it himself.
Where the property is composed of several distinct holdings

they are divided amongst the children, possibly with certain
monetary adjustments, or with adjustments to the extent of
the properties. In other instances, however, either it is im
practical to divide the property or the heirs are unable to
reach an agreement upon its division. The property then
remains intact. If the joint owners fail to agree regarding its
exploitation it is very often sold, so that the price may be di
vided among them. However, where they agree well enough,
THE
104
often regarded as preferable to retain the property intact

in joint ownership and hope that time provides a solution.
it is
This, it frequently does. The property is run by one or more

brothers and brothers-in-law on behalf of all. Little by little
the other participants are bought out and the property re

mains in a single pair of hands, to face the same problem once
more
in the next generation.
Where,
example, a brother
for
tenant in another farm or follows a different occupation

such as artisan, he is well content to allow this to happen but
is
is
rivalry
common between
brothers
and
sisters for
ultimate
The joint ownership works well

on
occasions,
quarrels regarding its adminis
though
enough
tration and profits tend to arise. In the third generation,
possession of the inheritance.
that
is
to say
when members
of the second generation start to
become
too great if they all leave children.

Before anything can be done, it is necessary to reach agree
ment in a varied group of uncles and cousins and this is
die, the difficulties
At this point people are glad

and put their money into something else.
a solution to the problem of inheritance is provided
neither easy nor
is it efficient.
to sell their interest
Finally,
by the marriage of first
cousins.
Where
families are not too
large, the property is sometimes held together, or rather

reunited by a marriage in the third generation. There is,
however, nothing resembling a customary obligation to do
and Andres
Bano, for example, considers that such

not
to be allowed. It is rather an arrange
marriages ought
ment which ambitious parents make in order to avoid having
to split an inheritance. The number of descendants and the
nature of the property determine the advantages of such a
so,
el
marriage, and where the farm is small and there are many
grandchildren the advantages of cousin marriage are not
great.
The relationship of first cousin is an equivocal one.

Cousins are conscious of belonging to the same family for
they have
common
grandparents whose inheritance they

same time they are not in any way
interdependent. There is no specific code of behaviour for
them. If they are brought up in close contact with one an
other, then their family association provides the basis for
firm friendship. But cousinship in itself does not involve any
share,
and yet
at the

rights
or obligations.
,105
upon
Nevertheless,
this
uncertain
ground, relations of genuine affection spring up, not only

between cousins of the same sex but often, stressing member
ship of a common family, between primo and prima. This
relationship is what might be called fraternal, but at the
same time there is no absolute prohibition upon sexual
relations between persons so related. Such a relationship is
not incestuous, though marriage between persons so related
requires a special dispensation. When Jose- Maria Perez took
his cousin la Castana to Jacinas on the back of his mule he
claimed to be acting in a spirit of fraternal co-operation, but

that did not prevent the evil tongues of the valley from
attributing quite another motive for their journey. The label
of cousinship is used sometimes to conceal the true nature of a
relationship. Thus in the parish register a number of entries
of primo or pariente (kinsman) denote a relationship which is
nothing of the kind.
The ambiguity relating to the word primo explains
its
"
curious slang use.
Foolish or incautious", says the diction
The
sense
ary.
might best be rendered by the colloquialism
"mug". The
cousin
is
the prototype of the
faith in the strength of kinship ties
and
for he puts
soon deceived.
mug,
is
"We are all brothers ", quipped a witty fellow to his drinkingcompanions, "but notprimos"
We can now see cousin-marriage in
its
true light. It
is
way to reinforce the disintegrating family unit, and where

property is involved there is a strong motive to do this. But
can also be explained in terms of sentimental affinity. The
country families are considered slightly odd and unsociable
by the pueblo a fact which is seen in the exaggerated
it
accounts of their lack of education and uncouthness. This

reason is frequently given as an explanation of cousinmarriage. Shy children raised on the farms frequently form
attachments to their cousins in a way that those raised in the
hurly-burly of the pueblo do not. Cousin-marriage, though
not specifically a characteristic of the tenant and owner
farmers of the valley, is more frequent among them than in
the pueblo.
A second
type of marriage which possess a certain similar

with
cousin-marriage is marriage between pairs of brothers
ity
THE SEXES
IO6
-similarity, that is, in the circumstances which

For this type of marriage should be regarded as
marriage between affines, and just as cousin-marriage can be
viewed as the desire to strengthen the link between blood-kin,
and
sisters
favour
it.
so this appears as the desire to strengthen affinal
ties.
Two
by a single marriage are thenceforth

united by two. There are three instances of this in the valley
and but one in the pueblo itself.
In summing up, we can see that the lack of mutual rights
and obligations outside the elementary family, the lack even
families united hitherto
of occasions on which the unity of the extended family is

expressed, for cousins are not bound to be asked and are
not always asked to weddings, makes of kinship a facultative
is an excellent basis for friend
an important element in the struc
rather than a firm bond. It

ship, but
it is
not in
itself
ture of this society. Among the country-dwellers, marriages

are favoured which reinforce this basis, for they need to co
operate on a more permanent footing than those of the

pueblo. One might say that the nature of the exploitation
of the land in small-holdings produces a tendency to extend

family ties. Yet in the absence of the institutions and values
which might support such an extension, ties between kin
cannot be regarded as important.
Two
relationships
remain
to
be discussed. First of
all
The
identity of the matrimonial couple and the

husband's responsibilities in formal matters bring him into
affinal ties.
very close contact with his brothers-in-law, and one very

often finds strong friendship between men so related. This is
not the case with their parents though these are united in a
which bears a special name, consuegros (coparents-in-law). Parents have, in fact, little influence over
their children's choice of a spouse. (One might well marry
relationship
to please one's parents, but one could hardly pursue a court

ship such as I have described in order to please them.) United
at the ceremonies of marrriage and baptism, and by their

relationship to their grandchildren, consuegros are
divided
by jealousies in relation to the latter. They
equally
common
tend to be formal and mutually critical rather than warm

with one another.
Contrasting with the wary and distant relations of the co-

parents-in-law
parents
is
IQJ
the relationship between

compadres
(co-
meaning co-godparents). Godparents are
literally.,
chosen friends of the parents who enter into a formalised

friendship with them through their marriage or the baptism
of their children. On the occasion of a
marriage, a pair of
godparents are chosen (padrinos de boda), usually a married
married elder
couple from the close kin of the groom.
brother and his wife is the conventional choice.
These,
according to one tradition, are also the godparents of the

child (padrinos de bautizo). Those of the second child will
be chosen from among the relatives of the wife. There are
first
many divergent ideas on the choice of padrinos, which need

not here concern us. The
relationship of godparent is a kind
of spurious kinship
towards the child
involving obligations
or in the marriage festivities. The
padrinos are responsible for
the costs. Far more important
however, is the relationship
which
This
is
it
creates
between the parents and the godparents.
called the compadrazgo. In order to
become
compadres.,
would-be compadre offers himself or the father

invites him to be a
godparent to his child. It is a bond of
formal friendship more sacred than any
personal tie outside
the immediate family. Its seriousness is stressed
by the fact
either the
that, in the
popular conception but not in the Civil Code, it

you cannot marry your compadre or
1
and also by the mode of speech which compadres
padrino
are obliged to adopt in
talking to one another. Save when
they belong to the same elementary family they must use the
third person, even though they have
spoken to one another
in the second person all their lives. The
explanation given
creates
an
incest taboo
for this
is that
"compadres respect one another". This respect
does not involve a stiff or formal attitude, on the
contrary,
they speak to each other with great ease, but each is under
the obligation to do for the other whatever he asks of him. 2
The
1
compadre
There are
is
an honorary member of the elementary
also frivolous derived forms of compadrazgo such as the

compadres
de carnaval, madrina de guerra,
between
whom
marriage
is
permissible
and
frequent.
2
Technically, co-parents-in-law (consuegros) are also compadres and address
each other in the third person, but their relationship is usually very different in
feeling. People do not refer to their consuegro as my compadre unless the latter
relationship exists in
its
own
right.
THE SEXES
108
family, but he is at the same time free of the trammels which

bring dissension among kin. In the changing kaleidoscope of
friendship the compadrazgo is an irrevocable tie of mutual

trust, stronger than that of kinship because it owes its
existence to the free consent of both parties.
young senorito,
explaining his quarrel

ridiculous that a
man
with his married sister, said: "It is

should be bound to people through
To your mother and
father, yes, you have obliga

have brought you into the world, but what is a
brother, sister or cousin? I recognise ties with no one save
kinship.
tions, for they
the friends of my choice."
The
the
compadres may or may not be relatives. It is usual for

few children to be baptised by members of the family.
first
Very frequently the parents of both husband and wife wish

to baptise one of their grandchildren, and in this way the
relationship of father-in-law to son-in-law is overlaid by that
of the compadrazgo. In the same way it serves to reinforce ties
with members of the family. However, it is also entered into

with persons who are not relatives. These may be neighbours
or they may equally be friends who live in another pueblo.
There are certain advantages in having a compadre in another
pueblo, though the danger of losing touch with him if one
ceases to be able to go there is also to be considered. Finally,
there is the powerful senorito who is padrino to the child of a
poor family. In this case, the relationship of compadre is not
much
"Don
as that of the munificent padrino.

to
that family for he has baptised one of
padrino
their children." This establishes him formally as their
pro
stressed so
Fulano
is
tector, but,
to
without any such ritual
mean any powerful
who
tie,
the
word
is
also
used
prepared to patronise
person
a
man
or
to
his
use
(empadrinar)
poor
power to protect him.
"El que no tiene padrino no sirve pa na' " ("He who has no
is
is no use for
anything"), said a dejected poor man,
whose application for a plot of ground in a new colonisation
scheme had failed. A popular saying expresses the same idea
"El que tiene padrinos se bautiza" ("He who has padrinos
gets baptised"). There are &\$b padrinos who offer themselves
padrino
at the suggestion of the religious associations in order to

encourage poor people to celebrate their relationship with
the
rites
of the Church. Certain of
them cannot
afford to
IOQ
get married though they live together as man and wife. The
padrino pays for the religious ceremony and gives them a
present as well.
The significance of this institution will only be seen clearly

in conjunction with the institution of friendship which is
discussed in Chapter IX and from which it differs in that it is
a permanent relationship which cannot be renounced.
A certain diversion from the theme of this chapter has
been necessary in order to treat of kinship coherently, and to
show the limits of its influence as a principle of grouping and
how it creates ties between the sexes. It is not intended to
convey that where there are ties of kinship or affinity people
do not give weight to the difference of sex. Marriage, the
nodal point of the system, is founded precisely on this
man reaches his full manliness in fatherhood a
difference.
woman
motherhood attains her full social standing. The

which
marriage brings in the relationship of novios is
change
reflected by changed attitudes. Marriage marks the end of
in
romantic love, the beginning of the preparation for parent

hood. This transition is reflected in the nostalgia of married
people for the days when they were novios. "That is when
everyone
is
happiest."
The change of attitude is not always complete. Few are the

men who do not retain something of the boy, and there are
opportunities for many members of the pueblo for justifying
their manliness while away from home. But the fleeting
need not detain us. We are concerned with pre
extra-marital relations within the community.
and
marital
It is generally conceded that girls' morals are not what they
used to be. Babies are not infrequently born to the unmarried
novia. Provided that her novio will marry her there is no harm
done and no great shame attaches to her plight, at any rate
among the people with no "social pretensions ". The
infidelity
sanctions of public opinion are strongly exerted to force the

his obligation to marry her. Salvador D. was
father to his novia's child while he was still writing to another
boy
to
honour
novia whom, he maintained, he preferred but who lived

elsewhere (he had met her in Jerez during his military
a very forceful character,
service). His widowed mother,
went to the family of the girl and demanded that the baby
THE SEXES
should be named after her, as was her right if the marriage
were to take place, As both grandmothers were called Maria
a happy ambiguity prevailed, but soon afterwards the mother
made a demand for the girl's hand on her son's behalf and
money for the setting up of the house. When the

was nearly eighteen months old they were finally
married. The delay was partly due to the fact that his elder
brother had to get married first. In most cases the parents of
paid some
child
children born prematurely marry. However, in another case

the novio rebelled, said the father of the child was not he but
and there was a very ugly row which would have

had not the papers been mysteriously
ended
mislaid. The child had no father, took the same surnames as
its mother, and its uncle was padrino.
In neither of these instances was the courtship really well
his uncle,
in the courts
we have seen, poor couples set

the formality of a marriage
without
house
together
up
a
raise
and
family. During the years before the
ceremony
Civil War many families abandoned the rites of the Church,
established. In other cases, as
not important. If they live

then they are married.
together faithfully
married
are
whether
know
don't
"I
by the Church, but
they
is
matter
the
how
is
a
married
explained.
couple' ,
they are
in
to
order to get
bear
are
brought
many pressures
but in the eyes of the pueblo
and
this
is
raise a family
5
Today
them married. Both
the Church societies
and
Hall use their influence. In certain cases, the
also the
need
Town
to register
the child in order to get it a ration-card at the time of

weaning is seen to be the conclusive moment. It is then said
that: "Les echan las bendiciones" ("The marriage is
sanctified").
doubt on account of a pregnancy, there are a number

of couples who marry very young, some even before the boy
has done his military service. While, in addition to these
that young novios wish to force
cases, it sometimes happens
the issue, and run away together, establishing themselves in
a house in the pueblo very often in a house belonging to
in the valley. Sometimes the parents
parents who are farmers
react by recovering their daughter and, if she is still under
No
their tutelage, bringing the forces ofJustice into action against

the
man; but in other instances they accept ihzfait
young
III
and attempt
to enable the young couple to set up a

get married.
In short, the situation presents no grave problem as long
as the parties are unmarried. If, on the other hand, they are
accompli
home and
either of them married
and are not content to observe discre

house
together, then the pueblo finds itself
up
threatened in one of its vital structural principles. Its reaction
will be described in a later chapter.
The lack of recognised obligations between kin within the
pueblo can be contrasted with those which exist between
fellow-townsmen, whether they be kin or not, outside the
pueblo. The term natwraleza> meaning literally birthplace, but
hence the pueblo to which a person belongs by origin, ex
presses this in formal contexts, and the significance of this
has already been mentioned. A person who goes away
requires an acquaintance in the place to which he goes who
will accept responsibility for him, and a close relative is
tion but set
obviously the ideal host in
this situation
brothers, brothers-
in-law, uncles, primos; but failing a relative then a fellowtownsman is the person who assumes this responsibility. When
women go abroad they usually put up at the house of an
Alcalarena even though they may not claim friendship with
her previously. The lack of structural obligations within the
pueblo can be related to its completeness as a community, in
the sense that the relationship of fellow- townsmen to fellowrequires no amplification and admits no exclusion
in the context of daily life. Away from the pueblo, in another
place, this same sense of community between fellow-towns
men is what the obligation rests on.
townsman
CHAPTER
VIII
The Sexes
(iii)
IT
The Values of the Female
now possible
is
to discuss the values attaching to
woman
We
have seen how the tasks of the community are

distributed between the sexes and have observed the
importance of the role of the male sex in relation to the legal
structure of the state man's pre-eminence, that is to say, in
formally conducted social relations. On the other hand, we
have observed that women play a predominant part in the
home and, on that account, in the structure of neighbourly
hood.
relations.
And
this
may
be allied to the fact that the
women
are in the pueblo all the time while the majority of men must
leave it in order to work. The male social personality has
been related to the conception of manliness. The feminine

counterpart of the conception, which expresses the essence
of womanhood, is vergiienza, or shame. In certain of its aspects
only, for the word has first of all a general sense not directly
related to the feminine sex and it is this which must first be
explained.
It means shame, the possibility of being made to blush. It
a moral quality, like manliness, and it is persistent, though
like manliness or like innocence, which it more closely
is
it may be lost. Once lost it is not,

generally
recoverable,
speaking,
though a feeling persists that it is only
lost by those whose shame was not true shame but a deceptive
resembles,
appearance of it. It is the essence of the personality and for

this reason is regarded as something permanent.
It is closely connected with right and wrong, since its
presence or absence is detected through an ethical evaluation
of the person's behaviour which is thought, in fact, to be
determined by it, but it is not synonymous with conscience.
It
is,
rather,
its
overt or sociological counterpart.
The
social
5-
The Day
of the Bull
6.
Corpus Christi procession
THE VALUES OF THE FEMALE
13
no technique
for examining the

anthropologist possesses
motivations of the individual conscience ; but,
fortunately for
him, people are disinclined to let pass without comment
behaviour on the part of their fellows which they would feel

guilty to indulge in themselves, and are even willing some
times to decry publicly that which they would do themselves
if they had the chance, and believed
they could do without it
being known. The code of ethics to which vergiienza is related
is that which incurs the moral stricture of the
community.
To use Marett's distinction, it relates to "external moral

sanctions" not to "internal moral sanctions" or conscience. 1
Thus, to do a thing blatantly makes a person a sin vergiienza
(shameless one) but to have done it discreetly, would only
have been wrong. This, then, is the difference. Shamelessness
;
faces the world, faces people in particular situations.

me now try a definition
faces one's conscience. Let
Wrong
"
Vergiienza is the regard for the moral values of society, for

the rules whereby social intercourse takes place, for the
opinion which others have of one. But this, not purely out
of calculation. True vergiienza
makes one
is
mode
sensitive to one's reputation
of feeling which
and thereby
causes
one to accept the sanctions of public opinion."

Thus a sin vergiienza is a person who either does not accept
or who abuses those rules. And this may be either through a
lack of understanding or through a lack of sensitivity. One
can perceive these two aspects of it.
First as the result of understanding, upbringing, education.
"Lack of education"
is a polite way of
saying "lack of
admitted that if the child is not taught how
to behave it cannot have vergiienza. It is sometimes necessary to
beat a child "to give him vergiienza") and it is the only justifi
verguenza". It
is
able excuse for doing so. Failure to inculcate vergiienza into

one's children brings doubt to bear upon one's own vergiienza.
But, in
its
second aspect as
sensitivity, it is truly hereditary.
A person of bad heredity cannot have it since he has not been

endowed with it. He can only behave out of calculation as
though he had it, simulating what to others comes naturally.
A normal child has it in the form of shyness, before education
i R. R. Marett: "The
beginnings of morals and culture", in An
Modern Knowledge (London, 1931).
p.s.
Outline of
THE
114
has developed it. When a two-year-old hides its face from a

visitor it is because of its verguenza. Girls who refuse to dance
in front of
an assembled company do
so because of their
verguen^. Verguenza takes into consideration the personalities

present. It is verguenza which forbids a boy to smoke in the
presence of his father. In olden times people had much more

verguenza than today, it is said. Another polite form illustrates
this aspect of shame. To be shameless in this sense is to be
descarado or cara dura
serious
(hard-faced)
and
this
is
a far
more
matter than to be "thick-skinned", the nearest
expression in English to it.

It is in this second sense., as a moral quality innate and
hereditary, that the term sin verguenza reaches its full force
as
an
insult, that the epithet
used to a man's face
is
tanta
mount to insulting the purity of his mother.

The value attaching to a word depends upon the situation
in which it is used. The humorous use of sin verguenza is
common, particularly in reference to infants and pets. The
affectionate father pinches the little boy's cheek and tells him
adoringly that he is one. This is not only a form of humorous
inversion but also a statement of a truth
the child is not old

understand
the
of
values
enough
society and therefore a
sense of shame in relation to conduct is not demanded of it.
It amounts to telling it that it can do no wrong. As it grows
older the term will acquire more seriousness. The first situa
tion in which it will hear the serious use of the expression is in
relation to its excretory habits. This is the first situation in
which a sense of shame is required. Other forms of conduct
will become reprehensible in those terms as the child grows
:
to
up. But the humorous use recurs whenever the indulgence

associated with childhood
men
is
evoked whenever, for example,

:
feel boyish.
middle-aged
It will hardly surprise the reader to learn that verguenza is
closely associated with sex. While to cheat, lie, betray or
otherwise behave in an immoral manner shows a lack of
shame, sexual conduct is particularly liable to exhibit shame-
and particularly in the female sex. Lack of shame

exhibited in other behaviour is, as it were, derived from a
fundamental shamelessness which could be verifiable if one
were able to know about such matters in the person's sexual
lessness,

feelings. It is highly significant
insults which can be directed at a
that the
more
serious
man refer not to him
but
to a
at all
member
female
of his elementary family and in

particular to his mother. Personal reproach, while it refers
to a man's character or actions, is answerable, but when it
concerns a man's mother then his social personality is

desecrated. At that point, if he has manliness, he fights. Up
till that
man must make a
point matters can be argued.
living for his family, and this will lead him into conflict with
other men. To fail to meet his family responsibilities would
be far more shameless than to take advantage of people for
he was not responsible. A certain licence is conceded

male sex, so that a man is not judged so severely either
in matters relating to business or in his sexual conduct, where
the need to justify his manliness provides an understandable
whom
to the
explanation of his shortcomings. "Men are all shameless",

say. The essence of his shame will be seen in
his heredity, however. And therefore a reflection upon his
mother's shame is far more vital than a reflection upon his
women
own
conduct.
shame
is
extension, any reflection upon his sister's

important to him since it derives from his mother's.
By
The whole
its
family is attained by the shamelessness of one of

female members.
Just as the official and economic relations of the family are

conducted in the name of its head, the husband, who has
and authority over its members, so the

moral standing of the family within the community derives
from the verguenza of the wife. The husband's manliness and
legal responsibility for
the wife's verguenza are complementary. Upon the conjunc

tion of these two values the family, as a moral unity, is
founded.
From
it
the children receive their names, their
social identity and their own shame. Shameless behaviour on

the part of their mother marital unfaithfulness is the most
example of this, though one form of shamelessness

and is implied by them, since verguenza is
something which either one possesses or one lacks brings
doubt to bear upon their paternity. They are no longer the
children of their father. He is no longer father of his children.
The importance of a woman's vergiienza in relation to the
social personality of her children and of her husband rests
serious
implies the others
THE SEXES
Adultery on the husband's part does not affect
the structure of the family. This is recognised in the law of
the land in the distinction which it makes between adultery
of the husband or wife. A husband's infidelity
on the
upon
this fact.
part
only legally adultery

1
scandalously outside it.
is
if it takes
place in the
home
or
A wife's vergiienza involves a man, then, in quite a different

proof only of her,
manliness. In a
his,
sense it testifies to his lack of manliness, since had he proved
an adequate husband and kept proper authority over her
she would not have deceived him. This much is implied, at
way to
his mother's.
Her
unfaithfulness
shamelessness, but
not of
is
it defiles his
language which appears to throw the blame

on the deceived husband himself. In
misfortune
for his
55
"cuckold is thought to derive from
word
the
English,
cuckoo, the bird which lays its egg in the nest of another. Yet
any
rate, in the
not to him who plays the part of the cuckoo,

that is, the cuckolder, but to the victim whose role he usurps.
The same curious inversion is found in Spanish. The word
the
word
refers
symbol of male sexuality in many

him whose manifestation of that
the cause of the trouble but to him whose implied
cabrdn (a he-goat), the

contexts, refers not to
quality is
lack of manliness has allowed the other to replace him. To
make a man a cuckold is in the current Spanish idiom, "to
horns on him". I suggest that the horns are figuratively
put
husband in significa
placed upon the head of the wronged
tion of his failure to defend a value vital to the social order.
He has fallen under the domination of its enemy and must
wear
his
symbol.
The word
cabrdn
is
considered so ugly that
it is
never
Even shepherds refer

to the billy-goat of the herd by the euphemism d cabrito (the
the word in a wider
kid) Yet, figuratively, the pueblo uses
mentioned in
its literal
sense in Alcald.
sense than
is
the cuckold
general. It applies there to both
to any male, in fact, who behaves in a
and the cuckolder,
the rhymes
sexually shameless manner. It will be noted in
to someone
attributed
are
horns
1
the
that
on
page 72
quoted
who was
neither cuckolder nor cuckold but
and children
i
in order to set
had
left his
up house with another
Viz. Criminal Code, art. 452, also Civil Code, art. 105,
wife
woman.
I.
The
who
1 1
best translation of cabrdn as the pueblo uses

is on the side of anti-social sex".
it is
"one
While the greatest importance is attached to female con

and the Andalusion accent upon virginity illus
trates this
incontinence in the male has been shown to
tinence
carry quite different implications. Sexual activity enhances

the male prestige, it endangers the female, since through it a
woman may lose her verguenza and thereby taint that of her
male
relatives
verguenza in a
and the manliness of her husband. Yet
woman is
not synonymous with indifference or

towards the opposite sex. Quite the contrary, it is
the epitome of womanhood and as such finds itself allied in
the ideal of woman with the beauty and delicacy which are
most admired. The sacred imagery of Seville or the Saints of
Murillo illustrate this point abundantly.
The avoidance previously noted between the girl's father
and her novio can now be explained. Until the young man
marries her and thereby becomes a member of her family
and therefore a person concerned in her verguenza, he repre
sents a threat to it and through it to that of her family. The
avoidance may be seen to relate to the ambiguity of his
position as, at the same time, both the potential future son-
frigidity
in-law and also as a threat to the family's verguenza*

In the juxtaposition of these two conceptions, manliness
and
one
verguenza, there are two possible bases of interrelation

social, the other anti-social. In marriage, the wife's
:
verguenza ratifies the husband's manliness
and combined with
fertility proves it. Through his manliness he gives her

children, thereby raising her to the standing of mother and
enabling her to pass her vergiienza on. The instincts implanted
her
by nature are subordinated
to a social end.
But
if
these
then they
threaten the institution of the family. Extra-marital mani
festations of female sexuality threaten the verguenza of her
own kin. On the other hand, the male attempt to satisfy his
self-esteem in a sexually aggressive way is also anti-social but
for a different reason. If he approaches a woman who has
instincts
seek
satisfaction
outside
marriage
he involves her in its loss and through that loss in

that of another man's manliness, a husband's or a future
husband's. Within the community of the pueblo this cannot
verguenza,
THE SEXES
Il8
but be a serious matter, and Chapter XI will show how the

moral terms,
pueblo reacts to such a threat. Expressed in
vergiienza is the
predominant value of the home.
It involves
restraint of individual desires, the fulfilment of social obliga

altruism within the family, personal virtue and social
tions,
to female
good. Manliness, on the other hand, unharnessed
and the values of the home which it upholds and
economically supports, means the conquest of prestige and
individual glory, the pursuit of pleasure, a predatory attitude
towards the female sex and a challenging one towards the
virtue
male ; hence social evil and personal vice. According to the

values of the pueblo it is only a force of good as long as it
remains within, or potentially within, the institution of
marriage.
The value system expressed in these conceptions has been

treated so far as if it were common to the whole of the society
of Alcald and uniform throughout even a far more extended
area. Yet this is hardly to be expected. Anyone acquainted
with the social history of Europe will have observed the
variation in the customs relating to sex, both from one country
to another, but above all from one
the same country and historical
within
social class to another
values are characteristic
certain
period, while on the contrary
and
also
from one period
of a particular class throughout European history. The

"immorality" of aristocracies is traditional, while, to take an
example from a different class, the attitudes in relation to sex
be valid only within

the middle-classes of Protestant or Jewish cultures. In fact,
generally speaking, there is a difference in attitude not only
defined
by Freud have been declared
to
between the Andalusian senorito

cannot be said to amount to a
serious difference in values so much as a difference in the
opportunities to implement or defy them. Men with more
money and greater freedom of movement have more oppor
a
tunity to indulge their manliness in what would, within
between the sexes but
and the pueblo
also
(plebs). It
anti-social way. If the behaviour of the

conforms less strictly to the morality of the pueblo, it
is because they escape the full force of the moral sanctions of
the community. They demand, at the same time, a stricter
community, be an
senoritos
mode
of conduct from their womenfolk.
Iig
On
account of the
social prestige which they enjoy, they feel themselves entitled

to justify their manliness in relation to the
sex, even
opposite
this involves
them
which they regard as

morally wrong. It does not involve them in loss of shame as
long as their womenfolk are not involved in any way. The
sanctions which hold the anti-social manifestations of sex in
though
in conduct
check cannot depend upon the public opinion of the pueblo

where the pueblo would never know anything about
it, but only (apart from conscience) upon a particular con
in cases
cern for other social personalities which
is
expressed in the
word "respect". A young man who came to the pueblo as

a summer visitor explained once that while friendship with
an attractive girl was virtually impossible on account of the
which the young man would have of making a con
desire
quest, there were, nevertheless, certain relationships of trust
which obliged him to avoid placing himself in a situation

where he might be the prey to temptation. These relation
ships of trust were created by the respect which he had in the
first place for the girl's husband or novio,
secondly for her
father, and thirdly for her brother. If one were not acquain
ted with the persons in question then there was no obligation
to refrain from gallantries. There was, however, one final
exception and this was when one felt respect for her of the
kind which one might have towards one's wife, or such that
one might wish to make her one's wife. 1 In effect, these
restrictions virtually exclude any young woman who is
regarded as a social equal, and in this way the manifestations
of anti-social sex are projected outside the circle of local
upper
class society.
possible to see now that the conceptual basis of sexual

behaviour is the same in the society of the senoritos of the
large towns as in the pueblo, only the background of sanc
tions against which it is brought into play differs. The com
munity not the system of values is different. When a wealthy
summer visitor attempted to persuade a young girl of the
It
is
i The
respect is of course for her verguenza. To achieve her conquest -would
entail the loss of her vergiienza, which would involve one in a relationship with
her male relatives incompatible with that between affinal kin. In a slightly
"
way a man is said to lack "respect for his wife if he indulges in extra
different
marital adventure's.
THE SEXES
120
pueblo to allow him to set her up as his mistress in a flat in

Seville, he was frustrated. The religious associations under
the leadership of the wives of the
her off to a convent.
senoritos
of the village packed
If the essential values of manliness and verguenza are

similar throughout the social structure of the pueblo, there
are, nevertheless, certain points at which differences of status
and
naturaleza cut across the values relating to the sexes. The

of the family are conducted in different
social relations
spheres by the husband or the wife and these are relatively of

greater or lesser importance according to the position of the
family in society, its relationship to the community or to the
The
position of the administrators' wives furnishes an

Their
husbands have a function to fulfil which gives
example.
them a basis for their relationship with the pueblo. But the
state.
wives, on the contrary, coming mostly from the big towns,

find themselves restricted by their conception of social class
and
and by the fact that they participate in

which unite the women of the pueblo.
tend
not
to
establish
They
deep friendships except with one
stick
to
to
much
their
another,
houses, and to bemoan their
fate in having to live in such an outlandish place as Alcala.
Several who come from Malaga, Jerez or Cddiz spend much
their naturaleza
few of the
activities
of their time there with their parents. The position of the

wives is not the same. They play a leading part in
Church affairs and are attached to the pueblo, apart from
their membership of the community by birth, through their
senoritos'
work in organising the Church brotherhoods, and the various

other functions in which, officially or unofficially,
women
intervene.
In brief the significance of sex in a society comprises

is termed the division of labour. The
sex of a person determines his position not only in regard to
the organisation of productive or useful labour but to all
activities, and not only in regard to activities but in regard to
much more than what
the values which influence conduct.
In this society it can be seen that men are entrusted with

authority, with the earning of money, the acquisition of
prestige
(a woman taking her status by and large from her
121
husband), with relations of an official character, that is to

in
say, with institutions recognised by the law of the land
consequence of which the sanctions which the law exerts
apply more effectively to them, that they spend a greater
amount of time outside the pueblo and the home, that they
are permitted a more aggressive attitude in sexual behaviour,
and that they gain
prestige through qualities of strength and

courage.
Conversely, women are entrusted with the maintenance of
the home and all that it means, are more continually in the
pueblo, and are more susceptible to the sanctions of personal
criticism or gossip in the dissemination of which they play a
more important part, as they also do in religious observances.
greater reserve is required of them in matters touching
sex, and they are thought to be the repository for the whole
family of the quality of shame upon which the sanctions of
above
all
morality operate.
They gain admiration through beauty and
delicacy, but physical courage is not required of them.

These differences, by no means comprehensive, are seen to
vary in relation to social status according to the relative
importance in their lives of forces exterior to the pueblo, or

of forces deriving from the personal contacts within it. Thus,
people are more dependent upon personal contacts
than are those who can read for themselves the notices in the
Town Hall and the provincial newspaper while, to give
another example, people who employ a servant, in that the
illiterate
womenfolk no longer go to the fountain or the wash-house, are

relatively less dependent upon it. The distinction will also
be seen to be significant in relation to the institutions which
are described subsequently.
CHAPTER IX
Political Structure
WHEN I first entered the casino I was asked to meet
ec
el
amo
de Alcald ("the master of Alcald") and it is common to

ec
hear the expression el amo del pueblo" in reference to the
mayor. In the village his word is law. He is the "delegate of
55
the government 1 appointed, being a town of less than
10,000 inhabitants, by the provincial governor. He is not
paid, but his appointment is an order which may not be
refused. He must have the civil governor's permission if he is
to be absent from his post for more than fifteen days, and he
must inform the provincial capital if he is to be absent for
more than twenty-four hours. The post is of indefinite dura
53
The symbol of his authority is the rod, and until the

establishment of a post of the Civil Guard (as little as eight
years ago in the case of Benalurin) the mayor of the pueblo
bore the sole and direct responsibility for public order.
tion.
The mayor
by the town clerk, a

of a professional corps, appointed by
the Ministry of the Interior, and only in very rare instances
a son of the pueblo. He is the person who knows the law and
runs the Town Hall. There is a town council of six members,
elected, two by the "vecinos cabezas de familia" (neigh
bours, the heads of households), two by the syndicates, and a
civil servant,
is
assisted in his duties
member
further two
by the four already elected from a list presented

governor. These elections excite little interest and
in fact the mayor has more or less whom he wants. From
by the
civil
their number he appoints two to be his lieutenants.

In Chapter I we were concerned with the moral unity of
the pueblo and the ways in which it was differentiated,
culturally, from other pueblos. In the overt political structure
among
this
unity
is
emphasised no
less.
The competence of
the
The form of local government derives from the Ley de Regimen Local, 1950,
With reference to the opening paragraph of this chapter, cf. arts. 59-67.
1
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
23
municipality extends over such matters as urban planning,

the administration of its properties and the common lands,
:
measures relating to hygiene, rural and urban police, trans

ports, marketing, including the establishment of monopolies
in its favour, the levying of certain forms of taxation,
instruction, culture and social assistance. These responsi
bilities are met from a budget of about a third of a million
pesetas. About half this sum is derived from property owned
by the municipality. The other half is made up from octrois,
a tax upon the killing of beasts, a percentage of various taxes
formerly owned by the municipality but now the property of
the state these taxes are collected in the pueblo by a taxcollector who is the employee of the state and an outsider,
but who lives in the pueblo compensation paid by the state
has recently appropriated, and
unemployment benefit. In addition, the mayor's
which
for other taxes
subsidies for
it
powers include a number of emergency measures such as

that which entitles him, in times of hunger, to levy a special
contribution for the support of the unemployed, or alterna
tively, in such circumstances, to allot men in need of support
to the different households of the community where they
must be fed and given a small wage for the support of their
family until the time of crisis is over. It is also customary for
him to decide upon a minimum for each householder's
The
municipality's out
the
servants,
up-keep of public
wages
the
law-court; public works; the financ
buildings, including
such
as the yearly fair taxes of the
of
functions
ing
public
contribution to certain charities.
goings consist of:
to
its
the properties of the municipality ; public debt ;

public assistance (apart from that of the health insurance
scheme) either direct or in the form of free medicine, treat
ment and burial for the indigent about four times as much
is spent upon this as is received for the purpose in the state
state
upon
subsidy; down to 5,000 pesetas set aside to meet the expense

of receiving a state official should one happen to pay Alcala
the honour of a
visit.
The hamlet of Penaloja is administered integrally with

Alcala. The mayor of Penaloja is appointed by the mayor of
Alcala and has no powers except as his representative. The
other pueblos of the partido are entirely independent of
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
12 A
mayor of Alcala is
the provincial council, and as such he
Alcala. In this instance the

to
also the
deputy
represents the
pueblos of the partido.
between
recognises four forms of co-operation
or commonwealth. Only
mancomunidad
called
municipalities,
The law
two of these are illustrated in this partido Agrupacion forzosa,

the obligatory sharing of the services and expenses of the
institutions of the law by all the municipalities ofthepartido
which municipalities are free to
and
:
agrupacion facultativa
such an
engage in by mutual agreement. Alcald possesses
alliance with Benalurin in regard to the services and ex
of the vet. The vet of Alcala is thus also the vet of
penses
Benalurin.
doctor and the chemist are directly dependent on the

the municipality
municipality. They receive a salary paid by
In the doctor's
services.
social
the
in
role
their
of
in virtue
his private
from
is
derived
income
his
of
case the greater part
The
in the chemist's case his shop. They cannot be

considered purely as servants of the municipality, but they
practice,
and
are obliged to co-operate with it in many matters; and

though their appointment does not depend on the mayor,
they are in no position to oppose his policy.
Mention has already been made of the rural schoolmasters
who give lessons on the farms. The

members of the corps
to
whom
"national schoolmasters",
public education is entrusted,
are very different. Theirs is a "career" and appointments are

made by the state, with the agreement of the municipality by
whom they are actually paid. Of the five schoolmasters of
Alcald only two are sons of the pueblo. One is from Benalurin,
and the remaining two are Andalusians. Of the four school
mistresses only one is of the pueblo. These schools, situated
all in the town save for the single mixed school in the valley,
educate the majority of the children of Alcala. Certain poor

families of shepherds need the services of their children with
the flocks and would prefer not to send them to school, but
pressure is brought to persuade them to do so. There is much
on the part of the political

and the present regime has devoted great efforts to
talk of the disgrace of illiteracy
leaders
education.
The education is, although free
of the Church,
much concerned
of the organisation
with religious teaching, for
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
the rulers feel that
125
ensure the religious

the
was
education of
working-classes
responsible for the
will be an
Most
that
education
War.
Civil
people recognise
their failure
to
1
advantage to their children, and one may sometimes en
counter a compromise between the demands of the present
and the hopes of the future in the shepherd boy who sits on
the hillside doing his sums. The families of the landowners
and professional men normally send their children to the

local school when they are small and to a convent-school in
Ronda
for their later education.
A certain anomaly may be detected in the position of these

servants both of municipality and state the schoolmasters,
town clerks, secretaries of the Town Hall or of Justice. They
:
are, on the one hand, members of a professional body to

which they owe their professional status, and, on the other,
members of a local body. These two sometimes divergent
ties
member of
are resolved in the system of appointments.
fill a vacancy, but he may
to
be
may
appointed
the corps
then prefer not to discharge the duties himself but to put in

a substitute approved by the municipality, also a member of
the corps, paying him a percentage of the salary (or even the
whole salary for the effect of devaluation has brought
hardship to these people, and they can barely live modestly
upon their earnings if they have a family). He may then
devote himself to other matters or he may equally take on the
his liking. Thus the mayor
job of substitute in a place more to
a
substitute schoolmaster who held an
was until recently
as schoolmaster in another part of Andalusia.
official
post
His wife, a schoolmistress, held her post in Alcala "by right ".
The owner of the post may at any time oblige his substitute
to relinquish it to him in order that he may fill it in person.
When the owner of the mayor's post returned this happened,
but the
latter,
had
abandon it. In the same way, the town
provincial council, already
and was very ready

clerk of Alcala
1
The
partido to the
plenty of work on his hands
having become deputy of the
is
to
substitute for a Catalan
great emphasis which the Anarchist
who
Movement
prefers to live
laid
upon education
the poor families

children nothing but a
to deride the state education saying that they teach the
lot of religious nonsense.
may be recalled in this connection. There is a tendency among
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
126
in Barcelona. He, himself,
"owns"
the post of
town
clerk
in a nearby pueblo.
There are other servants of the

function in the pueblo but are
state
who
less directly
exercise their
dependent upon
the municipality the state tax-collector, the administrator of

to
posts and telegraph, and so on. They, nevertheless, require
their
and
collaborate closely with the municipal authorities,
:
common dependence upon
the provincial capital ensures
this.
executives of the municipality include the clerical

the rural guard, the municipal guards, the alguaciles (the
The
staff,
of Justice), the cemetery-keeper, etc. They are all

sons of the pueblo and are purely dependent upon the muni
which even has freedom to dress its guards in the
officers
cipality
choosing. They execute the will of the muni

of its competence. They are persons
cipality in all the sphere
endowed with authority. The rural guard must see that pigs
uniform of
its
farms, as well as those which are brought to

the slaughter-house of the pueblo, are declared and pay the
tax; he must verify matters which are brought before the
killed
upon the
courts.
The guards have powers of arrest and a responsibility
In the case of any serious

outbreak of violence, however, they send for the Civil Guard:
for public order within the pueblo.

collect the octrois
They
and they enforce the
Town
Hall's
are responsible for

regulations regarding the markets. They
taxes and that
their
seeing that people do not avoid paying
the census returns are filled in correctly. They perform these
duties with a zeal tempered by human understanding, for
they are not the anonymous representatives of the state, but

members of the pueblo known by everybody since their
childhood. The fact that they are called by their Christian
names and nicknames, in contrast to the Civil Guard who

are known by their surnames, illustrates the difference in the
relationship of the two organisations to the pueblo. They are
not moved by a desire to see that the law is carried out to the
but rather that the wishes of the mayor are obeyed. To
give an example, the tax upon business enterprises is only
paid by those of importance, for the municipal guards are
letter
prepared to turn a blind eye to poor people

i
A post is
said to be held depropiedad
by the
who
official
try to
make
incumbent.
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
127
their living by trading or baking. But from time to time the

mayor decides that things are getting out of hand and sends
them round to close down the unlicensed businesses.
The essence of the political doctrine which inspires the
present government of Spain

organisation.
itself from the
is
to
be found in the syndical

in 1934, proclaimed
The "party", founded

first
"national-syndicalist", and, in contrast to
British trade-unionism, which grew from the need to unite

the workers in order to give them the power to protect their
own interests, it envisaged a system of syndicates which would

include both employers and employed and would fill the
role, in the desired state, both of labour organisation and
unique political party. It claimed to incarnate the destiny of
Spain. The party grew to power quickly during the Civil
War, and, although many compromises were imposed upon
by the demands of the times, it succeeded in maintaining,
within the national movement, the supremacy of its ideas in
regard to labour. These ideas grew up, not like those of the
Andalusian Anarchists in the agricultural towns, but in the
capital and industrial cities. Their application in the social
it
structure of Alcala presents a strikingly different picture to

that which may be seen in some other parts of Spain, and
even of Andalusia. This is not the place for such comparisons.
We
are concerned only with the office of the secretary of

syndicates in the pueblo of Alcala, and the central provincial
headquarters which issues regulations relating to wage-levels,

and which
price-levels for controlled agricultural produce,
which
to
of
disputes regarding
appeal
provides a court
employment may be taken. These disputes are first of
all heard in the office of the secretary of syndicates in
the pueblo before a court comprised of two members of the
Secci6n Economica (employers) and two members of the
Seccion Social (employees), where, as a general rule, they
are settled.
de Trigo, is also
grain-control, the Servicio Nacional
the
syndicate as are all the
operated in the pueblo through
office of the syndicates,
The
controls of agricultural produce.
Town
Hall, apportions among the
in collaboration with the
farmers the share of the grain which the pueblo is required to
The
produce. This grain
is
paid for at a controlled price. The
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
28
black-market price sometimes soars to as much as four times

this figure. The system originally demanded that an agreed
area should be sown with wheat on each farm, and the
farmer was then required to declare his crop. The prevalence
"
of the return which asserted that the crop had been totally
lost" induced a more down-to-earth method of raising the
on the
required amount. After the harvest a list is published
Town Hall notice-board stating what each farmer's contribu
tion to the grain service is, and, after that, how he provides
it is his own business. The syndical chiefs are responsible for
this
list.
A varying number of other kinds
of produce
is
also
controlled in a similar way, though there is no obligation to

cultivate specific crops. Inspectors arrive in the pueblo from
time to time to supervise the collection of produce or to attempt

to discover irregularities in the observance of the orders
of
relating to these and other matters under the jurisdiction
1
and
feared
are
visits
Their
the Syndical organisation.
resented by the whole pueblo, whose reaction to them has
already been mentioned in Chapter I. Yet they are treated
as guests should be treated. They for their part tend to be
(One refused, on one occasion,

had been placed before
which
of wine
reserved in their behaviour.
to touch the glass

him.) Upon their arrival or
word
is
knowledge of their approach

sent to the valley where the millers prepare to receive
their visit. This involves stopping the mill, sweeping up the

flour and hiding it and the grain. Each mill is sealed with a
wire which runs round the stone from the centre to the outer
edge and is fixed with a metal seal. This is removed while the
mill is in use but must be replaced for the inspector's visit,
for
it testifies
that the mill has remained idle. These opera
tions require considerable time and cannot be carried out

in under an hour, so that from time to time a miller is caught
red-handed. The inspector in due course reports the matter,

and a fine is imposed by the provincial headquarters and in
due course published. Upon certain occasions, however, the
inspector can be persuaded to be lenient provided he
is
1 An account of the activities of an

inspector is to be found in G. Brenan,
The Face of Spain (London, 1950). In order to simplify, the distinction between
the "inspector" and the "fiscal" is overlooked and both are here referred to as
inspectors.
7.
A sabia
reciting
an oration
8.
An
old gypsy
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
approached in
is
good
I2Q
time.
nothing to be done.
It
Once
the fine
is
published there
must be paid.
The law-court ofthepartido is situated in Alcala. dispute

enters the realm of law when a denunciation is made to the
Hall. The disputants are then summoned before one
of the Justices of the Peace accompanied by their hombre
Town
"good man"). There are two J.P.s. One is

owner of the cloth-factory, the other the owner of the
cinema. The hombre bueno is any person of the litigant's
bueno (literally
the
whom he can trust to present his case well.

both parties and reasons with the hombres
hears
J.P.
with those they represent. Slowly the truth
reason
who
buenos,
choice, a friend
The
thrashed out and the J.P., in the majority of cases, per

suades both parties to agree. He has no power to impose
decisions and if the parties do not agree he can only take a
1
summary of evidence and refer the matter to court. "I am
is
a Justice of the Peace/ says one, "my duty is to make peace.

Only if I fail, does the matter go before the judge." Court
and a great deal of
proceedings involve a great deal of delay
a slightly
in
criminal
The
accusations,
have,
J.P.s
expense.
5
able to award punishment for

greater competence. They are
such minor offences as gambling or abuses of municipal
a fine up to the limit of 500
regulations. They can impose
can sentence a man to a day's work mending
pesetas, or they
the street under the supervision of the Civil Guard.
A strong distaste for formal justice, a distrust of it and a
for an equitable arrangement are to be found in
preference
the sentiments of the whole pueblo including those of the
authorities.
good illustration of these was provided
legal
a living for
by the following incident. A poor man gained
methods
various
himself and his family catching game by
the
to
licit and illicit. One night returning
pueblo his gun
his
cost
and
neighbour her eye. It was
exploded by accident
no
had
he
out of season, and
gun licence. He was arrested
can be compared to that of the corredor in
defends the pride of the litigant and enables him to withdraw
from his position, not in answer to the threats of his adversary, but in answer to
a situation
the pleading of his friend. There is an element of bargaining in such
which is offset by the J.P.'s exposition of the law and his warning of what is likely
i
The
role of the hombre bueno
bargaining.
to
happen
P.S.
He
in court.
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
and held by the Civil Guard. But after the case had been
examined by the J.P., people in authority began to ask them
selves what useful end would be served by sending him to
of good character. The mayor, the
prison. He was a man
the matter. The priest put in a
discussed
the
and
judge
J.P.
it was agreed that if the culprit paid
and
for
lenience,
plea
2,000 pesetas compensation to the woman who had lost her
The woman was a
eye no further action would be taken.
widow who depended
for her living
upon sewing.
If the
man
he would not be able to earn anything to pay

to
her, and in addition his family would be
compensation
left without means of support. The man had no money, but
the director of the agricultural bank, the Monte de Piedad,
went
to prison
was persuaded to advance him the amount on the guarantee

of two guarantors whom the regulations of the Monte de
Piedad require, and who, not without a certain amount of
the
difficulty, were found. The case did not appear before
as
far
better
all
than
solution
was
court. This
regarded by
any that the law was capable of providing.
A case in which litigation arose will be examined in more
detail in a later chapter, and it will be seen once more that
ethical considerations influence the course of formal justice.
The authority of the mayor is exerted through the munici

of
pal guards. The persecution of offenders against the law
the state, the criminal code, is in the hands of the Civil Guard.
In fact, no clear distinction between municipal and national
authority can be made in everyday life. The Civil Guard
takes action at the request of the mayor, for, as I have pointed
out, a high degree of co-operation exists between the rulers
of the pueblo. The Civil Guard is commanded by a corporal

has a section of eight men, They live in a house in the
who
pueblo with their wives and families* It
is
called,
both
offici
and by the pueblo, the barracks.

The Civil Guard was raised originally in 1844 in order to
combat the bandits, and was subsequently of great importance
in the repression of the Anarchist risings which became fre
ally
quent in Andalusia during the latter half of the century. Semimilitary in character and organisation, they became no ted for
the roughness of their methods, and were not beyond em-
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
31
ploying on occasions the celebrated ley defugas, a pseudo-legal

method of disposing of unwanted prisoners. They were much
hated by the pueblo, and this fact was influential in the

course of the Civil War in Andalusia. The first thought of
the Anarchists
when
they came to power was to
settle old
scores with them, so that in the towns of Andalusia they were

forced willy-nilly into common cause with the rebellion. In
the capitals they frequently remained loyal to the Republic.

The greater part of their time is spent in patrolling the
countryside,
and while there were
still
bandits in
the
was not only hard but

in pairs and always armed.
always
They
go
perilous.
the pueblo are amicable.
Superficially their relations with
There are sons of the pueblo who have joined the force and
who return to visit their families while on leave for not all
their strength is recruited from the sons of former members,
but it is recognised that it is not possible to contract relations
of lasting friendship with them. For even though an under
mountains around Alcala
their life
standing is necessary with them if their good will is to be

maintained, at any moment their orders may require them
to violate the obligations of friendship. The farmers generally,
but particularly the millers who are open to denunciation for
milling at any moment, require to be on good terms with
them, and
it is
customary for them to receive clandestine
from time to time. Their position in

presents of flour or grain
the pueblo can be seen to consist, like that of the municipal
their personal relations
guards, in a compromise between
with members of the pueblo and their duty to co-operate in
But whereas the
implementing the will of the authorities.
are concerned
and
the
of
are
sons
pueblo
municipal guards
Guard are
Civil
the
authorities
the
with
only,
municipal
members of a state organisation, and while they

are under the orders of
co-operate with the mayor they
outsiders,
their officer in Jacinas. Ultimately they

to him.
need answer only
the somatenes
Finally there exists a kind of home guard,
Primo de
General
of
the
time
in
armados, raised originally
the
whom
in
of
present
Rivera and
persons
composed
meet as a body but are in

regime has confidence. They do not
and
in their homes,
may be called upon
possession of arms
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
132
to assist in the operations against the bandits, or to respond

to any other call for armed force which may be made.
The
place of the Church within the social structure is a

matter which cannot be ignored, even though it is not my
intention to discuss religion. In Andalusia the Civil War
might be likened to a religious conflict, in that the most
important criterian of political action was allegiance or
opposition to the Church. The names upon the memorial
and the roofless churches bear witness to this fact. In
tablets
the pueblos of the countryside, in contrast sometimes to the

big towns, the persons whom the Left put to death were
who had been connected with the Church
priests, persons
such as sacristans, and pious persons particularly among the

must be remembered that in fact the
professional classes. It
the
of
pueblo strongly disapproved of shooting any
majority
a
rule
As
body.
people were put to death, not publicly in the
in
the
account given in Hemingway's novel, For
as
pueblo
Whom the Bell Tolls, but secretly at night, a mile or two from
the town. In many instances those responsible were not
members of the pueblo at all but political or militia chiefs
from other pueblos or the big towns.

This situation of pro-clerical rulers and an anti-clerical
pueblo is the reverse of that which saw the birth of anticlericalism in Spain a century and a half ago, and this
reversal
is
one of the conundrums of Spanish history. Brenan
suggests that the effect of disestablishing the Church and

sequestrating its lands was to throw the clergy into the arms
of the propertied class
who made
political use
of
it,
and
among the landless

provoked opposition
labourers. 1 In so far as it is possible to abstract a sequence of
cause and effect from the multiple conditions of social history,
this explanation has not been bettered. Yet one must not
overlook the fact that a similar evolution has occurred in
other countries of very different political history. It must be
stressed, in any case, that anti-clericalism is not necessarily
the outcome of loss of religious faith, and to make such a
supposition here would be to misplace the problem. In Alcala
to
thereby
it
strong anti-clerical opinions and faith in the powers of the

i
G. Brenan, The
Spanish Labyrinth.
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
133
saints, and particularly of the Blessed Virgin, are able to go

hand in hand. This ambivalence, whose significance must
be
not directed uniquely to the institu

it is most marked in
regard to it;
to exist in regard to the senoritos.
question of faith is not relevant to an examination of
left to later
pages,
is
Church though
has already been shown
tion of the
it
The
the political structure. What is relevant is the uniqueness

of the institution of the Church in relation to social life. The
Church alone can
baptise, marry,
bury, celebrate the patron
and the seasonal festivals and punctuate the

calendar with the saints' days round which the folklore hangs.
There is one priest of Alcala and four churches of which
one was burned in the Anarchist rising of April 1936. There
saint of the pueblo
are five religious brotherhoods devoted to the cult of different

whose members are recruited from the pueblo.
saints,
Subscriptions are extremely low, from i to 2 pesetas per

in four brotherhoods, and
pesetas in the fifth
case. The wives of the senoritos play a leading part in these
annum
organisations.
Their
functions
the
are
organisation
of
and charity. Of greater influence is the

Catholic Action Committee which exerts itself in all matters
religious festivals
touching religion, particularly in using pressure to get the

of the Church observed by the poor, and to have
immoral diversions such as modern dancing prohibited or at
rites
any
rate discouraged. Missionary
of the Catholic Action
work
who go round
is
done by the
ladies
the houses of the poor
men are out at work and endeavour to persuade

the women to go to confession. This causes resentment
among anti-clerical husbands. "They go round in pairs like
the Civil Guard," a man once complained. They also do
while the
good works, arranging
for the care of the indigent
and in
firm.
In
all
women
looks
the
are
upon
part in
it
organisations connected with the Church

active than men. The pueblo (plebs)
much more
religion as
save
women's
business,
and men play
little
when encouraged or constrained to do so. They
and
require no more from it than the fulfilment of its rites,
in
and
also
in
both
church
religious
processions,
attendance,
i
Civil marriage outside the
Church was introduced by the Republic and
abolished by the present government.
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
34
this is
predominantly feminine. Among educated people
not the case. On the other hand, men of the ruling group tend
is
to consider
to
them
more the
anti-clerical
the attitude of
political
and
men
social
political implications
of religion, and
synonymous with "Red". In general,

towards the Church is determined by
considerations; for these, as has been
is
shown, are men's not women's business.
The
institutions
which compose the
political structure all
depend upon a small number of persons in the pueblo. These

are the core of what I have designated "the ruling group".
The central figure is the mayor and all except the Church
depend directly upon the co-operation of the municipality.
by virtue of his position, also the local jefe del

"
national movement", the
head of the
mommiento,
which the chief of state
of
political parties of
amalgamation
is the supreme national head. As such he has authority over
the secretary of the syndicates, and also over the "Move
The mayor
is,
the
ment's" members,
who
comprise
all
of the ruling group.
However, manners mean much to the Andalusian and it is

not an authority which is constantly invoked. The mayor
as a hierarchical head
gives himself no airs. He appears, not
his
from
his
subordinates, but simply
authority
separated by
The
of
the group.
as the key figure
group, as an actual reality
visible in the tertulia, the
is
rather than an abstract concept,
a
round
table, and it is generally
group of friends sitting
recognised that the realities of local politics are to be sought
not in formal declarations in official contexts but in the
informal talking among friends. The priest holds a tertulia
on summer evenings outside the church. The mayor holds
one sometimes in the town hall at the end of the morning,
but he is more frequently seen

another in the casino.
The
casino is
the
last,
sitting
with one group or
and perhaps the most important, of
a club possessing
is to say
tenants
and
small
all
those
day-labourers,
except
roughly
artisans but including some habitual summer visitors. It is a
club in the sense that it has entrance fee and subscription,
the political institutions of the pueblo. It
is
some one hundred and twenty members, that
but
it
opens
its
doors to strangers, and during the
fair, for
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
135
example, much like any other cafe. It is the meeting ground

for the men of the ruling group, their friends and all those
who are slightly well-to-do. Here cards and dominoes are
is
played ceaselessly, and occasionally
chess. In summer there

are tables outside under the trees in the square, but there are
also rooms at the back and upstairs. When important private
business has to be discussed, a meeting takes place in one of

the rooms, but this is rarely. Where everything depends in
is a
prohibition upon
with someone for private conversation
arouses comment and the worst is always suspected. So the
affairs of the pueblo are discussed casually and in public,
but with infinite tact. When something important has to be
said men go for a walk together to the end of the street.
The casino is called the Circulo de la Union for it was
formed by the fusion of the old liberal and conservative clubs.
These clubs sprang up in Andalusia in the nineteenth
century and were a necessary part of the system ofcaciquismo.
Their union (and two have given way to one in all the smaller
pueblos) illustrates the change which overtook the pueblos
on the break-up of that system. After the general strike of
1917 the Conservative and Liberal parties combined in
a revolution which
coalition against the threat of revolution
have
balances
materialised.
The
shifted, and their
eventually
fact
upon
secrecy.
private understandings there
To
retire
descendants remain bound together in the face of the pueblo

and in their dependence upon the power of the state. The
advances in the techniques of political control, of communi
and of transport, and the economic interdependence

the
resulting from them have lessened the distance between
the
at
but
central
the
local community and
government,
their
between
the
difference
same time have accentuated
cations
Today the senoritos are culturally less part of the

The regional
pueblo, more part of the regional middle-class.
of their
Much
centre.
the
middle-class has moved further to
cultures.
political
into the hands of professional

conflict, inherent in all authority, has
power has passed
administrators.
The
broken out and been resolved, in the case of present-day

Andalusia, in favour of the central state which has drawn
more directly under its political control the leadership of
the Ipcal community. That this development has not been
POLITICAL STRUCTURE
136
followed throughout the whole of Spain a glance at the

country's history suffices to reveal. Where the integration of
the local community has held fast, the conflict has developed
at a different structural level (notably in the agricultural
communities of the north). It was not fortuitous that the
growth of a revolutionary working-class movement and the
growth of the nationalist

hand in hand.
separatist
movements went forward
CHAPTER X
Friendship and Authority
THE
INSTITUTIONS through which
the pueblo is governed

Yet in order to make plain
carried out we must examine one further
were discussed in the
how government is
last chapter.
and the way it interlocks with

the structure of authority.
The egalitarian values of the pueblo are one of the themes
of this study. Where all men are equal conceptually, the
basis of their co-operation can only be reciprocal service ;
institution, that of friendship,
a voluntary reciprocity dictated by the mutual agreement

of the parties, as opposed to the prescribed reciprocity
of ranks. The spirit of contract, not the spirit of status,
determines their dealings. Such a spirit has already been
observed in the system of co-operation in agriculture. Only
one relationship outside kinship is ordained by the values of
the pueblo rather than by the free will of those concerned and
that is the neighbour. The supremacy of the geographical
principle of social integration has been mentioned already,
and this evaluation of proximity as a social bond provides the
moral basis of neighbourship. Neighbours are thought to have
particular rights and obligations towards one another.
Borrowing and lending, passing embers, help in situations of

emergency, discretion regarding what they may have chanced
to discover, compose the obligations into which neighbours
are forced by their proximity, but it must be stressed that the
1
relationship of neighbour
1
is
never a formal one. 2
It is
Cooking is all done with charcoal. A charcoal fire is easily lit by placing an
ember from another fire in the bottom of the grate. To light it otherwise
much more trouble.
2 As for
example in the Spanish Basque village (cf. J. Garo Baroja, Los
of the
Vascos), where in the funeral procession the coffin is borne by the heads
involves
four nearest houses, each one having his appointed place. In Alcala neighbours
also bear the coffin, but there is no rule as to which neighbours. It is borne by
anyone who offers himself or by a relative. If no one steps forward for this labour
then
it
becomes a service which must be paid. To be borne to one's grave by

is indeed a sign that one has died unloved.
hired hands
FRIENDSHIP
138
AND AUTHORITY
matter of mutual necessity, a relationship into which good

people enter willingly. The pueblo rings with accusations,
behind the victim's back of course, of being a bad neighbour.
." To be
"If only one could choose one's neighbours.
friendly is the duty of a properly brought-up person towards
anyone while he is present, but a neighbour is always present.
He might be described, then, as a friend whom circum
.
stances impose
upon
one.
Friendship, properly, is the free association with a person

of one's choice. It implies a mutual liking (simpatia), but, as
we shall see, this aspect of it is sometimes put at the beck and
call of its other aspect
mutual
To
service.
enter into friend
ship with someone means putting oneself in a state of obliga

tion. This obligation obliges one to meet his request, even
though it involves a sacrifice on one's own part. One must
not, if one can help it, say "no" to a friend. On the other
hand accepting a service involves him in an obligation,

which he must be ready to repay. Hence the necessity for
mutual confidence. One must have this as well as simpatia for
a friend. This much is true of friendship anywhere. What is
noticeable in Andalusia is the lack of formality which
surrounds it (save in the single instance of the compadre). No
formal declaration, no ritual initiates it one enters it through
offering or receiving a favour. The instance of the inspector,
who refused wine, "who wished friendship with no one"
illustrates this point. He would not risk entering into
reciprocal obligations which might interfere with his duty.
Whether in fact friendship exists or not is frequently in
doubt, hence the continual declarations of it, the reproaches
for "lack of confidence", the praise acclaiming "a good
friend". Hence also the subtle manoeuvres intended to test it.
For friendship to be real must be disinterested. The
language echoes the point continually. People assure one
another that the favour they do is done with no afterthought,
a pure favour which entails no obligation, an action which is
done for the pleasure of doing it, prompted only by the desire
;
to express esteem. 1
On
the other hand, the suggestion that
This assurance is also used by all the traffickers in the idiom of friendship
who surround the tourist, so that "sin interes* ninguno" ("with no thought of
interest") comes to mean by inversion "I am not charging you anything, but I
1
expect a tip."
FRIENDSHIP AND AUTHORITY
139
someone's friendship is "interested" is a grave one. Honour

able people fight shy of accepting a favour which they will
not be able or will not wish to return. The other may wish
for one's friendship in order to exploit it. Yet
having once
accepted friendship one cannot refuse to fulfil the obligations
of friendship without appearing oneself the exploiter, for one
has entered falsely into a tacit contract. This implication
which forfeits a man his shame is used frequently by the
exploiters of the principle of friendship.
For the fundamental conception of friendship contains a
paradox.
A friend
someone
whom
is,
one
according to the definition given above,

likes and admires and wishes to be
associated with for that reason.
The
association
is
established
through a favour which expresses one's simpatia. If the favour

is accepted,
then the bond of friendship is established.
Mutual confidence supposedly comes into existence. One is
then entitled to expect a return of favour. For favour is at
the same time both personal esteem and also service. The
word favor possesses, like the English word, the meanings of,
same time, an emotional attitude and also the material

gesture which might be thought to derive from this. The
at the
former can only be proved by the latter, hence the double

meaning of the word. Friendship which is interested is not
true friendship since the bond of simpatia is missing in its
place is vile calculation. The paradox, then, is this that while
:
a friend
entitled to expect a return of his feelings and

is not entitled to bestow them in that expectation.
is
favour he
The
criterion
flees
from
he
may
distinguishes true from false friendship

the anthropologist into the realms of motive. Yet
which
observe that
this
paradox gives to the institution of

which has been noted. The friend
friendship the instability

fails one ceases to be a friend.
who
way
The
boxid
is
broken.
The
1
clear for a re-alignment of personal relations,

Therefore the element of sympathy is all important. If the
is left
deeply attached then he will be true. He will

remain with one and sever his friendships with the rival
camp. Such a friend is the ideal. He has honour and manli
ness. But without actually forfeiting his honour he may
friend
is
through skilful evasion manage to maintain his friendships

with both sides. These people are famed for the skill with
FRIENDSHIP
AND AUTHORITY
which they dissimulate their feelings. Outsiders who come

from other parts of Spain to Alcala complain of the "in
directness" of the Andalusians. "You never know where you
are with them.
They will never tell you anything to your face.
then behind your

always be charming to you and
back they will betray you." But this histrionic capacity does
not mean that they have not strong feelings which they take
Hence the importance of gossip.
in
They
will
expressing.
pleasure
how
spoke of Y, how
People spend their time discussing
he looked when Z's name was mentioned. Friends inform
each other who speaks well and who badly of them behind
their back: Every conversation is determined by the relation
of the members of the audience. In this way the process
ships
is carried on. Yet there are also true friend

founded
upon affection and esteem, which approxi
ships,
mate to the ideal and endure a lifetime. Only they are few.
For the struggle for life too easily brings in what one might
call the reversed principle of friendship, where considera
of re-alignment
tions of interest dictate the expression of esteem.
The
a system
practical utility of such
commonplace
is
very great. It
is
that you can get nothing done in Andalusia

the more
friendship. It follows then that
save through
friends a man can claim the greater his sphere of influence;
the more influential his friends are the more influence he has.
and boastful
Friendship is thereby connected with prestige,
friends
characters like to assert how many
they have, how ex
So
while friendship
tensive is the range of their friendships.
it
place a free association between equals,
the
founda
becomes in a relationship of economic inequality
is
in the
first
tion of the system of patronage.

assists and protects the poor man,
works for him, gives
The
rich
man
employs,
and in return the latter

him esteem and prestige, and also
he is not robbed, by
protects his interests by seeing that
and by taking his
others
of
of
the
machinations
him
warning
The relationship of padrino and hombre de

a kind of lop-sided friendship from which the
part in disputes.
confianza
is
by no means excluded, though it may

owing
paradox already discussed, the
element ofsimpatia
happen
that,
is
to the
appearance of friendship be used to cloak a purely venal

arrangement, a rich man using his money to attain his ends.
141
There appears to have been a change in the evolution of

caciquismo of which the system of patronage was the core,
from the first type of patronage to the second. In the early
period cacique appears to have meant no more than a person
of local prestige, and one finds a young man in a novel of
1
Juan Valera boasting that his father is the cacique of the
pueblo, yet by the end of its course it has become a term of
opprobrium meaning a briber and corrupter, the employer
of the matin (bully). 2
There are many situations in which the patrono or padrino
3
He is not only able to favour his protege within
is of value.
the pueblo. It is, above all, his relationship to the powers
outside the pueblo which gives him value. For example, a
required to sign the application for an old-age

pension, testifying that the applicant was once employed by
him. Many such applications are signed by persons who
never in fact employed the applicant. He who can find no
patrono
is
one to sign gets no pension. The padrino can give letters of

recommendation to people who will do favours for him, who
will protect his proteges.
The story of a dispute in the valley can be used to illustrate

the values of friendship and authority in action. Fernando
Pifias, who has been, mentioned already, is a wealthy miller
and farmer, a syndical chief, and, though in his way of life a
member of the pueblo
(plebs),
he
is
a close friend of the mayor
and a person of local consequence. Thanks

outside the pueblo he
1
is
to his friendships
able to empadrinar the victims of the
J. Valera, Pepita Jimenez (Madrid, 1873).

Pio Baroja, Cesar o Nada, translated as Caesar or nothing
(New York 1922).

of patronage in former times was certainly greater than it is
today. Zugasti (Julian Zugasti, El Bandolerismo (Madrid, 1876)) explains the
power which it had in relation to the law during his governorship of the
2 Cf.
3
The power
province of Cordoba.
The copla of Gurro Lopez, a bandit of the first half of the nineteenth
century, written while he awaited his execution, speaks of the influence which
a powerful patroness once had :
"
"Now my madrina has died
Ya se muri6 mi madrina
The dear Duchess of Alba
La Duquesita de Alba
Had she not died on me
Si ella no se me muriera
a mi no me ajusticiaran "
They would never condemn me to
death !"
i
(Quoted by G. Bernaldo de Quirosy L. Ardila, El Bandolerismo (Madrid, 1931.)
FRIENDSHIP
142
AND AUTHORITY
The miller who is caught milling tells his friend

Fernando. Fernando is friendly with one of the inspectors.
He choses an occasion to see him and plead the case of the
miller. The inspector, it must be remembered, is entitled to a
percentage of the fine. But friendship can arrange such matters.
His neighbour, Curro, is a craftsman who lives on a small
irrigated huerto which is his own property. He is the son of a
focdia.
and
which
death his step-mother sold the

lies within the huerto to Fernando Pifias. This
mill
occasioned a quarrel, for Curro hoped to buy it from her and
claims that he had the money to do so at the time. In any
miller,
after his father's
Fernando Pinas refused to let Curro buy it back once

had been sold to him. Today it is run by Alonso, who
exploits it on a profit-sharing basis with the owner. Alonso
and Curro are next-door neighbours and friends. The water
course of the valley called El Rio and that called the
Arroyo del Chaparral unite in the garden of Curro. Fernando
Pinas' olive-mill called "Molino del Juncal" is placed upon
case,
it
the Arroyo,
but
his
grain-mill, occupied by Alonso, is

served by both waters. From that point
the channel descends, passing through a series of mills and
huertos. The first mill is owned by Curro' s first cousin and
situated lower
and
is
compadre, Pepe. Curro is friendly with all the millers for he is

a fine workman and specialises in work on mills. Some way
farther
down
is
the huerto of
Manuel
el
Conde
(the Count),
an independent very small farmer, a recognised authority on

agricultural matters and a close friend of Curro's.
Situated immediately above Curro's huerto
is
an improvised
acre of irrigation on the property belonging to the wife of

Juanito Sanchez who farms it. This is one of the huertos
which have been made during the past ten years "con agua
robada" ("with stolen water") and which have no title
either in the eyes of tradition or the law. It takes the spare
water from the main stream. Curro's huerto, on the other
hand, is an old one with as good a title to its water as any
in the valley, and he has resented the appearance of this new
one which threatens in a dry year to leave him short of water.
I can offer no assurance of the accuracy of the facts in
the story which follows, quite apart from the deliberate

changes made in the interest of discretion. The facts were
FRIENDSHIP
ANP AUTHORITY
JUANITO'S
HUERTO
which loses
its woter
The
part of
CURRO'S
,
HUERTO
which loses
its wafer
144
selected
first
of all by
my own range of personal

by my own judgement as
friendships, secondly
true and what was significant. This
and
what was
contacts
to
was not easy
for
it is
characteristic that everyone tells a quite different story,

"Is it not possible to know the truth in such cases?" I
once asked in despair. "Very rarely/' I was told, "for where

money is concerned there is no such thing as the truth. He
who has the money is always right." This, as will be seen, is a
somewhat cynical exaggeration, but it typifies the view of
those who regard the actual state of society as evil. They are
by no means only those whose sympathies remain with the
"Reds 53
prohibition in this system of values

with the truth, there is a very strong
against taking
one against passing gossip whether it be truth or falsehood.
The word alcahueta, which in the dictionary means in its
If there
is
little
liberties
is used in Alcala in the derived

a gossip. It is a
a
"run-see-and-tell",
correveidile,
term of heavy moral reproach, for it means a defaulter in the
obligations of "neighbourliness", one of the most important
of which is discretion. Gossiping is shameless behaviour, and
the accusation of it even couched in euphemistic terms may
primary sense a procureuse,

sense of a
provoke a violent quarrel. Yet the strength of opprobrium

which attaches to it does not suffice to ensure people's silence
but only to make them careful about what they say and to
whom,
for
it is
an offence only against the person betrayed.
In the eyes of the person

confidence ; to the teller
resist.
it
to
whom
affords
Hence the rhyme which
"No hay Sabado
sin sol
it is
tpld it
is
a pleasure which
says
a sign of
is
hard to
"There
is
no Saturday with
out sun
Ni rnocita sin amor

Ni viejo sin dolor
Ni forastero que no sea de
buena gente
Ni viejo que no haya
sido valiente
Ni campana sin lengueta

Ni vieja que no sea alcahueta."
Nor young girl without love

Nor old man without pains
Nor outsider who is not a
good fellow
old boy who has not
been a hero
Nor bell without a clapper
Nor old woman who is not a
Nor
gossip."
The
145
involved in this story were ones which, for

obvious reasons, could not be spoken of save in confidence,
and the difficulties of the field- worker under such circum
issues
may, to some extent, excuse the incompleteness of his

information. However, it must be remembered that this is
not the analysis of a point of law but of conflicting human
stances
relations,
and the emotional
attitudes
are therefore as relevent as the hard
which are provoked

make no attempt
facts. (I
either to condone or condemn the actions of the participants,

nor the moral values, nor the legal system involved.) This is
what happened
dispute arose between Fernando Pinas and Juanito

when the former sent men to put the stream bed of the Rio
where the channel leads off to Juanito's

belongs on one side of the stream to Fernan
do and he asserted that water was being lost there. (Frequent
in order at the point

huerto.
The land
repairs are required if this is not to happen.) This water does

not affect his olive-mill which stands on the Arroyo, but it
must be remembered that he also owns the mill of Alonso

and has an interest in its exploitation. Each miller is re
sponsible for the stretch of channel immediately above his
mill. Fernando's men repaired the channel by cutting off the
corner and bringing the water down a slightly shorter course

on the near edge of the stream-bed which is some thirty
metres wide at that point. This left Juanito's huerto high and
dry, and he complained bitterly, but since he had no title
to water he had poor grounds for complaint. His wife and
daughter went down to the edge of their land on the streambank and threw stones at the men working. Fernando asked
for protection for his ijien, and a pair of Civil Guards were
sent to restore order. Juanito's wife then refrained from
throwing stones, but kept up a flow of brightly coloured
abuse for- some time before retiring. No one supported
Juanito for it was in the interest of all that the channel should
be repaired and shortened. Curro, in spite of his enmity with
Fernando, admitted that his action was correct in this
He was, in fact, delighted to see Juanito's huerto

eliminated, though he remained distrustful of Fernando.
instance.
Not without difficulty, Juanito made a new channel

huerto and continued to irrigate it.
p.s.
10
for his
The following year Fernando's real objective is revealed

he intends to divert the waters of the Rio from a point some
400 yards above Gurro's huerto and bring it down to join
forces with that of the Arroyo above the mill of the Juncal
The power of the mill would thus be doubled. But Juanito's
:
garden once more loses its water. However, in the meantime

Fernando has come to terms secretly with Juanito, and a
contract has been signed between the two, for part of the
ground over which Fernando will make the new watercourse
belongs to Juanito's wife. This contract was not made easily.
Fernando offered a good price for the field in question or
offered to exchange it for land elsewhere, but both offers
were refused. The final contract gives him no land in posses
sion but costs him as much as if he were buying Juanito's
huerto.
With his flank secured, as it were, Fernando sets his men

to work in the autumn to build the new channel. He does
not build it out of concrete straight away but^nakes it in an
improvised manner to try out not only the technical factors
in the scheme but also,, perhaps, the reaction of his neigh-
'
bours.
The person whom, apart from Juanito, this change in the

flow of water affects, is Curro. The upper end of his huerto
too high to be irrigated by the channel of the Arroyo,
which now carries both streams. About three-quarters of an
is
acre loses its water and it is thought that the fruit-trees

planted there will die. The millers down below are also
it
appears likely that for technical reasons
they will lose water (meaning power) for their mills.
There is an outcry, led by Curro, but Fernando reassures
the millers, explaining that they will not lose but gain water
concerned, for
going to build the channel in concrete, and the

water will come down quicker and with less loss in the channel
since
he
is
than in the stream-bed. (This is true.) It is also likely that

this latest development comes as no surprise to a number of
millers whose reactions have been secretly tested in advance.
Very soon only two millers continue to support Curro, one of
them Pepe, his first cousin and compadn. Curro makes a
denunciation to the Town Hall and is told that he must
serve notice
on Fernando
to the effect that his
garden
is
"
147
being damaged by this action. Curro sends Manuel the Count

and the brother of Alonso. The latter fails to appear at the
rendezvous and Manuel goes alone. Fernando makes an
offer of compensation which Curro proudly refuses. It appears
to have been a not ungenerous offer, but Curro asserts that
he is not asking for alms but wishes only to keep intact the
which
is his
patrimony. After this Manuel no longer
him.
His
attitude towards Fernando has always
supports
been somewhat ambiguous. On the one hand he proclaims
himself Fernando's disciple and is on terms of friendship
with him, while on the other he enjoys speaking evil of him
with Curro and sympathising with the latter in his ancient
grudge. Now that the test case comes he deserts Curro
and sides with Fernando. Curro complains bitterly of his
huerto
adding certain assertions regarding his family

which reflect gravely upon his moral character.
There appears to be no foundation for these assertions,
which concern his future intentions as well as his past,
but they effectively demonstrate his fundamental shame-
falseness
life
lessness.
Curro then goes to the pueblo with Pepe and asks the
corporal of the Civil Guard to have the work stopped. The
corporal says that he cannot take action in such a matter,
being a civil matter, without the instructions of the mayor.
Curro next goes to the mayor who says he is not competent
to take action without instructions from the Hydrographic
Commission in Seville. He considers rallying his supporters

and going by night to destroy the work which has been done,
and set the river back on its course. But in spite of all his
warnings of the growing power of Fernando and his assurances
that once he has both waters he will become all-powerful and
will crush them all, the millers make no response and even
his
second supporter, a miller, begins to dissociate himself
from Curro. Cutro now has only his compadre, Pepe. Alonso
remains on friendly terms but says openly that Curro's
demands are exaggerated. Curro is bitterly disappointed and
talks of leaving the pueblo and going to work in Algeciras.
He proposes selling the huerto to a friend, saying that he
would sell it him for a moderate price but that Fernando
should not have it for a million pesetas, He insists at some
FRIENDSHIP
^8
AND AUTHORITY
overhears this conversation

length with his friend. Alonso
and goes to tell Fernando. This satisfies Fernando that he is
that Alonso has
winning the dispute. In due course the news
informed to Fernando reaches Gurro and gives him further
reason to complain of the falseness and cowardice of man

kind. After this Alonso no longer comes to sit in Curro's
patio.
working upon some repairs in the

takes his problem to Don Antonio.
The previous year has seen bad relations between the Juncal
and the Pileta. Fernando Pinas has been charging a more
favourable rate for milling and has captured trade from the
Curro
is
at this time
mill of the Pileta
Pileta.
He has
and he
been raided by the chief inspector and caught

a heavy fine in conse
oil, and has incurred
with contraband
attributes the action of the inspec

quence. Popular opinion
Don
Antonio. Curro's personal ideas
of
the
to
tors
instigation
are
tradition
and his family
very much at variance with Don
Antonio's, yet he is confident of finding an ally here. He

contrasts the education and refinement of Don Antonio
with the brutishness of his enemy, and quotes a former

summer visitor of high social position as saying that Fernando
was "unworthy of the capital which he possessed", and had
been a turncoat in the war.
Don Antonio offers sympathy and gives advice to the
effect that he make no attempt to do anything more in the
Commission
pueblo but go straightaway to the Hydrographic
to
Fernando".
listens
in Seville, for in the pueblo "everyone
Don
Antonio, while he
It becomes evident, however, that
not prepared to
is
would be glad to see Curro successful,
become involved in any way himself. Curro therefore goes to a
advice and
lawyer in Ronda of whom he has heard to take
case. The lawyer looks into the matter and says
his
prepare
there is a good case. There is no need to go to Seville, for it
is against the law to divert a watercourse without the proper
authorisation.
Fernando is meanwhile continuing the work and, confident

that he has the situation in hand, is spending money on it.
He has not found it possible to take the water by the route
it from farther up
originally planned and has had to take
stream and blast a piece of rock. Juanito has noted this but
149
makes no move to support Curro in his protest. Fernando is

satisfied that he has the support of the valley and that he
will be able to square the Hydrographic Commission after
wards. This is the way things are done, he says. First you do
the work and then you get permission to do it. Otherwise
they would keep you waiting for ever. As for his antagonist,
Curro, he has nothing but scorn for him
"I have no wish to humiliate the man, but he has an

envious nature. I have offered to pay compensation or to
buy the land, but he will not listen to me. He guards an
old grudge against me and will not live like a good
neighbour. Moreover his grudge was groundless in the
first place for the mill belonged not to his father but to his
step-mother by inheritance from her parents. She was
very good to him and treated him like her own child if not
better, but he was ungrateful. When she wished to sell her
mill why should she not sell it to me instead of keeping it
for her step-son? He envies me my wealth, but I have
worked hard to get it. If he wishes to get wealthy he should
do the same. I am up at seven every morning and busy
straightaway, but his workshop does not open till eleven
o'clock and some mornings not at all, for he is engaged in
and in going to visit lawyers to see whether he

cannot take advantage of me. He is a fool. He should
spend his money on his wife and children and not on
lawyers or the poor little things will find themselves with
no bread to eat. But what can I do about that ? They are
not my children, they are his."
plotting
Curro, meanwhile, is encouraged by the lawyer's opinion

that he has a good case and exults in the humiliation which
going to inflict on Fernando. He is by no means fully

confident, however, and comes to see a friend in search of
encouragement. The friend gives his sincere advice to distrust
he
is
lawyers and use the strength of his legal position in order to

exact generous compensation from Fernando. He warns him
that the result of going to court may well not be favourable
to him, and that a court-case based upon the extremely un
certain water-rights of the valley is liable to provoke trouble
and make him very unpopular. Even though he

case he might stir up such a fuss that he could
the
win
might
not subsequently get legalisation for the water-wheel which
for everyone
FRIENDSHIP
150
ANP AUTHORITY
installing for the machinery of his shop. Curro does not

his mind
appreciate this line of argument for he has made up
he
is
to fight. His point of view varies from: "Let us see whether

"
"
Fernando is going to have
to
there is Justice in Spain
Now
"
the wrongs he has done me in the last ten years

pay
He is scornful at the idea of receiving alms at the hands of
to
all
Fernando. All he wants is his rights. If Fernando wants to

climb down he can pay 25,000 pesetas (about three times
what the land is worth to buy) that is only a small part of
the money he is going to make with the extra power in his
mill. He can well afford such a sum if he wishes to have the
water which belongs to another.
The case is tried in Alcala. Curro loses and must pay all
the costs including Fernando's. His plea is dismissed on the
grounds that he had given previous permission for the work

be done and consequently had renounced his right to
a
damages. This permission was said to have been given at
town
hall. Curro
the
in
the
water-users
of
syndical meeting
to
was ever raised in his presence at that

was
given by two leading figures in
meeting. Testimony
that one of them was not
maintains
syndical affairs. Curro
in
even present at the meeting
question. The witnesses were
not cross-examined, and Curro believes that his lawyers
were bribed by the other side. He complains privately to the
"
What can I do ? I can only give
judge afterwards who says
judgement according to the law and on the evidence which
is presented." Curro thereafter agrees that it is not the
denies that the subject
judge's fault if Justice has gone astray.

Curro is now outraged^ humiliated and ruined.
He
says
he must sell the huerto to pay his debts and will not stay longer
in Alcala. In fact he sells a house he owns in the pueblo
which is let and borrows money from the Monte de Piedad,
a loan secured by the faithful Pepe. In spite of the quarrel
and the court's decision he still hopes that Fernando will pay
and is galled by the latter' s refusal. As regards

Fernando
says, not to Curro but to others, that he
damages
will wait and see how much Curro's huerto does in fact suffer,
and will give him compensation then. Curro's lawyer accepts
a slightly reduced fee in, view of the lack of success of the suit.
Fernando has defended his position. "Now that fellow
his
own
costs
FRIENDSHIP
AND AUTHORITY
15!
does what he likes in the valley/' says Curro. "Now he has

the water he will extend his huerta. The one he has was built
up
illicitly,
and who
is
going to question his rights
now
they
have seen what has happened to me." Curro considers the

possibility of an appeal and of taking the matter up in Seville
but decides against it. He attributes his failure chiefly to
the dishonesty of his lawyers who dissuaded him from going
to Seville in the first place, and subsequently betrayed him in
failing to cross-examine the witnesses in the case in Alcala.
Six months later he feels better about it and jokes sourly
that he thought he had caught Fernando out but the latter

turned out to be too cunning for him. He may be as rough as a
donkey, but for cunning subterfuge there is no one like him,
Curro
says.
Fernando's position is not as impregnable as all that.

During this time the wife of Juanito has returned to the
charge. Her contract with Fernando though generously paid
has not been observed strictly, and her husband, acting on
her behalf, has brought a case against Fernando for breach of
contract and damage to her property. Gurro and his compadre
"el Ranchero", ("the cottager") are hombres buenos, and it
may be a bitter satisfaction to Curro that this time Fernando
is
defeated.
The
case
pay damages and
is
tried in Alcala,
and Fernando must
costs.
The pueblo is glad to see the powerful man defeated, but

the action of Juanito does not inspire any admiration nor is
there much sympathy for Curro. His old grudge is well
known, and it is generally recognised that he was out for
revenge more than for anything else. The corporal's analysis
of the situation reflects a generally recognised aspect. He says
that the wife of Juanito is a lady who thought that she had
found "a breast to suckle her", i.e. a situation out of which
she could get something for nothing. She did in fact find it
who
thought that he had found the same, missed

hand Fernando, although his power is
resented by the pueblo on principle, is respected for his
ability and his general conformity to the moral standards of
the pueblo. The law and morality are not the same thing. Yet
no one is sorry for him on account of his exploitation by
but Curro,
it.
On
the other
Juanito, either. It
is
up
to
him
to
know how
to
manage
these
remarked: "That will teach

things. As one of his admirers
him to think that he can do everything in the pueblo. He will
be sorry that he didn't go to Seville and fix things properly
before he started, for he could have done so. He has friends
there.
55
Fernando's power depends upon his position in syndical

and as a former mayor of Alcala, upon his being
able to get things done, upon his influence with people and
to him. He is at the same time a
their
affairs
upon
allegiance
of the ruling group and also of the pueblo (plebs),

the
as
mayor is at the same time part of the local com
(just
also a member of the provincial deputation). If
and
munity
member
to lose the valley's allegiance to him he would among

other things be of no further use to the mayor, therefore he
cannot antagonise the valley. As has been pointed out
as their spokesman and
already, he is invaluable to the millers
the difficult times. He wants the water, but
defender
he were
during
not only contrary to law to divert it, but, far more
of the valley. On the
important, contrary to the tradition
two
it
hand
other
people, and he is willing
damages only
it is
to
compensate them generously.
that,
by
It
may be
significant also
the mill of the

bringing the waters of the Rio to
to them which
Juncal, it gives Fernando an official claim
This gives him
have.
do
not
the millers of the upper valley
He has
hortelanos.
of
the
abuses
of
the
the right to complain
clearly
been thinking of
this
manoeuvre
for years, as his
above the stream

attempts to obtain possession of the land
for one piece
indeed
have shown. He paid a very high price
of land.
His first move successfully split Juanito and Curro. They
do not support each other in resisting him until the very end,
when Juanito may have found difficulty in finding anyone to
stand as hombre bueno for him. Morally, Juanito's position is
weak from the start on account of the nature of his huerto,
founded upon stolen water. On the other hand, the fact
that he has
had
though they are
it
still
even
long enough to grow fruit-trees,
small, gives him a certain moral right on
xde facto basis. In the first incident he gained no sympathy,

for it was up to him to get his water without prejudice to the
community. Subsequently, Fernando paid him generously

for his interest.
No
153
one would have been sorry
if
he had
lost
his case.
Morally, Curro's case appears at first sight much stronger

It is the case of a powerful man attempting to
than Juanito's.
override the rights of a neighbour. But Curro's action in

refusing to consider an arrangement is unneighbourly, and
his case is spoilt in the eyes of the pueblo by the vindictiveness
which inspires him. His friendships are much more restricted

for he is a poor man and commands little influence. His only
strength is the support of his neighbours. While they felt
themselves threatened, not knowing whether Fernando's
scheme would turn out favourably to them or not, and felt
that Curro was being victimised, they were prepared to
support him. When Fernando reassured them that they would
gain and not lose water, and when Curro refused to consider
compensation, they were glad to reaffirm their solidarity
with Fernando, even though they disapprove of the violation
of the tradition upon which they depend for the security of
their water. Not only is Fernando their spokesman, but they
are
all tied to
him by
obligations of friendship.
"
Fernando is
a good friend, a good neighbour. He gives much. He has

53
everybody in his debt. In view of his past kindness it would
be shameless of them to go against him, moreover it would
allies are his cousin and compadre,
miller
a
who
is inspired chiefly by jealousy of
and
Pepe,
Fernando and who soon withdraws when he sees the other
and "el Ranchero".
millers are with Fernando
This man is compadre of Curro's uncle though Curro calls
him compadre. He lives high up on the hill-side where he works
at plaster burning. He is poor and without ambition, very
proud and dependent on the favour of no man. He is the
be impolitic. Curro's only
champion of
equity, the
enemy of
corruption.
He
is
quite
he is feared for his outspokeness. It is his

perhaps also his unwillingness to enter the
uneducated, but
uncouthness and
system of reciprocal favours which has earned him the
additional nickname of "the Bumpkin". He speaks much in
moral sayings and laments the state of his country, but he
is not a "Red". On the contrary, during the war he led a
party of refugees from the Anarchist terror up into the
mountains and hid them there, keeping them supplied with
FRIENDSHIP
154
AND AUTHORITY
The story is told of how an official attempted to extort an
food.
charge from him. He thumped the table and, in a

voice that the whole pueblo could hear, he bellowed: "In
"
this place there is neither mayor, nor manliness, nor shame
illicit
explained that he had made a mistake

in his demand. He, it was, who took Curro's part in his
first quarrel with Fernando over the sale of the mill. He
The
terrified official
remains
with
Curro throughout
this
quarrel,
the
dis
interested friend.
It
can be seen that
"
el
Ranchero ", the enemy of the system
of patronage, retains his independence through remaining

outside the system. His position as an independent craftsman
with a virtual monopoly enables him to do this. He neither

employs people nor is employed, he does not use water, he
does not market his produce. People send a donkey for his
plaster when they need it, and the demand is fairly steady.
No doubt the independence of craftsmen generally accounts
for the fact that the majority of the Anarchist leaders in the
pueblos of the sierra
The
came from
that class.
institution of friendship, based
upon
the moral notion
of equality and the free exchange of favour, builds up, in

situations of material inequality, a structure of patronage
which links up the authority of the

economic power of certain individuals
state
through the
network of
to the
neighbourly relations. To make the point plainer: taking the

incident described above, the powerful and wealthy Fernando
Pinas is able to effect an improvement, to his own advantage,
in the use of the waters of the valley at the expense of the
rights of two persons of small importance, of whom, one,
through a timely recourse to the law, manages to obtain ample

compensation for the loss of his stolen water and the violation
of his land, while the other, whose title to compensation for
the loss of water was good, was defeated by a chanchullo (a
dirty trick). In fact the corporal who placed the two in the
same category was wrong. Curro did not seek, like Juanito,
to exploit the violation of his rights, but to challenge the
system of patronage. For this reason he was crushed. Fernando
was able to defeat him owing to the support which he re
ceived from the authorities and also from the rest of the com-
155
munity, which remains loyal to him, thanks to the service

which he renders in their relations with the source of
authority and to his private generosity, a generosity which he
is well able to afford in view of the
advantages which he
stands to gain.
In such a system the moralist may see a systematic abuse

of principles; the social anthropologist,, avoiding moral
judgements, sees only the delegation of certain functions of
representation through the medium of wealth and prestige.
For reasons which will not be discussed here, 1 the law
commands something which is highly

economy of the local community. The
prejudicial to the
resulting conflict
is
through a social personality who possesses an

effective relationship with the pueblo, with the ruling
group of the pueblo and with the representatives of the law
outside the pueblo. Put in another way, the tension between
the state and the community is balanced in the system of
patronage. The element of balance in the situation becomes
clearer when the relationship between the inspector and the
pueblo is looked at through the inspector's eyes. If he pursued
his duties with too much vigour he would, if he were
successful, do the millers out of business altogether, They
would stop milling, and he would get no more fines. He would
deprive himself of a source of income which he needs, for he
is poorly paid; he would ruin good men; and he would
make enmities for himself, for those men have friends and
padrinos. On the other hand, if he left the millers undisturbed
he would not be taking full advantage of his position and
he would not be thought by his superiors to be doing his
resolved
Through the system of patronage the will of the state

adapted to the social structure of the pueblo. But patron
age is only one aspect of the relationship between the two,
and the incident which we have considered brought into
sight only that part of the organisation of the state which
is concerned with economic controls, the most recent and
least essential of its organs, and one which at the present
time is being greatly curtailed. In apposition to the structure
of friendship built up from personal relations in the pueblo,
job.
is
1 The official reason

given is that the primitive mills of the valley arc un
economical with the grain and cause additional waste in a time of shortage.

there can be seen to exist a structure of authority devolving
from the central state and defined explicitly by its laws.
To distinguish the two structures is to make an abstraction,
of course. The corporal has his friendships, however vulner
able they may be to the demands of duty, and connives at the
activities of the millers. The humblest member of the
community depends upon the law. The two systems inter
of personalities but as juxta
lock, not as juxtaposed groups
which
of
sanctions
operate with relative force
posed systems
and define, through
in
individual
the
situation,
every
upon
We are dealing
not with rival groups but with rival, and not always rival
but often allied, systems of relationships.
Manners, friendship, the idiom of daily contact are based
upon a respect for others, a recognition of their right to
This recognition is part of the egalitarianism of the
the balance they strike, his social personality.
pride.
cannot assure concord in every

pueblo. But reciprocal service
in
conflict one must overrule the
are
wills
two
Where
situation.
The other must be humiliated. They can be neigh

"I do not wish
no
bours
longer. Fernando says, specifically,
other.
him" when
envisaging his victory over Curro.

Guard has not such concern in
Civil
the
of
The lieutenant
of the community. He speaks
members
his relations with
be
different in your country/
"It
another language.
may
he explains to the anthropologist, "the Spaniard requires
to humiliate
authority if he
is
to achieve anything."
He
illustrates
what
he means with a gesture of the hand, that which is used in

threatening children with punishment. This opinion might
be taken to express nothing more than the contempt of a
whom he exercises
person in authority for the people over
That he is feared and hated by the majority of the pueblo

is no doubt, but the same belief is found among the
very people who resent his authority. Every family must have
a head who is obeyed, they say. A father who has no authority
over his family, a husband who has none over his wife, is
despised. Every property must have an owner. Every pueblo
must have an alcalde., a mayor, a person whose authority is
the guarantee of order, a person worthy of respect, whose
superiority makes it no humiliation to submit to him. Hence
"el Ranchero's" outcry that since there was corruption in
it.
there
157
had neither authority nor manliness nor shame.

the guardian of the social virtues just as, within
the family, it is the guardian ofverguenza ; and it is a necessity,
else the passionate egoism of men will carry the society into
the pueblo,
Authority
it
is
chaos. Therefore the dictator, the embodiment of authority,

no value sacred to the social order l when he seizes
violates
power, but, rather, he reasserts one whose failure has brought

society in danger of collapse. When General Primo de Rivera
came to power it was to save the country from this danger,
and the pueblo was well impressed by his first act which was
to put all the caciques in jail. The old inn-keeper of the inn
opposite the barracks of the Civil Guard smiles happily
"
when he remembers the day when there were forty-five
"
All the prominent political personages
guests across the road
were
otthepartido
imprisoned in Alcala for a few days. The
the
urban middle-classes, never reproached
unlike
pueblo,
.
him with the destruction of constitutional government,

to them meant only caciquismo.
The idiom of command contrasts with that of friendship. 2
There comes the point when the pretences are dropped and
the realities of power come into the open. An order is an
which
order and not the request for a favour, and there can be no
mistaking which is meant. The brusqueness of the former
emphasises that it is based not upon any idea of reciprocity or
sympathy but upon the unilateral force of coercion. Within
the authoritarian situation the inferior is not entitled to feel
but soberbia.
pride. If he does, it is not legitimate self-esteem
a sign of
not
as
The second person singular is used here,
confianza but, as in
respect
is
an army command,
as a sign that
no
accorded to the person addressed. But, on the other
hand, he in whom authority is vested must possess the

necessary manliness in order that he may be submitted to
without humiliation. He who, for the sake of the principle
of authority, viewed as socially good, submits to the per
son of "prestige through manliness" participates in his
1
Cf.
Guglielmo Ferrero, The
Principles
of Power
(New York,
1942), for
somewhat fanciful view of the different values which attach to the exercise of
countries. Ferrero postulates "principles
political power in different European
of legitimacy".
2 This contrast is
brought out in a dramatic passage in Zugasti's El Bandolerismo where the author describes his first interview with "el Nino".
158
commanders manliness and
is
not humiliated.
Among
the
many popular songs

sung in the valley is a copla upon a
c
former dictator el mas valiente de Espana" ("the most
man of Spain"). But at the same time, within the

value system of the pueblo, the mystique of authority is
accompanied by exultation in the rebelliousness of the
Spanish pueblo. Another copla of an earlier century was
once quoted to me
valiant
"Dice, cuando vino a

Espafia
el rey invicto Amade
Ni tampoco
Nor
is
Hucife."
when
there
came
The unconquered king

Amadeo,
You
el
said,
to Spain
A Espafia no le gobierna
It
it is
"They
are not able to govern

the Spaniards,
is Lucifer either."
which makes authority necessary

and the converse is equally true.
this rebelliousness
thought
There exists, then, in the political structure of the pueblo

two principles each attaching to a different aspect of social
life. The principles of equality and authority. The former is
associated with the relationship of neighbours, of people
who
Equality has already been shown

to be the essence of neighbourly relations and the sanctions of
live together in the pueblo.
personal contact, jealousies, gossip and so forth prescribe it.

person's verguenza is what makes him sensitive to these
sanctions, and the matrilineal nature of vergtienza as well as
the fact that neighbourly relations are largely conducted by
women cause them to be particularly associated with the

female sex. The principle of authority, on the other hand, is
particularly associated with the male sex. And the quality of
manliness is that which justifies its subjection of neighbourly
values, for it is recognised as necessary to defend the social
order and enforce the rule of right.
This is the ideal picture of the moral values of the pueblo, 1
i It is
interesting to observe that they are also those of Father Juan de
Mariana, De regis et rege institutione (1599) Spanish translation^ Qbr&$ del Padre
Juan de Mariana (Madrid, 1864), both as regards the nature of authority and
.
relationship to equality, and also

associated with fichus. Typically also,
Fuenteovejuna in his Ihistory of Spain.
its
regards the rights and duties

Mariana applauded the rebels of
as
159
authority enforced them all would be well.

to the state, and, so far from
enforcing the rule of right, it frequently appears to the pueblo
to enforce the opposite. Authority, in the eyes of many, does
and
if political
However, authority belongs
not enjoy the legitimacy which would make it the defender

of vergiienza, and it is wielded for the most part by outsiders
who do not belong to the pueblo. For this reason matters of
government are regarded by many, in the tradition which

comes down from the days ofcaciquismo as the business of the
state not of the pueblo, as something dangerous and im
moral which sensible people have nothing to do with, Those
who took part in anarchist politics under the republic are
recalled as "those who had ideas".
"When they ask me to vote/' an old farmer said, "I ask
who for, and when they tell me who for, I vote. And if they
doix't ask me to vote I stay at home and mind my own
>
business.
93
CHAPTER XI
Law and
(i)
Morality
Nicknames and
the Vito
THE RELATIONSHIP
between law and morality poses

which
have
problems
preoccupied jurists and philosophers
for centuries, and which the anthropologist habitually side
by maintaining that in primitive society the distinction

between the two cannot profitably be made. Neither can be
said to have emerged from the mother-concept of custom.
The jural rules of simple autonomous peoples are carried by
the memories of the elders of the community, but the laws of
a civilised country are codified by a central power and must
be applicable to a great variety of communities, varied both
as regards their local culture and also their social status, and
it is hardly surprising if they do not suffice in themselves
steps
to give a complete picture of what the anthropologist, in

contrast to the political philosopher, calls political structure.
The
tion
political philosopher sees only the framework of legisla

the anthropologist must search for a system of
;
relations.
human
The
data- which he considers
must include not only
the overt framework of law but also the discreet social
through which it is interpreted. For this reason it

has been necessary in dealing with political structure to
devote some space to the institution of friendship. (Whether or
not it is properly named an institution is a point which need
not delay us.) It is in no way formalised, and the very am
relations
biguities which enclose it have been shown to relate to its

role within the structure. It belongs not to the legislative
framework, but to another set of relations having their

origin not in the state but in the values of inter-personal
behaviour, and prescribing conduct, not through the sanctions
or organised force, but through those of community. The two
of sanctions are quite distinct and
the Sierra, are morality and law.
sets
so, to
the people of
NICKNAMES AND THE VITO
l6l
The next three chapters will be devoted to the examination

of the role, within the total social structure, of the institutions
l
deriving from the community of the pueblo (plebs] and,
standing in opposition to the powers external to the pueblo,
the educated and the state. This aspect of the structure of
"
the whole pueblo, I have been tempted to call the infra
structure ", but that the word has other uses already, because
it lies behind the formal political structure and because its
one another.
nature is visible to begin with, in the system of naming
people within the pueblo. How formal names are given has
already been said. Everybody knows both his own surnames
and usually, but not always, both those of his parents. Other
people frequently do not know any but his Christian name,
and they seldom know both his surnames unless they are
closely related to him. When asked the name of the man
institutions are interrelated with
Its
who had been
living opposite him, fifty yards away, for the
last ten years (his
only neighbour), the keeper of the tavern
on the crossroads replied: "Francisco ... Francisco ...

waste time over it, Francisco the Fishseller."
His reluctance to use a nickname to someone as much an
outsider as myself (with whom he was not well acquainted)
came up against the obstacle of ignorance. He did not know
his neighbour's name. After a further five minutes, spent
largely thinking about the problem, he said: "His name is
Sanchez. I know because I happen to know his son's name
"
To the pueblo he was Francisco the Fishseller.
is Sanchez.
Personal relations are conducted through Christian names
as a general rule. The surname is not-normally used as a form
well, not to
of address though there are instances of this. (There is no

doubt that this has been encouraged by the influence of
military service. Boys recently returned from it show a
tendency to use surnames.)

i
When referring to a person behind
Where the word "community"
is
used unspecifically, as in the contrast
between the sanctions of community and those of organised force, it is not

intended necessarily to have a strictly territorial basis. Sanctions of community
are those which derive from inter-personal contacts wherever they effectively
"
"
occur, and the community of the middle class of the province has been shown
the
its
of
members. The community
to exert sanctions upon
pueblo (plebs) on
the other hand specifically excludes a number of people in so far as they do not
participate in the
P.S.
II
life
of the people
who live
there.
LAW AND MORALITY
62
his
back he
This
is
is distinguished by a descriptive nickname. 1

never, or virtually never, used as a form of address.
To do so would be bad manners, though exactly how bad

would depend upon the nickname. Some are obscene and
many
are uncomplimentary.
then, a Christian
A person possesses,
name by which he
is
addressed his surnames which are used in all his contacts

with the legislative framework of society and the outside
world but which may largely be ignored by the pueblo ; and
;
nickname, which the pueblo knows him by, but which he

supposed not to know. In fact, of course, he always does
know it. Whenever his name is written down it must be his
surname. His nickname is never written, for there is no
reason to write it in the daily life of the pueblo. A single
exception to this occurred when the Town Hall sent round
to the millers and hortelanos the forms which required them to
state their water-rights. The properties were in some in
stances named, as in popular speech, by the nickname of the
occupant. It appeared that the Town Hall did not know the
his
is
and gardens in all cases and fell

back upon the customary name. The name of the occupier
entered on the form was always his proper name.
Writing is an activity which links a person with the world
official
names of the
mills
of formality. People who have to do with written matters

tend to know many more surnames, and the staff of the Town
Hall know who is who in the whole pueblo. (No one else
knows the surnames of the whole pueblo.) But they also
know the nicknames and, though they tend to use surnames
more than other people, they will use nicknames when not in
an official position. On one occasion I was sitting in the
casino talking of Fernadito Piiias with the town clerk. We
moved to the town hall, and when I referred there once more
to Fernando Pinas the town clerk answered stiffly: "Don
Fernando Castro Menacho." He felt that it would not be
proper to mention a person by his nickname in such a place,
particularly a person of Fernando's standing.
There is a feeling, not only among the officials but in the
i
similar system of nicknames
is
described in
Norman
Douglas, Old
Calabria (London, 1915). Douglas describes the difficulty of identifying a person

knowing only his surname and without knowing his nickname (pp. 54-6) .
163
pueblo, that nicknames are degrading and their use

of barbarity. People feel slightly ashamed that a
is
a sign
foreigner
should wish to inquire into such matters, and fear that the
pueblo will be made to sound backward and uncivilised by
this feature.
(A schoolmaster of
my
acquaintance even goes

popula
so far as to maintain that the cultural standard of the
make no advance while the nickname persists.)

majority of surnames are common ones. The average
extension of a name within the population of the pueblo is
i -i
per cent. Some seven names claim more than 3-6 per
cent of the population each. That is to say that about onethird of the population is called by one of those seven names.
tion can
The
The confusion is increased by the fact that a

matronym may be known but not his patronym.
person's
Yet, the
nickname, though it fulfils the function of identifying people

much better than does the surname, may also be hereditary,
and in a few instances nicknames build up genealogies which
rival surnames in their proliferation. Nearly a quarter of the
inhabitants of the valley are either "Conde" or "Gorrino".
First of all, the nicknames themselves.
Perhaps the
commonest type refers to appearance in a purely descriptive

"laCiega" (" The Blind Woman ")," el Bisco" ("The
55
Squinting One ), "los Enanos" ("The Dwarfs"), "el
Tartamudo" ("The Stammerer") are nicknames which are
given on the same principle as those of medieval monarchs.
There are also those, equally descriptive, which define the
person through his occupation: "el Panadero" ("the
53
Baker ), "fel Pescadero" ("the Fishseller"), "el Herrador"
sense:
("the Blacksmith"), "el Electricista" ("the Electrician ').

Such nicknames might be taken to be little more than descrip
tions
and barely
under this heading, but

does
not apply to them.
many cases the description
a
a
Baker" is not baker but farmer. "The Little Lame
walks sound. "The Toothless One" has all his teeth.
to merit inclusion
that in
"The
One"
"The Bald One"
all his hair. "The Ugly One" is consider

ably better looking than "the Pretty One". The nickname
was given not to the man but to his parent or grandparent or
great-grandparent. How far back they go cannot be said, for
men have no records of their families other than their own
memories provide and these people guard
little
from the past.
LA W AND MORALITY
164
Certain nicknames describe by analogy, using the names

of animals, "el Piojo" ("the Louse"), "el Gorrino" ("the
1
"el
Piglet"), "el Rana" ("The Frog"), or, by association,
Peo" ("the Fart"), "el Papera" ("the Goitre"),! "el Jeta"
These are already far from flattering, but a

"
"
el Rey
is to be found in some
note
("the
plainly mocking
small-farmer
illiterate
an
unrefined,
very
supposedly
King"),
"el Monarca", "el Conde", "la Marquesa" for people who
("the Snout").
in
all
probability
"gave
themselves
airs",
"la
Peseta
"la Santa" ("the

Peligrosa" ("the dangerous peseta"),
la Ribera" was given in irony to a
de
Bonita
"La
saint").
known as slang, such
lady who had goitre. Words of gypsy,
Choro" ("the Thief") or "el Pincho" ("The Hand
as "el
some")
refer to
men who
are not gypsies. Favourite terms of
such as "Venga-venga" or
speech provide nicknames
are
plainly satirical in origin. Others
"Justamente", which
event are liable to be more
inspired by some particular
damaging still: "el Cuernodeoro" ("the Horn of Gold", an
idiomatic expression meaning a willing cuckold) was given to
a man whose wife was the mistress of a rich man. "La
Parrala" ("the Flirt") was the title of a song popular a few
to a domineering matron of some
years ago and was given
The more damaging and obscene names are
fifty-five years.
of an
very often supplementary ones, used only by persons
to use some
continue
friends
while
unfriendly disposition,
more harmless one. The niece of "el Peo" maintained that
his nickname was "el Sacristan", though other people
seemed to know him better by the former name. There are
also those
nicknames mentioned
outsider's origin: "el
earlier
Turco" ("the
which derive from an

Man from Benama-
homa"), "el Billongo" ("the Man of Villaluenga"), "el

the name
Malagueno", etc. Farms are commonly known by
of the present or former occupier, but in certain instances the
name of the farm has stuck to the children who were reared
man once explained at length that a certain farm
there.
called "el rancho de Niebla" ("the cottage of Mist")

because the mist hung there on winter mornings, and that
was
the farmer was called Niebla from the

i
The gender of the
name
article indicates the sex of the
of his farm. In
person bearing the nick
165
however, Nieblas was his patronym. For patronyms and

matronyms are adapted to serve as nicknames. Names
which have meaning lend themselves particularly to this,
fact,
also
such as "Calle", "Valle", "Pozo" ("Street", "Valley",
"Well"). The fact that they are "adapted to serve as nick

names" and are not merely being used as what they are, i.e.
surnames, can be seen from the way that the feminine is
formed: "Dianez" becomes "Diana"; "Jarillo" becomes
"Jarilla". In other cases againnicknam.es are adapted from
Christian names: "los Merchores" from Melchor, "los
Cristos" from Cristobal, "los Estebistas" or "el Estebano"

from Esteban, "el Amparucho" from Amparo or "la
Currichila" from Curro. Others become recognised by a
diminutive form of their own Christian name and are known
else. "Currillo", for example, once a prosperous
farmer
who ruined himself through drink and gaming
tenant
a
and became beggar. Another beggar is called "Juanill6n",
a name containing both the diminutive and also the aug
mentative termination which was once the nickname of a
by nothing
famous bandit.
The circumstances which gave
rise to
many
a nickname
have long been forgotten, though people

willingly
"
Medio
improvise a suitable story from their imagination.
has
been
lost.
Pan", "Peluquin" are names whose origin
the
from
Others have been perverted by time; "Pataleon"
Saint's name "Pantaleon" "el Montaburra" ("Get-on-thedonkey") was originally "el Mataburra" ("Kill-thehome
donkey"), a nickname earned by a man who, going
late one night, got his donkey stuck in a stream and, being
drunk, left it there and went on alone. The donkey drowned.
will
Others have not even any known meaning, such as "Briole"

or "el
Chamongo".
The nicknames, being
transmissible, may be applied to

and
sex
either
of
may be used in the plural. The
persons
endless and apparently largely
are
anomalies
grammatical
fortuitous. The feminine tends to be formed by changing the
terminal letter to "a" or adding an "a" as in "la Zarzala",
"la Peluquina". "La Conda", not "la Condesa" ("the

Countess") is the feminine form of "el Conde" ("the
feminine
Count"). But masculine variants formed from
66
LAW AND MORALITY
nouns leave the terminal "a "unaltered. The article denotes

the sex. In some cases no variant is formed, but a person is
referred to as "she of So-and-so" or "those of So-and-so",
When we come
to examine which nicknames are trans

and according to what rules they are transmitted,
we find them no more predictable than their grammar.
Obscenities and those of strong personal criticism tend not
to be transmitted though time takes the edge off them where
they remain. Those of more than one word tend not to be
transmitted for they are too cumbersome for general use.
Some are invented for a person on some score or other and
endure for a few years only, after which they give place to an
earlier dynastic nickname. Others are supplanted by a newer
and more libellous one. Any nickname is a potential heirloom.
The nickname always passes with the blood, or more
accurately perhaps (and more in keeping with the values of
missible
through the household, for there is one case of a

step-son receiving his step-father's nickname. In another it
appears likely that the nickname originated with an elder
brother. It is rare for a wife or husband to receive the nick
name of his spouse though it may happen. Far more fre
quently each retains his own family nickname. A nickname
may be inherited from either parent, and there are instances
where some children inherit from one, some from the other.
There is a tendency for the male children to inherit the
father's, the female children the mother's, but this is by no
this society)
means always the case. As a consequence of this, however,

and the patronym become separated, and
families bearing the same nickname have different patronyms.
Even in one instance they no longer recognised their relation
the nickname
ship as kin, though I succeeded finally in establishing that
they were second cousins.

It might be expected that the nickname provided a
principle of social structure, that those who shared a nick
name were in some way bound together by it. This is not the
To possess a common nickname is no bond. "The
case.
Condes" or "the Gorrinos" are never spoken of in the sense

of all those who have one or other nickname. The transmis
sion of the nickname is seen then to derive not from any
167
dynastic principle but from the family situation. A child can

never revert to a grandparent's nickname if his
parent has
not borne it (unless, as in one instance, he was brought
the grandparent).
up by
He
bears his grandfather's nickname only

because he got it from his father or mother. Any further
extension is only the work of time and nature.
nickname
may
be
said, then, to define a
person in the
community
either as himself or as the son of

somebody else, as a member
of a household.
certain difference between the two
types of
nickname exists, and there are people who have both personal
nickname and also family nickname. Jose- Maria el Conde is
also called "Tio Bigote" ("Uncle Whiskers'
because he
)
wears moustaches which is something rare among the farmers.
As el Conde he is defined as the son of el Conde and the
brother of Sen' Andres el Conde, and others. As Tio
Bigote,
he is defined as himself. It is significant that those persons
5
who
stand out by virtue of their unconventional behaviour

usually have a personal nickname. The more conventional
characters tend to bear the nickname of their
parent.
There is a family called "los Gorrinos" in Zahara, related
to the Gorrinos of the valley. This is
exceptional. As a rule
a nickname
is
given by the pueblo to one of its members, and
when he moves he
with, he
is
will normally lose his nickname. To

begin
almost certain to be named according to the place
of his origin, but later his new pueblo may find its own name
for him. It may well not see him in the same
light as the
his birth. It cannot, in any case, see him as the
child of a particular household if he is a newcomer.
The nickname defines a person in his relationship to the
community, defines him by his origin, his family, his place of
pueblo of
upbringing, his office or his outstanding characteristic in the

eyes of the pueblo. The professional people are not given nick
names, but are defined by their profession, "the vet", "the

doctor", "the chemist". It is only. in this way that they
enter the community. For the same reason the senoritos are
seldom given nicknames. Not only are they not expected to
take such things in good part, they do not belong to the
(plebs) and therefore to the community which the
nickname defines. Only one, "el Sefiorito", is called by a nick
name, and it might be possible to see in that the recognition
pueblo
LAW AND MORALITY
68
of the fact that his relationship with the community is far

more complete than that of any of the other landowners. In
this as in other things he is old-fashioned. The relationship
of the
senoritos to
the pueblo today
is
far
more
distant
and
In those times they

impersonal than it was fifty years ago.
not. In those days
are
were part of the pueblo. Today they
"
of
el
father-in-law
the
and
they were given nicknames
even
as
to
Senorito" was referred
"Orejon" ("Big-ear"),
though he was the cacique of Alcala.

The nickname is one way in which the sanctions of the
community operate. An ugly nickname is very much
resented, even though it may never be used in the owner's
"la Rabona's" with
presence. It was only possible to discuss
her after years of friendship. Then, full of self-pity, she told
the story of its origin, rounding it off with a grand tirade
in general. "All is
against her neighbours and human nature
55
all
is envy '. On the
"in
this
pueblo,
envy she complained,
from
down
handed
other hand, nicknames
generations cause
5
little
offence.
To be
called "the Bald
One"
while you have

are
The Condes and Corrinos
your hair is no great hurt.

with
prepared to speak of theirs in a situation of confidence
used
is
nickname
a
when
a friend. On the other hand,
by the
not usual to answer. However,

I hear mine said to me in
Isabel la Marinita says
55
not
dishonour
Hers, derived
public I answer. That does
from the patronym of a great-grandfather, can carry no
malicious meaning, but others might not be too sure how,
the humiliation
exactly, it was being said and prefer not to risk
young people in the
street
:
it is
".
when
of answering only to be laughed at. To hear one's nickname

sung in the Carnaval by the anonymous mocking voices of the
pueblo must indeed have meant humiliation.

The compactness of the pueblo no doubt lends force to its
sanctions. They cannot be avoided save by going away.
Therefore the code of manners ordains that respect be main
the pride
tained for
behaviour
s
is
of others.
very "ugly"
for
it is
Aggressive
or insulting
liable to lead to
a quarrel.
And quarrels are ugly. People do not "tell so-and-so what

I think of him" or give him "a piece of my mind"; It is true
that fights break out sometimes
fiestas
when much wine
is
among the young men during
drunk, but they are stopped at
69
who hold back the combatants. The

assurance that the fight will not be permitted to take place
enables the combatants to take up a very courageous stance.
once by those present
So goes the comment of older and more cynical folk. People

do not go outside to fight, for all violence within the pueblo
is bad. If they resort to it at all they do so secretly, aiming
not to triumph over an opponent but to damage him for
their own satisfaction, ambushing him at night and throwing
rocks on him, without ever, if possible, revealing their identity.
Where the enmity between two individuals reaches the point
where they can no longer keep up the fiction of amicability
then it is explained that "Fulano y Mengano no se hablan"
CC
and Y do not speak with one another"). Convention
(
allows them this mutual excommunication. Such people go
to great lengths to avoid meeting and everyone respects this
convention.
A person cannot for any purpose join a group or
where there is someone to whom he does not

For
the
code
of manners demands the participation in
speak.
of
those present, since the assumption that
any gathering
go into a shop
people are sensitive to the reaction of others is the corner

stone on which community is built. Where they wish to score
off one another they do so with care and subtlety, either
speaking evil of a person behind his back or putting him to
shame through some innuendo which can always be declared
unintentional,
and therefore innocent,
if
offence
is
taken.
Yet
only between private persons, and,

cloaked by the anonymity of group action, the harshest insult
may be delivered. Just as the sanctions of certain primitive
this prohibition applies
societies are exerted
not through a formally ordained institu
tion but through the violent action of the united community,

whose members escape the guilt which such an action, indi
vidually performed, would involve, so the pueblo, through

the imposition of a nickname, castigates the non-conformist in
permits the individual neighbour to remain

of
the
offence of rudeness. It is not Fulano nor
guiltless
who
has
given the nickname, but el pueblo.
Mengano
way which
The same spirit of social satire, the same envy, inspires

another institution which guards the moral standards of the
pueblo, the cencerrada (literally, "the ringing of cow-bells").
LAW AND MORALITY
170
This custom has been described at length by writers on

European folklore, for it is not only general throughout Spain
but it is also known in France and in other countries. It is
some
respects to the public

1
formerly practised in English villages.
similar in
mocking which was
generally described as a
form of celebration of the remarriage of a widowed person,
male or female. Upon the night of the wedding, the boys of
the pueblo dance up and down the street outside the nuptial
dwelling with cow-bells attached to their waist. They also
blow
cow-horns, drag strings of tins, and with the aid
The Andalusian
cencerrada
is
up a
which ensures that there is no
upon
of such devices keep
noise
was traditional in
night for the newly wed couple. It
Alcala to put on a cencerrada upon the eve of St. Peter, and
various occasions are celebrated in this way in other places.
sleep all
The custom
powers, and
does not however find favour with the legislative

it has long been the duty of the Civil Guard to
in the Penal Code 2 as

suppress it. It is specifically mentioned
"an offence against public order".
It has nevertheless succeeded in enduring the displeasure
of the forces of the law and is still practised in the pueblos of
the sierra
in Alcald under the
name
of
el vito.
In Jacinas
it
is
mobbing-up). The name el vito
of the same name associated,
dance
a
traditional
from
derives
known
as la pandorga (the
owing to the speed of its step, with St. Vitus. It is popular

dance no longer but was apparently a variety of buleria, a
satire. Indeed, the words
type of dance strongly infused with
to
mock.
intended
of the vito are clearly
The custom which this appellation covers is discovered,
upon closer examination, to be somewhat different from that
The famous vitos of
generally described as the cencerrada.
did not take place in the pueblo of Alcala,
where the Civil Guard would presumably have suppressed
them, but in the country, and particularly in the valley
below the town. This was, no doubt, only due to the presence
of the Civil Guard, for when, in 1951, the section of Civil
living
memory
Guard was withdrawn from Guadalmesi one took place

1
Gf. the description of the "skimity-ride" in Thomas Hardy's

"riding" in A. L. Rowse's Cornish Childhood.
Casterbridge, or the
2
Art. 570. Gf. also E. Calatayud Sanjuan, op.
cit. 9
p. 614.
Mayor of
iyi
within the pueblo. In addition, they were not provoked by

the remarriage of widowed persons but in response to the
flagrant immorality of persons who, being married, deserted
their family and set up house with another. It would be
difficult to do such a thing, save quite shamelessly, within the
pueblo, on account of the presence of neighbours. It is also
be noted that the Civil Guard could, theoretically, take

is a criminal offence. (The
law against adultery was abrogated during the period in
which civil divorce was admitted, and this fact may have
bearing upon the case to be discussed later.) Finally, the vito
is a more
enduring and violent ordeal than the common
to
action in such a case since adultery
conception of the cencenada supposes. An essential part of it is

the composition and continual repetition of songs of remark
able obscenity about the victims.
The most famous vito of Alcala took place about 1930.
man
who
called Jacinto el Conde deserted his wife and children

remained in the pueblo, and set up house in an old mill
in the valley with Mariquilla, the unmarried daughter of

another farmer of the valley, "una que andaba con quien
that is to say, she already had a bad reputation.

Such a vito was put on as has never been seen before or since.
Two hundred people came every night and not only boys but
married men also. Jacinto called upon the Civil Guard for
protection, which they sent, but, though they took prisoners,
there were just as many next night. The Civil Guard came
on a number of occasions and even confiscated the great
"bell of the snow", a bell, so heavy that it took two men to
carry it, which had formerly been used by the snow-packers
on the mountain and which the mockers had taken pains to
bring on the scene. The Civil Guard soon gave up coming to
protect Jacinto, and the pueblo, satisfied that it had gained
queria"
a victory, redoubled the vito. In order to escape it the guilty

couple moved house and took up their residence in a farm
overlooking the lower valley in order to be farther from the
pueblo, but people continued to come and those of Guadal-
which was now nearer, began to come as well.

Apart from the ringing of bells and the blowing of horns,
they baked little mud figures with horns on them and placed
them where he would find them the following day, and on
mesi,
LAW AND MORALITY
72
more than one occasion they wired up the door of his farm
house so that he could not come out, and then eased the
barrel of a shot-gun down through the thatch and sang their
for three months
songs down it. It is said that the vito went on
and that then something inside Jacinto, near his heart,
burst and it killed him. 1
the songs
Jacinto appears to have been the chief victim of
but others were also sung to Mariquilla, nor were they any
less severe on that account. The reproach contained in them
does not refer to his deserted wife and children, though there
is no doubt that this circumstance was responsible for the
deride
strength of feeling over the matter in the pueblo, they
on
one
reason
the
indeed
and
a
as
given
cuckold,
him, rather,
vitcfs purpose was to warn him what manner of
he was dealing with. This is clearly something of a
rationalisation. A few of the more harmless rhymes may be
occasion of the
woman
given.
"Poor old Conde

"El pobrecito del Conde
Can't put his hat on
No se puede poner el
For his horns go round and
sombrero
round
Tiene los cuernos revuelAs if he were a ram."
tos
Como si fuera un carnero."
"
Si la cabeza del Conde

Tuviera bombilla
5
Brillara tanto
como
La exposition de
"If the head of Conde
Had
It
Sevilla."
bulbs fitted on
would shine
As the
it
as bright
Seville Exhibition."
(There was a world-famous exhibition in Seville in 1929)

A song was even sung to one of his brothers who came to
him
"Ten cuidado con tu her- "Take care of your brother
mano
Who is a stud stallion
Que es un caballo
visit
sementa
Ten cuidado con la rubia
Que
te le
va a pesca
."
Take care of the blonde

Who will fish him away from
55
you.
i Death is
frequently attributed to an emotional cause, shock or despair,
the
being the commonest. Thunderstorms are much feared for this reason. That
vito should have killed Jacinto is not therefore anything incredible but, on the
contrary, just what might be expected.
173
Before considering the theoretical implications of the
another example
vito
be given. In 1946 (or thereabouts) el

Cortadillo became engaged to marry a widow, a girl some
eleven years his junior whose husband had died in the war.
In the autumn she went to join the olive-pickers on the farm
of el Cortadillo together with the other brothers- and sistersin-law. They put on a vito which lasted three or four nights.
The songs which they sang were personal and lewd, but they
do not appear to have contained the implications of those
addressed to Jacinto el Conde and Mariquilla. When it was
seen that they were not going to desist, the brothers of el
Cortadillo went out to reason with the jesters pointing out
may
that the couple were neither married, which would have

provided the conventional excuse for a vito, nor were they
"
juntos (literally: joined", i.e. living together), since he slept
upstairs in the loft and she slept with her future sisters-in-law
downstairs.
to sing
"
The jokers retired for a short while, then returned
El pobre del Cortadillo

Ni esta junto ni esta
casa'o
Porque
el
duerme
Y ella duerme
arriba
"
Poor old Cortadillo

Is neither joined nor married
For he sleeps upstairs
And
she sleeps downstairs."
abajo."
At the second attempt, however, the brothers were successful

and peace was concluded.
As a final example, the mock-vito of Sefior Jose Puente
("Tio Puente")
for his jokes
may
be considered.
An
old farmer, famous
and good humour, he moved from his farm as he
approached his eightieth birthday into a small house nearby,

where a servant-girl of seventeen went to look after him. The
neighbours decided to give him a tito, pretending that they
believed he was the lover of his servant. The old man took
full advantage to show that his wit had not deteriorated and
he delighted everyone, answering in rhyme the rhymes they

had composed for him. The jesters were invited into his
house to drink wine. At no point was this vito in the least
serious.
There are several points
to
be noted. The
vito,
viewed as a
"jural sanction", applies, like certain articles in the Penal
LAW AND MORALITY
174
Code, only to the flagrant breach of the moral code. The

pueblo reacts not when its moral code is evaded but only
when it is directly challenged. It has, though rarely, been put
on in the case of an immoral relationship maintained through
habitual visits, but only when the jesters were able to be
certain of finding the habitual visitor in the expected place at
the expected hour. Practical contingencies prevent it from
operating otherwise.
A second point is that, clearly, it does not happen in every

Within the pueblo it is no longer possible to do it,
though there have been occasions on which it has been
performed in a mild form, thanks to the fact that the com
case.
Guard and the other authorities shut

must be remembered that it is not com
manded by a judicial order, but by the desire which a
sufficient number of young men feel to spend the night in
that way rather than in any other. Consequently, in order to
arouse these feelings a person must belong fully to the
community, must be one in whom such behaviour is regarded
as highly scandalous and the concern of the pueblo. There
are certain persons, gypsies and recognised shameless ones,
mander of the
their eyes to
it.
Civil
It
whose actions are not regarded as warranting the outburst of

popular indignation. Nothing they could do would surprise
the pueblo for they are regarded as already beyond the pale.
The vito is an outburst of aggressive ridicule on the part
of the anonymous pueblo against one who transgresses, an
outburst provoked, it might be said, by a manifestation of
anti-social sex. There is no violence attached to it, and it is
done under cover of the night. The mocking voices rise out
of the darkness, but when the infuriated man rushes from his
house to confront his assailants there is no one there only
the sound of scuffling, cow-bells, cat-calls and distant
laughter. What can he do? If he invites the jesters in to
wine or coffee, then there is an end of it, it is said. If not, then
it goes on and gets worse. If one is wise, one smiles and takes
it in good part, inviting one's insultors to be one's guests
even though one may be black within. But even then it is up
to them whether they decide to accept the offer of hospitality.
;
If not, then the victim has humiliated himself for nothing,

and his swallowed pride is rewarded with a blast on the cow-
175
horn and a peal of laughter. Once they do accept then the

anonymous pueblo disappears and those who advance into
the light are individuals ready to resume personal relations.
In the case of Jacinto el Conde there could be no solution.
He reinforced his defiance of the pueblo by calling for the
Guard. Nor, after singing songs of such violence and
would any of the jesters have been prepared to
come forward and resume personal relations. In the case of
el Cortadillo they ended by making peace, thanks to the good
offices of his family, though not, as has been seen, at the first
Civil
crudity,
attempt.
It is the social personality not the person of the victim
which is attained by this sanction. He is not harmed, but is
humiliated and disgraced, and is, as it were, cast out of the

moral community of the pueblo which has become anony
mous and hostile to him. He must make atonement through
the sacrifice of his pride before he is accepted back, or he
must remain a moral outcast, a shameless one.
It can be seen that the custom of the cencerrada upon the
remarriage of widowed persons is no more than a semiserious application of the sanction. It cannot be an entirely
serious manifestation of opprobrium since
Church and State
allow such remarriage. But it is, nevertheless, a manifestation

of resentment in the face of that egoism which is the enemy of
the social order. "What did she want to marry again for?"
it is asked, "She had children already." Or "Now that we're
alone," said an elderly farmer after his wife had left the room,
"I'll tell you what women are
they're the devil, if they're
not kept in subjection by a man." This was his conclusion to
a conversation regarding a widow who had remarried. The

value system of the pueblo is profoundly monogamous, and
any return, after a person has been married, to pre-marital
romanticism on the part of man or woman is regarded as a
1
challenge to these values.
There was formerly an occasion
upon which
the sanctions
i Where there are children of a

previous marriage a second marriage cannot
create a satisfactory family, for children must all be treated equally and
parents cannot treat a child and a step-child as though they were equally
attached to both. From this comes the belief that step-parents are always
wicked, which
is
the usual reason given for disapproving of remarriage.
LAW AND MORALITY
76
of the pueblo were institutionalised in yet another way. It

is
now
not
fifteen years since it was practised and memories are

This was the festival of Carnaval, the traditional
reliable.
which heralds the opening of Lent. 1 As in other Euro

pean countries, it had the character of a time of special
licence and of the reversal of the social order. It took on an
anti-clerical and political character during the years which
preceded the Civil War, and the present government banned
it on the grounds that if people were allowed to wear
disguise they would take advantage of the occasion to pay off
old scores. For an essential feature was that it was a time
feast
when people
disguised themselves with masks. It also had

the character of a time of authorised shamelessness, hence
the saying
55
"en carnaval todo vale" ("in carnival anything
The
reversal of values was illustrated in the relations

goes ).
name for it was the "Festival of the Women 55
of the sexes.
was supposed to be a propitious time for finding a

nomo. During Carnaval it was the girls who invited the boys to
dance, who might ask them to marry and so forth.
and
it
"Ya
"Here comes Carnaval

viene el Carnavalito
The festival of the women
El festival de mujere
She who doesn't find a nomo
Ella que no le caiga novio
Will have to wait till next
Qu'espere el ano que
5
viene."
year."
which compadres de carnaval found

Games were
one another by a system of hazard and were then linked to
gether for the rest of the festival. In this way persons who
suffered from excessive shyness found their difficulty over
come. It is said that many compadres de carnaval became novios
once the festival wa^ over and consequently many happy
marriages were owed to the custom. Other people, on the
contrary, disapprove of Carnaval., for they say that it was a
59
time when "ugly things were done by those who had all too
little shame in normal times and put the special licence which
played in
Carnaval offered to exaggerated use.

In relation to the moral sanctions of the pueblo, the songs
of Carnaval, sung by the bands of masked people, possessed
i In
many parts of Spain other festivals of the winter solstice are endowed
with similar characteristics. Their relationship has been studied by J. Caro
Baroja, Analisis de la cultura (Barcelona, 1949), pp. 183 et seg.
177
must needs
particular importance.
be authorised for them to be sung, for they represented the
public exposition of the year's harvest of gossip. For weeks
before the arrival of Carnaval those who had talents of that
certain shamelessness
order spent their evenings composing these songs, and into

them put all the scurrilous events of the year. Things which
had been kept dark for many months came out in a couplet in
Carnaval sung hilariously by the masked figures as they
danced down the street. Shopkeepers who had used false
scales,
municipal employees
who abused
their position
found
themselves lampooned, but most of all the couplets were

intended to reveal illicit relationships between the sexes.
Through the masked voice of the pueblo the novio whose novia
had deceived him while he was away was warned of his
plight and exhorted to put off his horns. The songs of
Carnaval are recognised by some to have been the guardian of
marital and pre-marital fidelity. The supposed increase in

is often attributed to its
suppression. "These days
infidelity
nobody knows where he

like
that?"
P.S.
12
is.
For who
is
to tell
him of a
thing
CHAPTER
Law and
(ii)
XII
Morality
Bandits and Gypsies
THE LEGAL
and moral sanctions of this society each pre

scribe a code of behaviour, but the two codes are far from
being identical. An action is not wrong simply because it is
against the law, nor is a judgement necessarily just because
"
a distrust of
it follows the law. What has been referred to as
formal justice"
is
in fact
distinction. Clearly, there
no more than a
is
reflection of this
a large field of conduct which
both the law and moral values prohibit, delicts against

persons, property, and so on, but there is also a large part of
the Penal Code which to the pueblo is morally indifferent,
while inevitably
much
that
is
regarded as wrong
is
free of
legal injunction.
But there is a sphere, finally, where the two sets of sanctions,

instead of reinforcing one another, come into conflict. The
economic controls instituted by the government are regarded
wrong, and those who attempt to enforce them are wicked.
co-operate with the government by denouncing to the
inspector is an act of treason against the community. To go
to law against a neighbour over a minor matter is as un
ethical as, among schoolboys, to sneak to the master. The
periodical instances of small theft which occur in the valley
are not brought before the law while the thief is thought to
be a resident in the valley. Private action is taken, countertheft or, if the thief can be caught in the act, violence. For a
poor man, when in need, to pilfer from the property of the
rich or to pasture his goats illegally on one of the large
properties is not considered immoral. It is a greater wrong
that some should go short when others have abundance.
On the other hand, legal sanctions may sometimes be in
voked against the institutions which preserve the morality of
as
To
BANDITS AND GYPSIES

the pueblo, against the vito or against the activities of those
persons to be discussed below who, in the terminology of the
"
Penal Code, abuse the credulity of the
public". The law
steps in to protect the adulterer against the sanctions of the
pueblo, the thief against the sdbia who would find him out,
Once more
the intermediate position of the

ruling group
itself. While
they, or
individuals among their number, have the
of
duty
applying
the sanctions of organised force, they are also members of the
between
state
and community manifests
community. Though they have far more regard for the law
than does the pueblo, they do not confuse it with
morality. It
is rather the instrument which
them
with
the means
provides
The incident described on page 1129 illustrates

of that power is influenced by moral considera
of government.
how their use

tions. 1
distinguishing in this way between the sanctions of

morality and those of organised force, tracing the former via
the traditional customs and the value system of the
to
By
pueblo
the structure of personal relations within the

pueblo, and the
latter via the formal political institutions and the code of law
to the state, the nature of certain
of
personalities,
typical
Andalusia, becomes clear.
The bandit
Andalusia.
is
a traditional and picturesque
figure in
He was
already established there in the time of

Cicero and has been there almost consistently ever since. In
recent times he has been much romanticised, and has become
the hero of a literary genre which might be compared with
He is today one of the heroes of
the cinema. This literary figure sprang from a folk tradition
the American "Western".
which surrounds the name of Robin Hood. Its

well expressed in a couplet referring originally to
of Diego Corrientes, a famous eighteenth-century
similar to that
essence
the
is
name
bandit, but frequently heard with another
name in his place.
"Diego Corrientes, el ladron de Andalucfa,

Que a los ricos robaba y a los pobres socorrfa."
"Diego Corrientes, the robber of Andalusia,
Who used to rob the rich and help the poor."
i The values
upon which such moral considerations are based, how far those of
the educated are identical with those of the pueblo (pkbs) 9 will be discussed later.
LAW AND MORALITY
l8o
According
to
Bernaldo de Quiros there appears to be

1
little
justification for this assertion with regard to
Diego Corrientes
or any other bandit of the past, with the exception of JoseMaria el Tempranillo whose style and gallantry did much to
promote the legend in the early nineteenth century. This
whom
Merimee has left a portrait in his

striking figure of
en
is
the
Espagne
Voyage
subject of many stories told by those
of Alcala. One of the most popular tells how, riding one day
through the campifia of Guadalmesi, he encountered a poor
tenant farmer leading his aged and crotchety mule. JoseMaria remarked that such a mule would be better off dead,
and, drawing his pistol, he shot it. The poor man complained
was the only beast he possessed but Jose- Maria told

go to a cortijo nearby where they were selling a fine
and buy it. He threw the man a bag of money
animal
young
the
containing
required price. The man did as he was told
and bought the mule, and no sooner had he ridden away on
it than Jose- Maria galloped into the farm-yard and
drawing
his pistols demanded his money back. This story is one of the
that
it
him
to
"
chestnuts" of banditry for it is told everywhere of the local

bandit hero. More reliable, historically, is that which
records that he had a sweetheart from a pueblo of the sierra
and that he attended the baptism of the child she bore him in
the church of Alcala. He obtained his pardon from the king
while still quite young and passed into the royal service as a
guard upon the mail coaches of Andalusia. He was killed
defending a convoy against an assault led by his one-time
lieutenant. In recent times the bandits have been mainly
men who, either on account of a crime they had committed
or to avoid military service, took to the hills rather than face
capture by the Civil Guard and lead a precarious existence,
robbing the isolated cortijo or capturing the member of a

wealthy family for ransom. At different times the bandits
have taken a distinct political colour, and those of the post
war period were led originally by former officers of the
Republican forces and were supplied with arms from abroad.
They were referred to as los Rojos ("the Reds") or los de la
sierra ("those of the mountains") and were active in the
country round Alcald down to 1951.
1
Bernaldo de Quiros and Ardila, El Bandolerismo.
BANDITS AND GYPSIES
l8l
The demographic background of the problem of banditry

has been recognised for a long time. The colonisation of the
wastes around Cordoba in the eighteenth century were under
taken with the avowed object of protecting the main road
from the bandits who were endangering the communications
between Madrid and that region. 1 Bernaldo de Quiros
observes 2 that the principal characteristics of the social
structure of the countryside are responsible for Andalusian
banditry,
and those he enumerates
as
El latifundismo, the ownership

(i)
agricultural property in large units.
and
exploitation of
The absence of a middle class. 3

The great mass of agricultural proletariat, "almost
(ii)
(iii)
beside
entirely without roots, possessing no land, living
and in the view of the territorial aristocracy, witnessing
.
their
power, idleness and
hunger and
He
injustice.
riches,
while themselves enduring
."
however, that in Extremadura where the

there is no tradition of banditry. He
fails to note unfortunately that there is also a flourishing
tradition of banditry in the mountainous parts of Andalusia
where the conditions which he defines are not general,
also notes,
same conditions obtain
notably in the sierra of Ronda.

Ronda is like a provincial capital to the pueblos of the
sierra. Like Jerez, it possesses a resident aristocracy. The
pueblos to the south, in the valley of the Rio Genal, are
small, less than one thousand inhabitants in number, and
situated in wild country. The agricultural land of these
pueblos and much of the low-lying forest is divided into small
1
Cf. J.
lucia" in
2
Garo Baroja, "Las 'nuevas poblaciones' de sierra morena y Anda1952. No. 18. Also Bernaldo de Quiros, Los Reyes, etc.
Clavilefio,
El Bandolerismo,
p. 71.
What Bernaldo de Quiros appears to mean by this statement, and it is one

which is frequently made regarding Andalusia, is that the society is composed
3
only of rich and of poor, that there is no middle class, in the sense of people of
intermediary economic position. This is plainly untrue, even in the areas
where latifundismo is most accentuated. What is missing is not the category of
people of medium wealth but the ideal type of the bourgeois, distinguished by
and the
occupation, and place of habitation and values from the landowners
its literal
Where
all live in towns the term "bourgeoisie" (taken

becomes meaningless. Diaz del Moral uses the term
in order to refer to this class. (See quotation on p. 61.)
agricultural labourers.
in
sense) clearly
burgesia agricidtora
LAW AND MORALITY
82
properties.
Large pastoral properties are owned by the
and by the
aristocracy of Ronda
who
own much
also
state
of the
itself. An admirable article in

the
condition of banditry in this
examines
Estampa, 1934,
better land
region
round Ronda
"Just as in some regions there are pueblos which strive to

produce the most and the best bullfighters, so here they want
55
to have bandits. It is a Civil Guard speaking to the journa
"
list.
There are five or six from Parauta and you should see
55 "
All the folk of the
how proud the neighbours are of them.
Flores" (a bandit). "In Igualeja the pueblo is
sierra
protect
side. They are all spies who watch our every act.
a
betrayal could we come to grips with him and
Only by
55
no one dares betray him for he would soon be avenged. The
"
When one dies,
Civil Guard sees it as a permanent system
either a bandit or a Civil Guard, at once another steps for
on Flores
."
ward to replace him and the show goes on.
of
told
another
is
The story
bandit, Juan el Nene of
.
attacked only the

Igualeja, described as bandido de honor, who
and beat their
drunk
who
got
unjust, punished the peasants
wives and gave alms to the needy. After twelve years he gave
himself up and was pardoned.
The victims of these bandits are the caciques and the
1
wealthy farmers. The large landowners, on the contrary,
enter into pacts with them for the sake of peace,
lady of the
aristocracy explains the system: "The bandit respects our

and the lives of our workers, in fact he protects
properties
On
55
never give him away. She goes on to

went once to visit a distant property
she
how
when
explain
Flores accompanied her, because as he explained, there were
them.
our part
many petty
The
we
robbers in the neighbourhood.
different sections of the
community
ally themselves
The only con

ways
which can be established are the relationship between
the bandit and the Civil Guard and the relationship of both
in different
according to the locality.
stants
i The
from
typical victim today is the farmer who has made much money
the black market. It is not only that people of higher social status are more
difficult to catch. (When Don Antonio's family is in residence in the Pileta
there used always to be a pair of Civil Guards on duty there.) The bandits also
realise that the greater the importance of the person attacked the greater will
be the outcry in the area and the demand
for
measures against them.
BANDITS
AND
GYPSIES
183
these to the pueblo. In communities such as the Andalusian

pueblo it is not possible to hide, as it is in a large city.
person who is outside the law must either go far away to the
city where his country ways will make him conspicuous,

where his speech, vocabulary, dress, manners will betray him
at once as belonging to the mountains and where unless he
has a confidential contact he will soon be apprehended. Or

he must take to the hills, retaining his confidential contacts
in his own pueblo. His opposition to the Civil Guard assures
him the sympathy of a large part of the pueblo. Theoretically,

a romantic and honourable figure, he is outside
is not immoral. It is the fact that he remains a
member of the moral community, at least in relation to
certain sections of it, that he is able to subsist outside the
law. Once the shepherds begin to inform upon him to the
Civil Guard, once his friends in the pueblo fail him when he
comes down for supplies, then he has reached the end of his
tether. A clear understanding of this problem was responsible
at
any
rate,
the law but he
for the recent suppression of banditry in the sierra. The Civil

Guard, unable to trap the elusive and well-armed "Reds",
concentrated their
efforts
against
their
contacts in
the
pueblos. Finding their supplies endangered, the bandits took

to plundering the shepherds and the latter reacted by
betraying them to their pursuers.

Because he is not morally an outcast the bandit's reintegration into society was traditionally easier than that of other
malefactors, and one is surprised at the number of bandits
who, throughout the history of Andalusia, have obtained the
royal pardon and settled down to a respectable old age.
"Pasos Largos", a twentieth-century bandit of Ronda, is
said to have become the guard on a property which he was
sent to prison for robbing, and there are other examples of
bandits who retired from law-breaking in order to defend
the law. One is reminded of a similar pattern in another
which is no less current in Andalusia, that

recorded in the story of Don Juan Tenorio, the rebel against
the sexual morality of his society who ended his days in
extreme penitence and humility.
The contrabandista is another picturesque and traditional
figure. The demand for foreign tobacco was perhaps
social sphere
LAW AND MORALITY
184
in the nineteenth century,

responsible for his prominence
there
established
was
he
long before the age of
though
tobacco. A network of illicit commercial relations operated

from Gibraltar over the whole of Andalusia. The smugglers
which lie
appear to have used routes through the mountains
to the north in preference to risking the passage along the
coast
ties.
where they might be
The main
easily
apprehended by the authori
route appears to have led
Ronda
Rio Genal
to
banditry:
Gaucin,
up the
valley of the
past pueblos famous in the history of

Cortes, La Sauceda, Parauta and
them in the days of his

Igualeja. Tio Puente can remember
of sixty beasts, a
and
mule-trains
horsewith
youth, coming
each animal and a cargo of tobacco on its back. They
and the farmer
stopped at isolated farms for rest and supplies,
was glad to give them whatever they wanted for he knew that
when they came to leave each man would pull a packet from
his cargo and throw it down upon a pile in the patio. In those
man to
days there were few posts of Civil Guards in the mountains

and fewer roads. Today the trains of contraband consist of
no more than a few animals, and a host of individuals
operate in different ways and on varying scales. But contra
band tobacco can be bought anywhere and normally at

steady and reasonable prices. Its distribution has at times
contrasted favourably with the official systems of distribution.
The contrabandistas worked in similar areas if not in actual
co-operation with the bandits, and the difference between the

two was not great. Their position in the social structure was
similar, and often enough a bandit turns out to have started
a smuggler and to have taken to the hills only

some unfortunate clash with the Civil Guards.
his career as
after
Shame
as
a sociological concept has been discussed in
Chapter VIII, and what is meant by sin verguenza has been

-explained. There are certain persons in this community who
"shameless ones". Perhaps it would be better
aiê recognised
them
self-confessed shameless ones, for they have no
toâll
pretensions to shame, and do not respond at all to the sanc
tions which operate upon a person's shame. They cannot be
threatened with loss of face, for they have morally nothing
to lose. It is this which distinguishes them from those who
BANDITS AND GYPSIES
185
may be thought to be shameless and may even be said to be

shameless behind their back, but who keep up the pretence of
having shame. Such a shameless person is a kind of pariah,
manners with which other people are
very often afforded scant courtesy. He is a person
who may be called shameless, to his face even, with impunity.
Structurally the opposite to the bandit, he is within the law
and
in contrast to the
treated he
is
but beyond the pale, as far as the moral community goes.

Most commonly a beggar, though also a tinker or hawker, he
will never do "an honest job of work", nor indeed will
people employ such a person in any capacity which necessi
tates a relationship of trust. Yet though such a person cannot
be made to respond
to the sanctions of popular morality, that
does not prevent him or her from abusing them and playing
upon the sense of shame of others. Some of the old women
who come round the farms begging are feared rather than
will accuse people of meanness at once if they
give, will make up lies about them and tell their
neighbours, will curse them and bewitch their dogs and so
pitied.
They
do not
on.
Thanks
to their
own
shamelessness they are able to apply
for shame is a self-regarding

victim of such manoeuvres
that
the
fact
and
the
sentiment,
moral
to
no
feels
give way does not prevent him
compunction
his
in
to
save
order
from reacting
pride. On the other hand, a
his
moral membership of the
forfeited
shameless one, having
be treated like a neigh
to
entitled
community, is no longer
no
hesitation in denouncing him to
bour and people show
the Civil Guard for an infringement of the law. When el
Tuerto came down to the valley with an accomplice and
robbed beehives, the victim went straight to the Civil Guard.
El Tuerto is used by the Civil Guard, on the other hand, as
an informer, a role in which his lack of shame is, to say the
pressure to the
least,
shame of others,
convenient.
In the first instance the bandit is the ally of the pueblo as

long as he remains within the pale. In the second, the shame
less one is free to molest honest people as long as he remains
within the law. When either puts himself outside the law and
also outside the moral community then the pueblo makes
common cause with the Civil Guard. At this point law and
morality join forces.
LAW AND MORALITY
86
of Andalusia are partly sedentary and partly

a number of families
migratory. Before the war there were
few remain now.
whom
Alcala
of
living in the pueblo of
of
Others come from other parts
Europe during the winter,
The Gypsies
but these camp away from the pueblos and have no lasting
relationships there.
The gypsies are regarded as a race apart. The people of
Alcala referring to a non-gypsy say "a Castilian" or
as though gypsies were neither, yet they are,
and profess to adhere
most
the
for
part, Spanish subjects
are
Church.
the
to
distinguished by their appear
They
that he can tell a gypsy
confident
is
ance, and everybody
"a Christian"
long before he opens his mouth.

skin colour,
by
his hair,
by
He
his dress,
can be told by
by
his
his gait or, in the
the style of doing the hair, by the ornaments they

this before considering their language, the catt,
women, by
wear a ii
and their customs. Such
vast differences
might imply the
absence of miscegenation, but this is not in fact the case.

There are mixed marriages in abundance, and whether the
children of such marriages are gypsies or Castilians will
depend very largely upon how they appear to the pueblo.

There are in fact a number of dark skins among the Castilians
and of fair ones among gypsies. They will appear one thing
or the other to the pueblo according not only to their
but also according to their character and way of
appearance
life.
When
complained that some vagabonds, camped just
outside the pueblo, lacked the physical characteristics of

as good as
gypsies, I was told: "Even if they aren't, they're
that
commented
was
it
gypsies." Upon another occasion,
in
worked
who
a
in
fact
half-caste),
^here was a gypsy (he was
the fields "as
if
he were a Castilian
undertake agricultural work. They
55
For gypsies do not

are beggars, thieves,
.
fortune-tellers, basket-makers, horse-dealers,
and
so forth,
s>
but a gypsy who does "an

simply not
behaving like a gypsy. To define them sociologically, one
might say that they are a caste of shameless ones, for even
though there are gypsies who behave like Castillians it is
that a
recognised that gypsies are shameless. (It is said
honest job of work
is
number have entered the ranks of their traditional enemies

the Civil Guard and the pueblo comments humorously that
BANDITS AND GYPSIES
87
understandable, their lack of shame will not be noticed

Borrow, whose insight into their nature was remark
1
able, observes
this
is
there.)
"One
great advantage which the gypsies possess over

other people is an utter absence ofmauvaise honte\ their
speech is fluent, their eyes as unabashed, in the presence of
royalty, as before those from whom they have nothing to
hope or fear."
all
He
points out that they only feel shame before their own
far it is true that they feel no shame cannot be
How
people.
answered. Suffice that this is the general belief. 2 It is this

real or supposed absence of shame which defines their
position in society, makes them unemployable in any lasting
engagement, but at the same time fits them admirably for the
practice of the trade of horse-dealer in which they excel in

the fairs. No lie is so great, no deceit so ingenious that they
will not brazenly
proceed with
it.
explanation can now be offered both of the heroof

the bandit in popular tradition and also of the
worship
cult of the gypsy among the well-to-do. In the first, the
Some
its
opposition to the state by romanticising
the figure who symbolises defiance to the state. The second is
of a different order. Throughout European history a tendency
may be noted for aristocracies to ally themselves with
pueblo expresses
dissident groups and castes, and the attraction which gypsies

have exerted upon them from the time of the famous Lady
Berners down to the modern Spanish grandee may have an
element of similarity with such alliances. Their skill in
dancing may also be adduced to make them symbolical of
gaiety, yet it is believed that they have not always occupied
the predominant position in Andalusian dancing which they
occupy today. Moreover, this would not suffice to explain the
quantity of pseudo-gypsy poetry which had been popular
since and even before Borrow' s day. No, the gypsy has be
come
the symbol of merry-making, not only because of the
The Gypsies of Spain, p. 253.
The
but
general belief
is
frequently quite erroneous, as Borrow pointed out,
am not concerned here with the gypsies themselves so much
chastity
among
"
as with their
Gastilian" society. In particular, regarding feminine

the gypsies, the Castilians are apt to be quite mistaken*
significance in relation to
LAW AND MORALITY
88
grace and wit of gypsy
women
but because of their accepted
By donning the traje de lunares, the gypsy dress

for the fair, romeria, or flamenco party the young girl or woman
of good family can feel free of the excessive vergiienza which
shamelessness.
might make it impossible for her to enjoy herself. Through the

pretence of disguising herself as a gypsy of whom shame is
not expected, she can permit some of her habitual reserve to
lapse, while at the same time she could never be taken seriously
for a gypsy. Through their cult of the gypsies, people can
participate in a realm of behaviour where they are not
thwarted by the sanctions of a society which demands
the trammels of the social
attitudes of shame and respect
structure. Thanks to the privilege of their caste the gypsies
are able to offer a world which appears free from such
restraints because it is outside the moral community.
This explanation is valid not only in instances where the
customs of the wealthy have assimilated items of Romany
and use the symbol of the gitano in order to obtain

temporary release from those standards which the
culture
the
gypsies are thought not to obey. The recent history of

Andalusia contains a number of examples of members of
the aristocracy who have fled the society of their equals in
order to live almost entirely surrounded by these people.
CHAPTER
Law
(Hi)
XIII
and Morality
The Supernatural
THE POPULAR
institutions which stand in opposition to

those of the state are not only juridical in character. Within
the pueblo are found others which aim to fulfil a variety of
might be stated
as a principle that wherever

the
formal
towards
structure the pueblo evolves
hostility
its own supplementary institutions. A central figure in these
is the sabia or wise woman.
There are two sabias in Alcala; Juana de la Pileta and
Redencion. Juana is a woman of fifty-five who has been blind
from childhood. She has nevertheless had two husbands (she
was properly married in church to one of them) and several
children. Redencion is some ten years older but of a more
retiring disposition and of more modest achievements as a
sabia. She also has been married and has children.
A sabia is a woman who possesses powers of a supernatural
functions. It
is felt
order. These powers derive from the possession of gracia

(grace) The word is used in a variety of contexts. It means a
.
gift. Also, in the sense of "well-favoured", it

in one's person, grace of movement, as, in
English, grace in walking or dancing the power to evoke
admiration. It means humour the power to evoke laughter.
favour, a free
means grace
In the religious sense it means grace. In all its senses it means

a divinely ordained privilege, a power which is a free gift,
which demands no rational justification and no payment. (It
is also the word used in saying thank you, for it is that which
may be returned in acknowledgement of a favour.) Disgrace
i The word is used in an
admittedly subjective sense. "That which tran
scends the natural order", the natural order being that which the writer
regards as natural. For many of the people of Alcala, much that is here regarded
as supernatural is part of the natural order.
LAW AND MORALITY
90
consequently means a loss of this and desgraciado means both

"unfortunate" and, also, "in a shameful situation", as well
as out of favour. It may mean either out of God's favour or
out of one's neighbour's. Thus it comes to mean something
similar to a shameless one, though a less damaging term. A
desgraciado is an outcast through the will of God and not
through the fault of his mother.

It is her gracia which gives the sabia her powers. She must
have "grace in the hand" in order to cure by touch, but it
is a quality resident in her person. The signs of grace are
various. The five most generally recognised are
:
(1)
(2)
(3)
To be a twin.
To be born on Good Friday.
To cry out in one's mother's womb.
To be visited by the Holy Virgin in
dreams. This
normally occurs during childhood. Also "las Marias
tienen gracia" ("those called Maria have grace"), but
this is only in a purely minor way, such as having protec
tion from such things as snakes. 1
(5) To have the two transverse lines of the hand joined
(4)
in one.
But possession of one of these signs does not bestow grace

automatically. They merely indicate that it is likely that the
person in question has it. Nor does possession of grace enable
a person to operate her power without knowledge and
training. Like shame, it
and also of education.
The powers
is
a matter both of endemic quality
of the sabia vary in each individual case. But
the following are functions which, generally speaking, are

fulfilled
by them.
To find out the whereabouts of objects which are

or animals which have strayed. (2) To discover the
name of the thief if they have been stolen, revealing the
circumstances of their disappearance. (3) To discover
whether an absent one is alright, in good health and so
on. To discover whether he or she is still pensando (think
(i)
lost,
ing
i
i.e.
remains
faithful).
It is significant that
for snake
(4)
To
cause to
is
or
a particular taboo prohibits the mention of the words

are both referred to by some more general term. To
and lizard which
mention these words
fall in love,
thought to attract
ill-fortune.
THE SUPERNATURAL
to fall in love again with a person for
igi
whom
affection
was
waning. To operate upon the emotions in other ways, to

end quarrels or pacify a violent husband. (5) To protect
from acts of God or the fear aroused by them (which, as
has been mentioned earlier, is liable to be physically detri
mental, even dangerous). To ensure that a person who
without receiving the last unction does not go to hell.
(6) Curing, midwifery, etc., through medical, pseudomedical and supernatural methods.
dies
The
list is
by no means complete. Juana can
also assist
in calming poltergeists and finding treasure and she gives

advice to enable people to be successful in their choice of
lottery tickets.
The powers to whom her invocations are addressed are

mainly powers of the established religion. It is true that
Astarte and Venus both make fleeting appearances, and that
certain texts invoke directly the rosemary or the salt in an
animistic manner as though they were possessed of magical
power. But Juana is insistent upon her orthodoxy and
devotion. "Nothing but the things of God" does she do, she
assures.
The
belief in the miraculous powers of saints
is
bedecked with the testi

general in Andalusia, and shrines,
monies of those whose prayers have been answered, are
sabia is a person who by her grace and know
to
able
manipulate these powers. Some of the signs
ledge
of grace, it has been noted, imply a favoured relationship to
takes a strict moral line with regard
religion. Moreover she
to the behaviour of girls. There is a passage in the oration of
common. The
is
God that her client has reached or

about to reach matrimony in a state of purity, and if this
is not so then her grace enables her to be aware of the fact
and her tongue cannot say the words. She confirms the
decline in the standards of
general opinion regarding the
occasional instance would
an
sexual morality. Formerly
the oration, but these days
finish
not
she
could
occur when
are. While disapproving,
there
the
number
at
she is aghast
love in which she thanks

is
she strives to see that matters go no further astray and to

assure the fidelity of the nomo. Her purpose throughout is
to set right that which has
highly moral. She uses her power
of the power itself
account
on
not
wrong. But this is
gone
LAW AND MORALITY
JQQ
but simply because she is a- good woman. The same power

be used for
invoking "things which are not of God", may
evil.
the intention, the state of the heart, is the

but of
person possessed of such powers
Once more
important thing. A
evil intent is not a sabia but a bruja (witch). She can cause
can give the thief protection,
people to lose not find things,
can make a man blind to his wife's adulteries, can ensure that
are returned, can drive people mad, can afflict
illicit
passions
with
illness
The
or death. 1
forces of the supernatural operate, within the com

immanent qualities such as grace and one
munity, through
which
will
be discussed
attributes of
be given
women.
later, calio, which are the specific

somewhat anomalous instance can
to illustrate this. In the year 1950 there
appeared in
the valley a new phenomenon, a young man of markedly

effeminate manner and dress named Rafael and referred to
as "el Sabio de la Linea" (la Linea is the pueblo which acts
as a contraband emporium opposite Gibraltar) Rafael had
.
To
begin with he was a

effected a certain
he
and
a
not
townsman
countryman,
medical
of
amount
an
He
mixed
education.
jargon into his
those of Juana
to
closer
were
ideas
his
essential
talk, though
and
he impressed
medical
of
the
than to those
profession,
about
these things.
knew"
who
"really
people as someone
were
world
His pretensions in the supernatural
certainly no
but
their
have
less. "Others/ he said, "may
my grace
grace,
is of the Holy Spirit itself. It was bestowed upon me at my
that he had cured the son of a miller who
birth." The
an original style in matters of curing.
report
was thought
to
be incurable raised
his prestige,
and
for
him. At the end of three

short time many people had
months, however, he was discovered to be a confidence
trickster, for he disappeared to Tangier with a large sum of
faith in
money which had been
before the time of this revelation

the position of
him by a patient. Yet

he had seriously challenged
entrusted to
Juana and Redenci6n. When they were
Attribution of madness and illness to the power of witches is common

enough. I have never come across a case in which death was suspected of being
caused by a witch, but both death and also disappearance are thought to be
l
possible achievements for them. I
have known one instance of suicide resulting
from madness attributed by some
to witchcraft.
THE SUPERNATURAL
him he
193
said scornfully
"Those two old women
mentioned
do nothing, neither good nor harm. Or rather yes, they do,
Redencion is an alcahueta" He used the word in the sense
of procureuse, for he went on: "She has a cupboard in the
back of her house and in it she keeps a string with five
to
through their eyes and various other

that they had no grace but meddled
and
in
sorcery
procured with the money of their
immorally
clients favours which they attributed to their love-magic. He
sardines threaded
charms."
on
it
He 'explained
referred to
them
as witches. 1
had considerable effect and for a time

in the sabias of the pueblo was
confidence
many people's
shaken. An ambivalence exists in the regard which people
have for the sabia. Who knows? She may in reality be a
witch. This is visible in the insistence which people who re
"
Such a good woman,
quire her services praise her goodness.
Rafael's words
and how badly people speak of her, poor thing Yet when
they get ill they come running to her quickly enough."
!
People are shy of being seen going to visit the sabia,

if they are people of a certain standing, and very
particularly
often they refrain from visiting the sabia in their own pueblo
but visit one elsewhere. A number of people come from Ronda
to visit Juana, and people of Alcala go to visit others in the
neighbourhood. How far this is due to a desire to avoid
the suspicions of neighbours and how far to the belief in the
cannot be said. The people
superior powers of bther sabias
of the valley have not to face the curiosity of neighbours, for
Juana comes round begging, and a message
is
easily slipped
to her to call at this or that farm next time she
way.
Opposition towards the
sabia has
is
down
that
a structural background.
of the Church,
practices are against the teachings
though she may well be regarded as harmless by the priest.
Her
At the same time the
services in the repression

i
The
brujeria
La
alcafwteria, in the sense of procuring, and

an ancient and general one typified in the personage of
a comedy of Fernando de Rojas, 1498. See also: J. Caro.Baroja,
association
(from bruja)
Celestina,
Guard does not applaud her

of theft. A former sergeant warned
Civil
between
is
"los vocablos de bruja y

Algunos Mitos Espanoles (Madrid, 1944), p. 235:
hechicera de un lado, y de otro los de alcahueta y cdestina estaban casi
identificados ..."
p.s.
13
LAW AND MORALITY

it gave rise to violent
such
condemn
practices, on the
quarrels. Educated people
as country nonsense and "supersti
grounds of "rationalism",
are officially condemned by
tion", the word by which they
the Church. In this sense, the ambivalence relating to her is
the inverse of that which relates to the institutions of the
Juana not
to dabble in accusations as
that which has

is
quite different from
been mentioned above which springs from the fear that she
she is condemned
may be in reality a witch. In the first case
on the grounds that she effectively uses magic but uses it for
is a silly old woman
evil ends in the second case because she
formal structure. It
who
fools people. It is illustrative
of Rafael's place in the

fit to attack her on
social structure that he should have seen
both
scores.
not the only alternative to the doctor in

whole range of practitioners presents
in
the
to
need,
ranging from simple quacks (male
itself
person
cures through the application of
their
effect
who
or
The
sabia
is
matters of health.
female),
a patent medicine without any pretensions to grace, down to

the purely supernatural techniques of certain sabias. All these
are grouped under the name curandero(-a). The natural and
the supernatural mingle together and it is not possible to
clear line as to where one ends and the other begins.
draw
any
One
of the most practical and materialistic of the curanderas
a painful and persistent boil, a common

with the aid of a powder the ingredients
of which are a family secret. She pronounced herself on one
occasion unable to cure a boil on account of its position on
in
curing
specialises
affliction in the area,
the patient's neck, and recommended that the patient make

a vow in the shrine of our Lady of Remedies, the patron of
her pueblo, asking that the position of the boil might be
The boil disappeared from the neck and re
changed.
nose
the curandera
whereupon
appeared upon the patient's
cured it.
Another variety ofcurandero is the bone-setter. These men,
for they are always men, have no particular grace and effect
their cures through skill, a skill which at certain points comes
for it is not a skill which anyone
near to
being supernatural,
can acquire and
it
is
most frequently hereditary, yet
it
THE SUPERNATURAL
195
involves the invocation of no supernatural powers and owes

nothing other than to the knack and knowledge of the bone-
Neither their methods nor their achievements

very much from those of the medically
recognised osteopath, though popular credence is sometimes
given to stories of their exceptional ability. Men can never in
setter himself.
seem
to
differ
have grace and consequently they are limited to methods

which are purely manipulatory or herbalistic. El Sabio de La
Linea is of course an exception one which his effeminacy
does something to palliate but he is legitimately regarded as
exceptional from every point of view. His influence, though
great, endured only a few months and ended in a total
eclipse. Following his disgrace all those whom he had helped
suffered an immediate relapse. Rather than an institution of
the life of the pueblo he was an exploiter of popular credulity,
and his ability to combine the best of both worlds, his highfaluting language and his city suit, on the one hand, and his
emotional appeal and his pretensions to exceptional grace
on the other, were the keys to his success. His ambiguity in
fact
relation to sex merely reinforced his position as belonging at

the same time to the male world of the formal structure and
and also to the female world of grace.

That supernatural power derived from grace belongs to
women is made abundantly clear by an examination of the
other forms of supernatural power. The distinction made by
Professor Evans-Pritchard between witchcraft and sorcery, 1
while valid in this society as a method of analysis, does not in
scientific .medicine,
find clear-cut exemplification. The sabia owes her

both
to her inherent grace and also to her knowledge
powers
of invocations and practical techniques. She is neither entirely
one thing nor the other, neither witch nor sorceress.
There remain two varieties of supernatural power which
all cases
Professor Evans-Pritchard's terms
fit
more
exactly: sorcery
and menstrual magic.

associated with poltergeists in Alcala,
theoretical background is so uncertain that it is
Sorcery is
though
its
commonly
difficult to give
a coherent account of it. It is admitted that

skills for malevolent purposes is possible
the use of magical

l
E. E. Evans-Pritchard,
(Oxford, 1937).
Witchcraft, Oracles
and Magic among
the
Azande
LAW AND MORALITY

anywhere, but how, in fact, they produce their effect is, if
not a mystery, at any rate a trade secret. From the few cases
recorded the following facts emerge. Sorcery is recognised
by the effect which it has on the victim, who suffers from
into her, whose crockery
sharp pains, whose needles are stuck
smashed and who, in one case, was locked into her own
is
house and the key vanished. The victims were all women, as
it happened. These phenomena were explained by the attack
of spirits who were sent by a person who had acquired
control over them. Similar spirits appear in other beliefs
with Moorish treasure. These
particularly associated
the ghosts of the original
to
some,
are, according
and are
spirits
owners of treasure who choose to reveal the whereabouts

of their wealth to a particular person. Others believe that
manifest themselves
they are spirits sent by the ghosts. They
are very terrifying
which
voices
and
noises
strange
through
and are heard only
at
dead of night. They
also
throw
things,
in the incarnation
crockery or stones, but are never seen save
a
beautiful girl was
instance
one
In
cat
or
or
of a dog
goat.
the
lit
a
tent
mountain-side, but she was not
seen in
up upon
but
the
be
to
only an hallucination which the
spirit
thought
spirit
had arranged. The person who has the courage
endure the ordeal of terror to the

the treasure. But treasure
by
is
also
to
end is rewarded by finding

found by chance or simply
intuition, so people think.
who
to afflict his victim

a
obtains his power over them by reading book of magic, and
the expression used to explain this manoeuvre is that he is
"reading for so-and-so" ("estd leyendo para Fulana"). To
The
do
sorcerer
this requires
sends the
no grace and
spirits
all
that need be
done
is
to
follow the instructions in the book. Consequently, men can

do it and in fact it is more often thought to be men who are
is done for motives of jealousy, a jilted novio
was thought to be responsible, a cousin's wife
dissatisfied with the division of an inheritance in another. It
is always done from far away, for it is explained that if it
were done within the pueblo people would know about it. In
one instance it was done by a small farmer of the valley to
his sister-in-law who lived near-by. He did not do it seriously
but only, having acquired the book during the war, to see if it
responsible. It
in one case
THE SUPERNATURAL
When
197
was proved effective he confessed and

worked.
On
one
occasion an informant described it as
apologised.
"lo que hacen, estando ellos fuera" ("That which they do
from outside").
The
it
subject of menstrual magic
During the time of
their period
is
not easily discussed.
women
possess certain in
voluntary destructive .powers. If they pick flowers they

whither they can kill bushes and trees with their touch and
can wound the back of an animal upon which they ride.
Their presence suffices to put out the fire in a lime-kiln or a
;
plaster-kiln.
The vocabulary suggests an association between

En celos (literally,
the emotion of jealousy and menstruation.
used to express the latter. Thus la mujer

is dangerous, for by association she
which
the
she would have while in that
powers
possesses
condition. Manifestation of the emotion of jealousy is no
indication of their presence, however. There is little clarity
in the minds or conformity of the opinions of the people of
Alcald upon this subject. People simply are not sure what the
jealous woman is, nor how you can tell whether a woman is
possessed of these powers or not. All that is certain is that
any woman during that time possesses them while certain
women are thought to be dangerous the whole time in this
way as though they were permanently in such a condition,
and this idea is expressed by saying that they have calio. No
doubt there would be a great diversity of opinion if it were
zeal or jealousy)
is
celosa (the jealous
woman)
know who was thought to possess it and who not,

but such matters are only mentioned in strict confidence.The
fear relating to calio is bound up with the fear of the potenti
ally anti-social force of female sexuality which has been
examined in Chapter VIII. Sexual passion is expressed
"
"
through the idiom of heat nicknames such as el Calentito
and "la Tonta Caliente" were earned through a display of
and the idea of heat is also associated with
this quality
possible to
menstruation. The explanation of the wound inflicted upon

the mule's back was that the rider was "burning". Calio is,
i Both these
operations involve an element of hazard and their failure,
unaccountable otherwise, is sometimes attributed to the power of women. The
fire of the charcoal burner, equally subject to failure from inexplicable causes,
is not affected by women on the other hand.
LAW AND MORALITY

in sum, a secret and dangerous power possessed by a few
women in the community and exercised independently of
their will, and independently of their menstrual periods.
not to be con
power, thought by the majority
1
nected with cdio, is that of casting the evil eye. The evil eye
is a belief found in many parts of the world. It is the power
to make a person, particularly a young child, sick and even
to kill him, through bestowing a particularly bold and
One
final
societies where the power

penetrating glance. Unlike other
either
of
members
be
sex, it is the preroga
may
possessed by
are
women
women.
of
particularly feared,
Gypsy
tive, here,
the boldness with which they are
of
account
on
perhaps,
accustomed to stare. Old gypsy women are often thought to
and this may add to their power, but

not an essential factor. Stories are told of a
Castilian woman who possessed it without any evil intent.
She simply possessed that desgracia. Calio and the evil eye
are seen, then, to be similar to grace but in a negative way.
There is no redress against sorcery. 2 Against the evil eye
there are both defences and also remedies. Religious medal
lions and amulets, hung round a child's neck defend it against
be
ill-intentioned
intention
is
3
the evil eye and also against other mischances. Juana de
la Pileta is also believed to be able to prescribe or perform
a cure for it, and other cures are commonly known by
persons learned in such matters.

Within the community the powers of the supernatural are
in the hands of women, and this fact accords with the view
the sexes already given. Though the
of the
dichotomy
are not associated with

conceptions used to explain them
as
far
that of verguenza except in so
immorality signifies its
1 Yet the
glance of a menstruating
produce the same effect as her touch. It
woman
is
is
sufficient
on
occasions, to
fire in
her glance which puts out the
a kiln.
2
The Church
possesses the power to exorcise poltergeists.

is also a threat to the life of the young child.
In C. J. Cela,
the death of his
Lafamilia de Pascual Duarte, the story-teller relates laconically
infant brother "Un mal aire le entr6 y se muri6" ("an evil wind entered him
and he died"). A story recounted to me told of a child who was bringing a
wind entered the jug and it broke in half.
glass jug to his mother when an ill
"What luck," the mother commented, "that it went into the jug and not into
the child." The idea does not have the extended significance found by Redfield
3
An
evil
wind
:
in Yucatan. (R. Redfield, The Folk Culturt of Yucatan (Chicago, I94 1 )-)
THE SUPERNATURAL
both the danger to
lack,
vergiienza,
upon which the
99
social
order of the community is founded, and the source of evil

magic within the community, derive from forms of female
sexuality,
which are both sometimes expressed in the idiom of
heat.
It may well be asked at this point how among people who,
even though they possess but a low standard of book-learning,
belong nevertheless to a modern European culture, such
beliefs can persist and whether in fact they do believe in the
efficacy of the
powers of the
sabia
and the
practices
which she
not observe such superstitions

prescribes, or whether they do
in the same spirit as, say, superstitions regarding the salt or
the lighting of cigarettes are observed in an Oxford common-
room.
Many
the sexes
is
people,
and here again the
most noticeable,
difference between
assert sternly that
such matters
are nonsense, that the sabia can do no more than any other
The
person ; that such beliefs are for old women and so on.
to be slightly more sceptical than the old, men
be much more sceptical than women. It is thought
indeed to be credulous and unmanly to pay attention to all
young tend
tend to
this alcahueteria. Yet,
in
some
part of
ineffectual, they
evil or the
avowed
it.
members of the pueblo
Though
they
may
believe always
dismiss the sabias as
possibility of supernatural
of true grace. Curro, for example, an
do not doubt the
power
rationalist, dismisses the sabias in that
way, yet can
own experiences of the evil effects of

give instances from
thinks that Redenci6n's cures are
who
calio. The inn-keeper
no better, is himself convinced
who
know
for ignorant people
that a local bone-setter can mend broken bones instantly
his
than any doctor. He tells the story of an

man. Their
apparently miraculous cure effected by this
Their
beliefs show no logical consistency.
consistency is to be
formal institutions
the
to
found in regard to their attitudes
Doctors in
"infra-structure".
which oppose those of the
and
far better
of.
general, chemists, in general, are continually spoken badly
which
the
is
saying
"Nothing grows in the chemist's shop"
of country cures to
expresses their belief in the superiority
of modern science. Yet this belief does not
the
products
prevent them from buying the
latter.
In the same way no
LAW AND MORALITY
200
to repeat stories in which sdbias brought

off spectacular cures after all the doctors had failed, and even
stories of doctors admitting themselves defeated in their
opportunity
is lost
or their children, and resorting

attempts to cure themselves
to the practitioners whom they had always condemned. The
humbled doctor is portrayed pleading with the sabia to cure
him. For doctors have adequate reasons for condemning the

and even on occasions they have
practices of the curanderos,
been known to take action against them.
What happens very frequently is that the patient goes to

the doctor first and if he is not immediately cured he then
resorts to the sabia or curandem. When he finally gets better,
the credit is given to
having followed the treatment of both,
the latter. Neither are believed to be infallible and the sabia
may well do you no good. But she is a good woman and does
her curing out of goodness in return for what you choose to
like the doctor. The
give her. She does not extort money
a
moral
her
for
judgement more than
expresses
preference
relative efficacity, the words of a
their
to
As
else.
anything
man of Alcala express the point of view of the pueblo "When
the hour of his death approaches no man can stay the clock.
:
The same when

he is
the hour comes for his tooth to ache.
ache
given the right treatment it will
less."
Only if
The question
of which is the right treatment, the doctor's or that of the

for himself.
sabia, is one each man must answer
The formally
constituted institutions controlled
by the
the activities wherein the

ruling group or the state and
in
stand
opposition to one another.
pueblo avoids them
of interpersonal relations
network
The latter spring from the
within the community and depend upon the memories and

cultural traditions of the pueblo rather than on the written
word. The former owe their existence to authority delegated

by a central power. Pairing them together one can see, in
sanctions of the pueblo's
place of the sanctions of law, the
mockery; in place of the food-control, the clandestine mills

and the black market in place of the matriculated shops,
the revendonas and illicit traders; in place of the Civil Guard,
the bandit and the smuggler. In place of the schools, the
;
maestros rurales; in place of the doctor, vet
and chemist, the
THE SUPERNATURAL
201
curanderos; in place of the practicanta (trained nurse) , the

And for the purpose of invoking
patterns (country midwives).
the powers of religion in such matters, in place of the priest,
the sabia.
In the attitude of the pueblo towards the ruling group a

certain ambivalence has been detected. Ambivalence is also
discernible in the pueblo's attitude not only towards the
witch but towards the whole "infra-structure". This might
almost be deduced logically from what has gone before.

When a man expresses respect for education he cannot but
deplore the humble achievements of the rural teacher. The
sabia' s activities
are
condemned by
the
Church the
;
curandero
quack beside the wonders of modern medical

science. Where the values of authority Teign, the bandit is a
criminal traitor, the vito is a breach of the peace inspired by
turns into a
the envious nature of mankind, which, as la Rabona ob

served, is also responsible for the nickname. The food-control
admittedly can never be defended, but then

enemy of the ruling group.
it is
equally the
I have stressed earlier that the infra-structure is an aspect

of structure not a segment of the community. One personality
may stand closer to the sanctions of the law than those of
vice versa, but every member of the

a greater or lesser extent both in the
to
pueblo participates
formal and also in the infra-structure. The ambivalences
the
community or
reflect
the
individual's
systems of behaviour. It
in two conflicting
realised that neither could
participation
must be
without the other. A man needs a surname whether

he has a nickname or not. When he has no nickname his
surname is used as one. He is at the same time a member of
the pueblo and a member of the state. The infra-structure
subsist
could not suffice to organise the relations of the community

without the law. Yet the law can only be applied through
The two systems are, at the same time,

in opposition. They are both part of the
and
interdependent
a
tension exists between the two, it is as
If
structure.
same
a
condition of the one as of the other. And what
much
personal contacts.
requires to be explained is not only the source of this tension

but the ways through which it is resolved.
CHAPTER XIV
Conclusion
THE
POSSESSION of
verguenza
ensures the adherence of
individuals to the moral standards of the pueblo, and there

by defines the limits of community. But possession of
not enough in itself to determine conduct. It

to a common system of ethical values. The
member of a polygamous society cannot be made to feel
ashamed of committing bigamy. Common values are a
necessity if the sanctions of the community are to be effective,
verguenza
is
must be related
and therefore it comes as no surprise to find that divergencies

in values underlie the situations in which the elements of the
pueblo oppose one another. Here we can summarise the
main areas of these divergencies.

The attitude of the educated towards " village patriotism"
has been noted. Even if they are sons of the pueblo and
permanent residents there, their ties are wider than the
horizons of the pueblo. They think of themselves as Andalusians,
but above
all as
Spaniards. Their national patriotism
strong and highly emotional. They speak to the foreigner

of themselves as "we Spaniards" and they are extremely
is
sensitive to his opinion of Spain. Foreigners, they generally
believe, make a derogatory and unjust evaluation of Spain.

This belief owes much to Juan Valera's essay La leyenda Negra
("The Black Legend"), which records with great resent
ment all the untrue and unjust things which have been
written with regard to Spain and Spanish history. The middleclasses of Andalusia are conscious of the Black Legend and
believe it to inspire the attitudes of foreign governments to
wards their country. These feelings are sharpened by a
political
ideology (to which they subscribe at any rate
superficially)
which
castigates
even
its
compatriot
critics
with
the epithet "anti-Spanish". Those who have no pretensions

to education, however, often speak of themselves to the
CONCLUSION
foreigner as "nosotros de por aqui" ("we, of these parts") or
"nosotros Andaluces" ("we

Andalusians"). They do not
it upon themselves to
speak for all their countrymen,
and when they speak of Spain they speak without emotional
bias. By nature they are Alcalarenos and Andalusians.
They
take
to be Spanish by
nationality.
Certain differences in the values
relating to sex have also
been observed. In general behaviour, women of the educated
happen
Andalusia show a far greater reserve than their men

possess an easy sociability. The uneducated, on the
other hand, are often shy compared to their womenfolk whose
self-confident ease in social intercourse with
strangers has
often won the admiration of travellers. 1 In
regard to religious
values the pueblo and the educated
again diverge. Among
the former, faith is not found to be
incompatible with grave
dogmatic errors and with a lack of respect for the temporal
order of the Church. Also, the women of the
pueblo are much
more active in devotion than the men, whose attitude is more
often sceptical and indifferent, if not
actually hostile.
The egalitarianism of the pueblo has been frequently
stressed. This inevitably comes into conflict with the
feelings
of the well-to-do who, ever more responsive to the
goals of a
social order not the
pueblo's, tend to feel superior not on
account of their value as patrons within the community but
on account of belonging to a middle-class extraneous to the
pueblo, and who tend in social behaviour to claim an
class in
folk
who
which the values of the pueblo do not admit.

present poverty of the pueblo is often blamed upon the
wealthy families who within the last few decades have moved
exclusiveness
The
to Jerez. (The explanation was once

given by a member of
the ruling group who added that the
capitalists fled on
of the Black Hand and took their

whereafter
the industry of Alcala declined.)
capital elsewhere,
The resentment of economic inequality is not, as has been
noted, tantamount to a rejection of the idea of private
property. On the contrary, it is accompanied by the asser
tion that every man is master of his own
property and has
account of the
activities
l
E.g. A. dc Latour, Voyage
PAndalouse n'existait qu'entre
observation.
en Espagne (Madrid, 1855) : "II r&ultait

quc
les fUles du peuple."
Byron made a similar
CONCLUSION
204
the right to dispose of it as he wishes. The resentment aims

not so much at the existence of economic inequality as at the
failure of the rich
man to care for those who are less fortunate,
at his lack of charity. It is not so much the system which is

wrong, it is the rich who are evil. This accounts for the
ambivalence which the pueblo feels towards the senorito and

indeed explains how the system of patronage is morally
possible. Patronage is good when the patron is good, but
like friendship upon which it is based it has two faces. It can
either confirm the superiority of the senorito or it can be
exploited by the rich man in order to obtain a nefarious
advantage over poor people. It covers a range of relation
ships from noble protection of dependents in accordance
with the moral solidarity of the pueblo to the scurrilous
coercions of the later period of caciquismo.
clearly, only to be judged good in so far as
The
it
system
is,
ensures that
people do not go hungry, that injustice is not done. Where the

majority of the community can look to a patron in time of
need, such a system reinforces the integration of the pueblo
as a whole. Where those who enjoy the advantages of
patronage are a minority, then they and their patrons are
likely to be resented by the remainder.
The
values discussed so far have been deduced from
observations of behaviour
ments of behaviour.
and commonly expressed judge
It is also possible to discern
a reflection
of these in the beliefs of the pueblo. The dangers to which

children are exposed are not confined to evil winds and
evil eyes.
There
is
also a belief in
a kind of "bluebeard"
commonly throughout Spain as the sacamantecas,

though not so called in Alcala, which refers to him only as
a bad man, or baby-stealer. This personage comes always
from outside, so that he is not known by anyone in the com
munity. He may come disguised as a beggar or as a trader.
He comes alone bearing either a sack or a pitcher and he
comes for the blood of a healthy child. The disappearance of
a child can only be accounted for in this way, and, though
children do not normally disappear, most people can think
of several stories which they have been told of children
disappearing and the explanation is that they have been
stolen. This belief might be derided by sophisticated people
referred to
CONCLUSION
205
which only the most gullible would grant

as something
I
am
told that cases have occurred during the
credence. Yet
present century of child murders which have been reported
in the press under the title of "el sacamantecas de
.".
Given the existence of the myth it is only a matter of time
before some deranged individual attempts to incarnate it.
to
When
asked why the baby-thief comes, the answer is that he

hired by a rich man whose child is ill and can only be
saved by the blood of a healthy baby. Knowledge of the
practice of blood transfusion in the hospitals of the large
is
towns comes to underline the inherent probability of such a

procedure. In the same way the nebulous character of the
rich man comes to play a part in the contemporary myth
ology, and it is always the part of the villain characterised by
the complete absence of morality. The belief that the land
has in some way or other been spoilt by the rich men is
common among
the pueblos of the sierra.
The
explantion
given in one instance was that the land was good cultivable
land until the rich owner decided to pasture his flocks on it
instead of cultivating it. This enabled him to go away and
leave only a single employee to look after his affairs, and it
had the
effect of
throwing the people into unemployment.

aware that
land which is turned over to pasture does not deteriorate
but on the contrary improves.) This belief may be related to
the land tenure of the pueblos of the sierra where the agri
cultural land is held in small-holdings in contrast to the large
(The man who held this belief was otherwise well
and which Buffer chronically from over

and
unemployment. Opposition to the priests and
population
of
the supporters
the Church is expressed in similar beliefs.
la
"En
puerta del beato," the saying goes, "no cuelga el
jato." ("In the doorways of the pious no beggar's blanket is
pastoral estates
be seen.") In particular, beliefs regarding the sexual

of those under vows of celibacy appear to relate not
to known facts but to the desire to assert: "They're only
39
men, just like us. Such beliefs may be held by individuals
whose faith in other aspects of religion remains unassailed.
In the stories regarding treasure hidden by the Moors, the
to
activities
part of the villain is played by the state. Certain members of

the pueblo are known to have discovered hidden treasure.
206
CONCLUSION
but they can never admit to having done so because if the

state knew, it would confiscate the treasure. Any neighbour
who discovers the secret can demand half under threat of
betrayal Consequently it becomes impossible for the
anthropologist to verify whether any treasure has ever been
discovered or not. As with the practice of sorcery it is some
thing which would never be admitted to. The fortunate
individual to
how
whom
to find the
the
horde
Moor
appears and gives instructions

be able to enjoy his good
will only
fortune on condition that he keeps the secret,

symbolical meaning might be read into these stories.
The hostile state wishes to get its hands upon the pristine
wealth which
lies
buried in the pueblo. It can only be

is a
necessity to
frustrated through secrecy. For information
any system of government or, more precisely, to any system

of sanctions and the force of those of the pueblo have been
shown to derive from the very closeness of the community.
Secrecy, the witholding of information, permits conflicting
social forces to co-exist and gives to this structure the resili
it to persist. Thanks to secrecy the conflict
and
local
between
community is resolved.
an
law"
is
abstraction which it is useful to make for
"The
of
discussion. Yet when we consider in
certain purposes
dividual situations it becomes a cloak for ambiguities. Instead,
we must consider individual personalities and the way in
which sanctions operate upon them. All laws are not of
ence which enables

state
equal value even to the state. The inspector exerts one order
of sanctions and himself is subject to another. Those which
the corporal of the Civil Guard exerts are different again,
and those to which he is subject also. The corporal knows that

the millers mill, but he does not denounce them to the in
spector. On the contrary, he connives in maintaining the
fiction that they do not mill and closes them down only when
they are in danger from the inspector, for he lives in Alcala
and must needs be on reasonable terms with the inhabitants
if he is to fulfil his
solidarity of the
other duties in pursuing serious crime. The

whole pueblo in face of the inspector
permits clandestine milling, a secret shared by all, to go on.

the millers, but nobody does.
Secrecy operates, then, not merely in order to protect the
Anybody could denounce
CONCLUSION
207
community from the state, the inhabitants from the authori

ties, but also to protect the authorities, like the inhabitants,
from each other. Within the pueblo, secrecy must be as com
plete as possible in order to be effective. To hide a secret
from one person it is better to hide it from all, while the less
you tell the less chance there is of the true story being put
Hence the taboo upon gossiping (not merely upon

upon giving away information about
your neighbour), and the continual spying which is its
together.
old women's chatter but
counterpart.
Things which are talked of openly in other societies

become here matters of intrigue. Calla'ito (on the quiet), it is
1
explained, is how things are done here. Nobody, least of all
the inspector, knows what the produce of the land is. Nobody
can be quite sure whom a piece of land really belongs to. It

may only be in a man's name and really belong to someone
else. From this we can see the importance of the client in the
relationship
of patronage.
He
provides
the information
which enables a patron to appreciate the situation. When

Curro spoke of selling his huerto the information went back
to Fernando within a few hours, but Juanito kept his counsel
and awaited his opportunity. To give away information
about your affairs puts you in a weak position, for you can
no longer keep the other man guessing. In relation to the
same facts it is possible to understand the importance to
these people of "confidence" and of its counterpart, decep
tion and the value which they attach to the state of the
;
heart.
Yet the
many
so
important not because society

precisely because it does not. Where
state of the heart
demands constancy but
is
relationships are, in response to the fluidity of the
unstable, the heart provides a guarantee of

"
in
time.
For it is characteristic of the Andalusian
fidelity
temperament" (and we can here see a structural explanation
structure,
for this fact) that only the present matters. Just as the secret
and the conventional
fictions
of good behaviour permit the
mundo y no me pregunte su merced nada, porque mi

("These are matters of the world and may Your Mercy not ask
me about them, for my job is to keep my mouth shut"), says the smuggler in
El Ventero. See Angel Saavedra, Duque de Rivas, obras completas, (Madrid);
1
"Estas cosas son de
oficio es callar"
first
published in Los Espanoles pintados por
si
mismos (Madrid, 1843).
208
CONCLUSION
adjustments of personal relationships in the present, so the

"devaluation" of the past permits their readjustment. But
the heart alone, outside the marriage bond and the compadrazgo, ensures a degree of permanency in human ties.
But if a margin of fiction exists between the ideal legal

realm and the reality, it is no less true to say that another
margin exists between the ideal community and the reality.
As long as the law is "upheld" to all appearances, the
power of the state is inviolate and the authorities are

As long as the lack of shame of a person is not
then
manners demand that he be credited with the
exposed,
satisfied. 1
supposition of shame, for otherwise the principle of com

munity breaks down. Both the law and the community can
which defend systems of

of
them
fictional.
both
values,
largely
What then is meant by values ? I have assumed that they
can be discovered by observing social behaviour, are a kind
of short-hand term for the choice of conduct which a social
system imposes. Yet they are not to be derived, in the last
analysis, from the social reality of action, but rather from
that other reality which exists only in the minds of the mem
bers of a society.
seen, finally, as sets of sanctions
be
The chosen
unit of analysis of this book was a community

about
three
thousand souls within which I have sought to
of
a
of
social relations, yet if system it is why should
find
system
there?
The whole of Andalusia, of Spain or of Europe
it stop
might equally claim to be a system. This is one of the hoariest
problems of social anthropology and like most of its kind it
turns out on closer examination to be a pseudo-problem. One
delimits the area of one's data according to the techniques
which one intends to use. In studying any society one must
face two problems What is the system of social relations
:
within the community? and how is it affected by being part

of the larger structure of the country, or of the continent?
The
first
the second
1
chapter defined the limits of the community,
how it was linked to the national structure, and, in
Brenan rightly remarks upon the traditional lenience of Spanish justice

No such tradition of lenience exists in Spain for
(The Spanish Labyrinth, p. 85).

the treatment of heresy.
CONCLUSION
they contained the answer to these questions in
embryo an answer which subsequent chapters have done
no more than unfold in different spheres. The structure is
founded upon an evaluation of physical proximity which
not only orders the grouping within it, through conceptions
like the neighbour or the pueblo, but also runs through every
the conventions which govern its
aspect of its culture, from
manners to its ethical principles or its evaluation of space
effect,
and time. This value rests upon the assumption that there is
no difference in the quality of men, that by nature all are
equal.
Being part of a larger structure in that the community is

central government
subject to the powers of provincial and
and of persons allied to those powers, whose non-membership
of the community enables them to escape the sanctions
whereby its values are maintained is shown to involve a
violation of the principle of proximity, and the tension
between state and community is transfused through

a ruling group thanks to the institution of patronage.
The nation is an agglomeration of interrelated communi
basis and linked together
ties, founded each upon a territorial
social status, greater economic
of
communities
other
higher
by
means and a more comprehensive territorial scope. But it is
also a state, a system of authority. Yet state and community
are different not only in size but in nature. The community
resulting
composed of identifiable individuals, while the

state contains only anonymous categories, the products of
abstraction and generalisation. The sanctions of the com
is
essentially
munity apply inductively, for covert motives, while those of the

state are deductive, devolving from some logical code. Law
must possess a logical consistency since it is framed to apply
not to particular individuals but to persons unspecified and,
since it aims to antecede the situations which it will govern,
is blind, but the executive must
unspecifiable. The goddess
law in application changes its
the
for
keep its eyes open,
an
no
abstraction, becomes materialised
nature and,
longer
or the tax-collector, a person
clerk
town
the
of
in the person
a
of
a
member
who is
community, who, to do his job must
information
have particular
regarding individual personal
be expressed, if one wishes, as
can
executive
The
ities.
process
p.s.
14
CONCLUSION
210
a syllogism The law provides the major premiss, that which

in general terms the legislative power commands. The minor
:
premiss
whom
is filled
by the
in
local executive
who
determines to
does in fact apply. The conclusion developing

1
But between
is the action to be taken,
it
from these
logically
the major premiss established by the legislature and the

minor premiss which is supplied by knowledge of the
community stands the hierarchy of the executive. The lower
an administrator stands in the hierarchy the greater his

knowledge of detail, and the less his concern with the logic of
the policy, the greater his dependence upon the local com
munity and the greater the number of administrative levels
which separate him from the source of power. There are,

which the sanctions of
then, a number of different levels at
and permit
law balance the sanctions of personal
relations
the power of the state to adapt
the local community.
In
this
book
itself to
have been concerned only to show in detail
a distant
adaptation is effected in the example of
mountain town. The facts are unique, but the principles
how
this
which they
illustrate are not.
community and
indeed
it is
mode
the
central state
The
is
tension between local
certainly not unique, if
not inherent in every structure of authority, but

particular to one culture and one
to one time* Where similar conditions
of resolving
environment, and
it is
in the solution,
reign there will, I trust, be found similarities
and
this
study
may
then, as I
would hope, be of some
use,
To
illustrate this point I offer the following example which, needless to

has
nothing to do with Alcald. Let us suppose that:
$ay,
(Major premiss) The legislature wishes to impose a tax upon taxi-drivers.
i
(Minor premiss)
(Conclusion)
The
executive decides that
is
taxi-driver.
X must pay the tax.
But under certain
social conditions the following variation is possible
plies for hire with his motor-car, yet when the

(Minor premiss) It is said that
executive authorities ask him to drive them he does not charge anything.
(Conclusion)
X does not require a licence, he
is
a friend.
He need pay nothing.
APPENDIX
The
Present and the Past
I HAVE TRIED in this book to describe and explain the social

structure of a pueblo of the Sierra de Cadiz as it exists in the
present, and where I have referred to the more or less distant
past I have done so haphazardly with no other object than

to illuminate the point under discussion through an analogy
or a contrast which the reader was left at liberty to take or
leave. I have, in the main, resisted the temptation to prove
anything observed today through a reference to its historical
origin or to explain any historical facts through an analogy
with the present. I have done this in recognition of the limita
tions of my theme and my material and" not through any
methodological stricture regarding the relevance of the
diachronic view. On the contrary, the structure of a society
at a given moment, whether its past has been recorded or not,
me to be very largely determined by its previous

That this should be the case is not merely a matter of
common-sense observation. The very perplexity which sur
"
rounds the use of the word "system 1 in a sociological context
appears to
state.
dimension of
a piece of music but unlike a drawing) in the
sense that time is an element of their constitution and that
their nature at any given moment is reducible to systematic
terms only by extending that moment to include at any rate
relates to the fact that societies exist in the
time
(like
an hypothetical time-depth. What is done today makes sense

only in conjunction with what was done yesterday, last year
or in the last generation. Thus an analysis of the family
system anywhere must consider the individual family over a
period of several generations, while an even longer time-
may be necessary in order to evaluate the significance

of the family within, say, the political structure. The term
"social present" has been used in order to bring within a
span
14*
A problem touched on in the introduction
APPENDIX
212
single conceptual scheme events which have in fact occurred

at different times. But this mode of reasoning is open to the
logical criticism that if they occurred at different times the
whole system may have changed meanwhile. They may not

be part of the same "social present" at all. Admitting this
for what it is worth, social structure remains an abstraction of
a moment in a temporal process which stands between a
previous and a subsequent state and, thanks precisely to the
disequilibrium in its component elements what might be
termed the functional maladjustments of the society leads
from one to the other.
This process is the study of the social historian, and the
which govern it are the subject, ultimately, of the
philosophy of history, though such historians as have at
tempted to schematise them have not seen their efforts
rules
greeted with universal approval, least of all among their

colleagues. Entering the field of history, I certainly do not
hope to improve upon the endeavours of its legitimate holders.
But the formulation of sociological theory has been frustrated

by the difficulty of agreeing whether any two societies are
truly comparable, whether the rule formulated from the
study of one can be expected to hold good in any other, or
whether, on the contrary no rule can be formulated in terms
which cover the contingencies as varied as are found in
different cultures. Yet while it may with some justice be
conceded that no two social facts drawn from different social
contexts are comparable it cannot be denied that those of a
given society are comparable with others of the same society
at a different period. History offers, then, if the required
historical data are available, the possibility of checking the
formulations derived from the present by reference to the

past. By looking backward in time the phenomena regarded
as conditionally related together may be seen, or not, in
coexistence with one another. The social anthropologist enters
the field of history not to teach the historian but to seek to

ratify his conclusions regarding the present. The purpose
this appendix is to take, briefly, such a backward glance.
The
of the
of
hypothesis which I have derived from this analysis

way of life of the people of the sierra can be formu
lated for our purpose in the following terms :
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
21$
A structural tension exists between the sanctions devolving

from the local community and those devolving from the
central government of the country. In this instance the
tension is visible in every social sphere from the relations of
the sexes to the medical techniques, and from the institution
of friendship to that of the bandit. It corresponds to a conflict
between the values of authority and those of equality. In
deed, a community such as this in which the principle of
proximity is the foundation of social solidarity, in which the
individual physical presence is evaluated above all abstract
conceptions, cannot expect to find its needs respected five
hundred miles away by masters whom it will never set eyes
on. Yet these same conflicting values are both of them neces
sary to the structure of the community itself, as well as to the
country as a whole. This tension is resolved through a hier
archy of patronage and through conventions of secrecy and

which have been shown to be essential to the system
as it exists, even though they do not lack their native critics.
I have postulated that this tension stands in relation to the
divergence in values and the degree of contact between the
fiction
central
government and the community, in the sense that
the greater the difference in culture and values between

state and community on the one hand, and on the other the
shorter the effective spatial distance and the greater the
political pressure exerted by the state, the more this tension
increases.
For
by definition, first of all a

and secondly a ground of common contact,
the situation in question these two factors can
conflict implies,
basis of difference
and applied to
to have changed considerably during the recent past.
be seen
According to these changes, the postulated theory will, if it

be true, apply as well in 1852 as in 1952, and as well in 1752
as in 1852. A review of the social history of the sierra during
the past two hundred years should reflect changes in the
social structure in terms of this contention.
The year 1 752 happens to make a convenient chronological

carried out in that year
starting-point thanks to the survey
by the agents of the Marques de Campo Verde, Intendant-
General of the Kingdom of Granada.

The government of Spain had made
little effort to
control
APPENDIX
214
or inform itself of local affairs since the reign of Philip II, but
middle of the eighteenth century a new spirit began to
in the
inspire the rulers of the state. Energetic measures
were intro
duced with the object of simplifying and rationalising the
process of government, and in order to achieve this end
and centralisation became the order of the day.

eighteenth century saw the foundation of many of the
unification
The
state services.
Communications, agriculture, industry, hy

giene, even the dress of the populace became the objects of
concern to the royal ministers, who for a hundred and fifty
had worried little about what went on outside Madrid.

Systems of roads were built, schemes of agricultural credit
and interior colonisation were put into effect. The royal
enterprises extended all over the country. The Real Haci
enda was entirely reformed. A great catastral survey was
ordered in the middle of the century by the Marques de la
Ensenada which should provide the information necessary to
establish an economic and effective system of taxation to take
years
the place of the myriad tithes, rights and participations which

supported the different institutions of the central power. The
Marques de Campo Verde's inquiry was initiated in this

A whole volume of statistics relating to the econ
of
each
omy
pueblo of the Kingdom of Granada and Alcala
was still a part of that kingdom was collected during the
intention.
1
total of forty questions lays bare the situa
years 1752-54.
tion of the pueblo, its demography, its agricultural and in
dustrial wealth,
its
wage
and price
levels, its
municipal
budget, the rights and taxes paid or enjoyed by its inhabi

tants and the economy of the ecclesiastical foundations
within its confines. How far its figures are to be trusted need
not concern us here for we shall not examine them in suffi

cient detail, but misgivings are inspired by a certain note of
truculence which creeps into the text. Some of the answers,
though they were sworn on oath before the parish priest as
commissary of the Holy Office, 2 are regarded in Granada as
unsatisfactory
and
in
December the following year a further
Preserved in the Archives of the Casa de los Tiros, Granada, to whose

am most grateful for the permission given to consult them.
2 The Church
today does not regard the declaration required by the
director I
economic controls as morally binding.
A false declaration is not a sin.

is
inquiry
missioner
initiated
to
215
To
supplement them.
the
com
explained that the answers given in the first

they said that the
inquiry were not true anyway: ".
declaration in question was made at the violent persuasion
of Don Juan de Perez the commissioner who conducted the
it is
first
inquiry
who put down whatever he thought
fit".
Clearly, the ancestors of the modern Alcalarenos knew as well

as their descendants how to defend themselves from the
authorities. Nevertheless,
this
document of the
In
many ways
it is
one
is
some idea from
able to form
structure of the pueblo.
remarkably
similar.
There are rather
more inhabitants and rather more land under
cultivation.
The
cloth industry is flourishing. Alcala exports ice but no

charcoal. The municipal organisation is much the same.
budget of 37,000 reales (roughly the same value as today,

calculated in relation to individual wages) provides much
the same services in regard to health, the protection of
property, the organisation of religious festivals and com
mercial
fairs.
The
significant differences
may be summed up
briefly.
To
begin with, the position of the Church
both materially, and, as

events, morally. It
come of
is
by
it
is
very different
would appear from subsequent
far the largest land-owner.
The
in
the ecclesiastical foundations of Alcala from their
and chaplaincies is greater than the

municipal budget. There are thirty-four ecclesiastics living
there altogether priests, chaplains and members of religious
orders, and a convent of Discalced Carmelites as well. The
parish priest bears a notably Alcalareno name as do most of
properties,
tithes
the incumbents of chaplaincies, though there are probably

outsiders among their number and there is also mention of
"those that come and go". The services rendered to the

community by the Church, other than its ritual functions,
include education and the support of a hospital.
At court, rational ideas went hand-in-hand with anticlericalism, and a struggle developed between Church and
State which led to the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768. Yet
there is no reason to suppose that any such sentiments lurked
in the pueblo of Alcala, and when, much later, the troops of
the French Revolution beseiged the
town the inhabitants
2l6
APPENDIX
defended themselves stoutly in the same church which their

descendants were to burn down in 1936. One of the more
famous
guerrilla leaders of the sierra during the
French
occupation was a
priest of Ubrique.
Extensive common lands are owned by the inhabitants
collectively, and the municipal budget is balanced by the
rents which the Town Hall receives from its possessions. At
period the state takes no interest in local communica

tions, and the municipality must pay for the work which it
wishes to have done upon its roads and bridges. But on the
this
other hand
it is free of the charge of the services which the

foundations
religious
perform. There is no indication of any
absentee landlords drawing rent from the community and
living elsewhere upon it. Nevertheless, the statistics claim no

fewer than three hundred beggars "who go from door to
door" against a mere two hundred and fifty journeymen.

Such figures cannot be regarded without suspicion, for the
object of the inquiry was to estimate the capacity of the pueblo
to pay taxes and the poorer it could be made to appear the
less it might reasonably expect to pay. Moreover, Antonio
Ponz, passing through twenty years later, remarks on the
prosperity of the place and the lack of beggars.
The status differences between the qualities of person
no longer have any practical importance, but seigniorial
rights are still of political and economic value. The Marques
de Cadiz, the ancestor of the Duke of Arcos, was given the
seigniory of the town of Alcala together with that of Jacinas,
Benalurin and San Martin in exchange for that of Cadiz.
(He had conquered them personally from- the Moors, or more
literally, he had sacked them and burned them to the
ground.) These four towns are still, in the eighteenth
century, administered integrally as the demesne (estado) of
the Duke. He does not appear to have owned property there
personally, but his seigniorial right entitles him to appoint
the corregidor, the chief judicial officer of the demesne, and
also certain other officials in the towns. As a result of this the
political unity of the four towns appears closer than it does
today. The Duke's agent lives in Alcala and collects the tithes
and taxes due to him. These comprise a third share of the
grain and livestock tithes ("tercio diezmo grano y ganado"),
217
a right ofveintena worth 2,200 reales per annum, a tax which

was farmed out to anyone who would rent it, and he also
owns the nionopoly of the seven ice-pits upon the mountain
and a share in certain of the censos. Thanks to their belonging
to the same demesne, the pastures of the four towns are
common to the inhabitants of all and the services of certain
municipal employees are shared. The Duke of Arcos is the
magnate of the plains to the west where his great properties
lie, yet Alcala and the other towns of the demesne belong to
the partido of Ronda and the Kingdom of Granada. The
and alcabala (excise) are paid to Ronda.

Other taxes are paid in various ways and to various recipi
rentas provinciates
The first
are paid to the parish priest.

of Arcos' third) to the Bishopric of
Malaga, which also possesses a fiscal exemption for a business
ents.
The
fruits, primicia,
tithes (less the
enterprise
which
it
Duke
owns
there.
A voto,
an endowment worth
150 fanegas of corn, is paid to the cathedral of Santiago de

Galicia. The Royal Purse owns the salt-mines, a royal mono
poly throughout the country. The only tax paid direct to the
Treasury is the excise upon strong liquors, and that is farmed

out to a neighbour of Alcala. There are also two taxes,
utensilio and paja, totalling the value of over 9,000 reales,
paid to Seville for the support of the Army, and this tax is
of the pueblo is explained
particularly resented. The poverty
tax
is
distributed
it.
This
to
due
as being
among the inhabi
the
which
has
Town
the
tants by
Hall,
responsibility of
collectively for the whole community. The
claims 60 reales per annum from the municipality.
paying
it
Mesta
complicated, and its lack of unification is

is not centralised in the hands of
significant. Political power
any one authority but is divided between institutions which
have their seat in various places. Moreover, the people who
The system
is
occupy posts in the pueblo are not civil servants appointed

from Madrid as members of a professional corps but em
have names which indi
ployees of the pueblo. The majority
cate that they are sons of the pueblo. Those whose names are
with a mention of their origin
qualified in the questionnaire
are all from near-by pueblos.
This picture is far from adequate and gives no indication
of the internal conflicts which may have divided Alcala. The
APPENDIX
from outside interference,
to allow the municipal
though the
A host of powers
government a high degree of autonomy.
external to the pueblo have the right to claim some tax or
even an agent of the Admiralty comes to
service there
community
certainly not free

authorities appear
is
demand wood from
the forests.
The high
cost involved in
in money or in kind these some

collecting and forwarding
times quite small sums is considerable without counting the
the Town Hall involves itself through
legal expenses in which
a
in
them
quantity of lawsuits and pleas. Yet
challenging
there are no signs at this time of the social unrest which
characterises a later period, and the Church appears to be on
Hall
good terms with the temporal authority. The Town
to the diocesan treasury, and
and
nuns
the
to
alms
gives
rather unexpectedly one discovers the account of the sale of
bulls inserted in its finances between the Treasury's tax upon
to the support
strong liquor and the unpopular contribution
of the cavalry in Seville. (Almost as much money is raised by
the bulls as is paid to the Army.) The Church still sanctions
the authority of the state, and the state has not yet attacked
the material position of the Church.
the
perhaps be pardoned for recalling some of
this
which
scene
social
the
separate
Spanish
changes in
I shall
period from modern times.
The
rationalisation of
government in the second half of
the eighteenth century took place within the traditional

framework. Revolutionary ideas do not appear until the
nineteenth century. Then, after a series of rebellions and

counter-rebellions, of constitutions and absolutist decrees,
the Liberal epoch opens. "Liberal", in Spanish politics,
meant, first and foremost, anti-clerical. From the beginning
of the century anti-clericalism, which had previously been
confined to the court and the intellectuals, spread to the
middle classes and the Army. It was not until the second half
of the century that it became common in the pueblo. Under
the influence of the Liberal government a social and econ
omic revolution succeeded the political revolution. By 1852
the structure of the pueblo of Alcald
had changed funda-
2ig
mentally. The Kingdom of Granada and the seigniorial

demesne have vanished. The province has come into existence.
The church lands have been confiscated and placed on the
market, and the great acorn forest which was common land
has been sold into private hands also. A small part of it was
cleared
and
the pueblo.
distributed in small individual holdings
among
A new land-owning class has come into existence
in Andalusia
who owe their
position to their
skill
in business,
but whose landed possessions, acquired at the expense of the

Church, soon convert them into good churchmen.
The Liberal government continued to extend its powers

from the moment it acquired them and, faced with the
rebellion in the north, found itself forced to build up a
standing army, paid for at first by money raised from ex
propriations, which for political reasons no one could subse
quently afford to reduce. Shortly after the war, the creation of
the Civil Guard relieved the local community of its responsi
bilities regarding the evil-doers and the
highwaymen. The
numbers of state servants multiply and re-multiply. Repre
sentatives of government-controlled institutions penetrate to
the pueblo. So, when Garcia Oviedo 1 sees a tendency to
wards decentralisation from 1877-1935 this is true only in

regard to the competence of the municipality in matters of
law. The power which the state relinquishes is not given to the
pueblo but to its servants in the pueblo. (It was precisely in
1877 that a law was first passed projecting schools for munici
pal functionaries.) We can see then that this development
involves not only placing the affairs of the local community
under the control of the state and accumulating information
regarding the pueblo in the
offices
of the central administra
means participation in the internal affairs of the

pueblo by agents whose fundamental loyalty is to the state.
During the period in which all this occurs the schism in
the values of the pueblo becomes visible. While the Church
tion. It also
maintained its properties it appears to have held the loyalty

of the whole pueblo, for, apart from the prestige which it
enjoyed in the role of patron within the local community,
values were those of the pueblo. But the power of the
its
people
who
*
replaced
it
in this respect
Garcia Oviedo,
op.
cit.
was sanctioned by no
See footnote on page 14.
APPENDIX
220
their right of property or by

religious principle but only by
a state appointment. The impersonal, morally neutral
economy have replaced the theocratic

is taken by the cacique:
society. The place of the Church
Madrid.
Authority comes no longer from God but from
Even before the development of the Anarchist Movement
there are signs of a profound social discontent. The rising of
Perez del Alamo in 1 86 1 raised an army of 1 0,000 men against
doctrines of liberal
the established order, while the
first
Anarchist newspaper
until 1869. It appears that the pueblos of

Andalusia did not require a political doctrine in order to rebel.
When, after the abortive federalism of 1873, the middle
was not founded
made their peace with Madrid the exten

sion of the Anarchist Movement was rapid. The pueblos of
the Serrania de Ronda were fertile ground for the new move
classes of Andalusia
ment. Whether the scarcity of Civil Guards, which also

made the country favourable for bandits and smugglers, 1 en
was propagated
couraged Anarchism, whether the doctrine
the moun
of
the
of
contraband,
the
network
system
through
tains quickly became a stronghold. Of the sections which
sent either delegates or messages of sympathy to the Seville
adores de la region
Congress of the Federaci6n de Trabaj
in 1882, those of the pueblos of the sierra represent
Espanola
a far higher percentage of their total population than do
those of the larger towns of the plain. They appear to include
not merely the artisans who formed the main body of the
anarchists in the capitals and large towns but, in many cases,
When the law forced the

was here that the Black Hand
the bulk of agricultural labourers.
movement underground
made its appearance.
it
Much has been written regarding the Anarchist Movement

which I shall not attempt to reiterate. What has not been
is the extent to which, in Andalusia, the
the pueblo influenced the movement.
of
social background
Its moralism, its naturalism, its messianic belief, its insistence
2
upon justice and order in the organisation of social relations,
adequately stressed
association between
1 Bernaldo de
Quiros and others have stressed the close
the anarchists and the bandits.
came from Catalonia and the
2 The
telegrams to the congress of 1882 which
north ring with phrases like "ideas anarco-sindicalistas". Those from the sierra
talk only of justice and the just cause of the people.
221
same time to tolerate any authority not

the community, to admit any basis of social
organisation other than the pueblo, the natural unit of
its
refusal at the
vested in
society, provide
some
justification for regarding it as the
product of a tension within the structure of the local com

munity. Yet this must not be taken as an excuse for overlook
ing the differences which can be seen to have existed in
modern times between the values of the pueblo and those of
the anarchists.
Though
the pueblo tends to
show
hostility to
the temporal order of the Church the powers of religion play

an all-important part in its institutions, and indeed its
solidarity is expressed in its relation to the patron saint. Yet
Anarchism went further than hostility to the temporal order,
and even than church-burning. It prescribed a complete
rejection of all religion, the substitution of salutations such as
Salud (health or salvation) for the conventional Vqya Vd. con

Dies or Adios and the elimination of the powers of religion
from the vocabulary of everyday use. The anarchist sections

from towns named after saints to the congress of 1882 fre
quently refer to their pueblo without the San, thus "Jose del
Valle" for "San Jose del Valle". The avowed rationalism
of the anarchists condemned the activities of the sabias as
superstition and condemned the doctrines of religion on the
same grounds. They attacked not only the idea of patronage
and social inequality but also the festival of the bull-fight,
alcohol and sexual promiscuity, all the flamboyant symbols
of Andalusian culture. It would be quite wrong to conclude
therefore that the anarchists represented the values of the
pueblo as a whole. They represented, rather, a reaction
against the imposition of new influences upon the traditional
structure of the pueblo.
further refinement
we can no more
discuss
is
required at this point. In reality
"Anarchism" than we can
We
discuss
can only analyse the social significance of

the latter by taking the witch and examining her relation
ship to the pueblo. Let us try therefore to see not Anarchism
but the anarchist. Diaz del Moral has observed the import
ance of a small nucleus of convinced anarchists "los obreros
concientes" 1 upon whom the whole movement depended. In
"witchcraft".
Diaz del Moral,
op. dt.
APPENDIX
222
the speech of those who today
que tenian ideas" (those who
remember pre-war times "los

had ideas) appear to indicate
a similar category. The Anarchist Movement appears, then,

as a certain number of convinced anarchists, a small per
of the great
centage of the pueblo, who enjoy the support
who are
majority of the pueblo upbn certain occasions, but
of the
remainder
the
for
the
of
members
pueblo
simply
time like the sabia and who have no great influence upon
events. The attitude towards them appears to have been
ambivalent from the accounts of those who are prepared
to discuss them. Moreover, such an explanation would
account for the characteristics noted in the history of the
movement, the lack of formal organisation and discipline,

the suddenness with which the rebellions break out and the
It would also
equal suddenness with which they subside.
account for the apparent indifference on the part of the rank
and file towards the dogmas of the movement.
To what extent they accepted them as articles of faith is a
than it is possible to
thing which cannot be said, any more
attached the
say whether the artisans of the capital cities
the
sierra. The
of
the
as
them
to
same significance
peasants
was
Andalusia
in
Movement
Anarchist
evolution of the
away from the primitive messianic Anarchism and towards a

more urban conception of revolution. 1 The doctrine of the
General Strike which dominated the movement from the
collective action
beginning of the twentieth century implied
much this
however
the
on a wider basis than
pueblo,
was carried still

implication was resisted, and this tendency
the
C.N.T.
further with the organisation of
upon a national
of
it
within
scale and the predominance
syndicalist ideas.
to
Some evidence has been put forward
suggest that during
the period of the Civil War certain tensions were visible
between the anarchists of the large towns and those of the
in
surrounding pueblos. The requirements of organisation
which
time of war made necessary a kind of authority
i
Messianic Anarchism continued to exist in the country districts
(e.g.
the
the mentality which goes with it remained

rising at Casas Viejas in 1934), and
the basis of the faith upon which the political association was founded. The
was very strong, for it was
a national
resistance to
organisation
becoming
an essential value, the sovereignty
recognised that it involved the sacrifice of
of the local community.
323
inevitably ran counter to the conceptions of the anarchists of

the pueblo. It is said that since the war the
underground
political opposition in Andalusia has been entirely com
munist, this in spite of the fact that Communism had no
previous importance there.

Seen in the dimension of time, the Anarchist Movement
in the pueblos of the sierra does indeed
appear as a develop
ment in the relationship of the pueblo to the state, in the
conflict between the values of the community and those of
the central power and its allies. It is born after the
power
of the Church has been destroyed by the growing state and
its place in the structure of the
pueblo has been taken by a
class of no longer anti-clerical
property-owners. It ends
when the state, having destroyed the anarcho-syndicalist
syndicate, imposes the reign of syndicalism. During that time
the spirit of the Anarchist Movement has changed and its
centre of balance has moved from the pueblo to the big city.
In this process the state is seen encroaching upon the
functions which were formerly vested in the community, in
creasing its influence there and imposing decisions made in
Cadiz or Madrid upon the internal affairs of the pueblo.
Yet today the divergence between the national rulers and
the pueblo grows less. State education, the radio, the cinema,
easy communications and the experience of military service
all in their different ways
carry the culture of urban society
to Alcala.
The pueblo adapts
itself to
new
political
and
Meanwhile, the fundamental values

of Andalusian society persist, for they are common to the
whole culture, the whole population of the South. Thanks
to them the different elements of the structure hold together.
technological influences.
They
give to Andalusia
of its character.
its
historical continuity, the
stamp
Glossary of Spanish Words

These words are defined
as they are used in

Alcala ; certain, variations of meaning will be
seen to exist between that given in this
Glossary and that given in a dictionary.
agua robada.
Literally,
clandestinely from the
alcahueta.
stolen
water, i.e.
stream.
water
diverted
communal
gossip; hence alcahueteria, scandalmongering.
An
arrangement whereby land is exploited in

partnership between two or more people; hence aparcero, a
person with whom such an arrangement is made.
aparceria.
A witch; one who employs magic for evil ends; an un

complimentary way of referring to a sabia.
cabron. Literally, he-goat (not used in this sense); a cuckold;
bruja.
cabrito, a kid or he-goat.

cacique. A local political boss; usually, in Andalusia, a land
owner; hence caciquismo, the system whereby, during the
epoch of constitutional government, political elections were
arranged by the cacique.
calio. An evil and involuntary power associated with menstrua
tion.
camelar. To compliment; to deceive with

camelo, a tall story or nonsense.
campina. The
flattery;
hence
agricultural plain.
cara dura.
Literally, hard-faced; shameless.

casino. The recreational club to which leading personalities of
the pueblo belong.

celos. Jealousy or zeal; en celo, on heat (used of animals);
celosa, jealous or zealous; a person possessing calio.
cojones. Literally, testicles; hence courage, manliness.
compadrazgo. The
relationship
god-parent; hence
ship to another.
between the parent and the

the person in such a relation
compadre,
confianza. Confidence; willingness to enter into friendship with

a person.
consuegro. The parent of a person's

a parent-in-law).
child's spouse
(from suegro,
GLOSSARY OF SPANISH WORDS
A professional broker;
corredor.
225
a person who
assists
in arrang
ing deals.
curandero.
person empowered either by knowledge or grace

or a combination of the two to heal human
beings or
domestic animals, other than a person officially
qualified to
do
so.
desgracia. The
loss of grace; hence desgraciado,

unfortunate;
disgraced; ill-blessed.
encargado. Charged with a duty; hence a person placed

charge, a
feria.
fair.
in
bailiff.
la fiscalia.
The
food control organisation or the members of it.
flamenco. Popular music of Andalusia.

forastero. A person from outside the pueblo,
translated in the
text as "outsider".
ganado. Livestock; hence ganadero, one who has

livestock; herdsman or herd owner.
to
do with
gracia. Grace; a favour or free gift; grace in movement; the

power to evoke admiration or laughter; supernatural power;
grace in the religious sense; gracias, thanks.
hombre bueno. One who intervenes in a law suit on behalf of
one of the parties engaged.
hombria. Manliness.
huerta.
one
An irrigated farm; an irrigated valley; hence hortelano,
who cultivates irrigated land; huerto, small plot of

irrigated land.
jopo. The
tail
of an animal; augmentative, jopon, person living
in the upper quarter of the town; jopiche, diminutive of

jopo, a person living in the lower quarter of the town.
maestro.
A schoolmaster;
maestro nacional, a
schoolmaster
by the State who teaches in State schools; maestro

rural, a man who gives lessons to children on the farms.
qualified
matador. A killer, either of bulls or pigs.

maton. A bully or thug; a person employed to intimidate others.
matriculacion. The municipal tax upon industrial and com
mercial enterprises.
a medias.
Half-shares; hence medianeria, an arrangement

whereby an enterprise is shared between the owner and the
exploiter; medianero, one who exploits an undertaking on
such a basis.
naturaleza. Nature; essence; the place of a person's birth; hence
natural, native of a place.
novio, novia. Fiancee; boy-friend, girl-friend; hence noviazgo,
the institution of courtship.
GLOSSARY OF SPANISH WORDS
226
who
protects
number of municipalities grouped
together
padrino. God-parent; sponsor; a powerful person
and favours.
partido judicial.
for certain administrative purposes.
patrono. A patron; an employer.

poblacion. Population; an inhabited place.
prirno. Cousin; foolish person; mug;
primo hennano,
first
cousin.
pueblo.
Town
or village; those
who
live in the place; plebs;
people.
rancho.
cottage outside the town; hence rancnero, a countrydweller, particularly a small farmer.
reja. The iron bars upon a window; the place where courting is
sometimes done.
remanentes. The waters of a mill-stream or irrigation channel

which continue to flow after the main stream has been cut off.
Also mispronounced, romanientes.
sabia. A wise woman; one empowered by grace and knowledge
perform magical acts. See bruja.
A "bluebeard"; a baby-stealer.
sin vergiienza. One who has no shame; a social outcast.
termino. The territory of a municipality.
tertulia. A group of friends, united in an habitual meetingto
sacamantecas.
place.
los terrazgos or terrajos.
An area of very small cultivable land
holdings.
vecino, vecina. A neighbour; the status of an emancipated per

son inscribed in the Parish Register; formerly the head of a
family.
vergiienza. Shame.
INDEX
Accinipa, 2
Admiralty, 218
Affinal ties, 105 et seq., 1 19
Agriculture, Ministry of, 36
Alba, Duchess of, 141
Alcahueta (gossip), 144, 193, 207
BLASCO IBANEZ,
v.,
La Bodega (Va
lencia, 1905), 73
BORROW, GEORGE, The
Gypsies of
Spain, 187
BRENAN, GERALD, The Spanish Laby

rinth (Cambridge, 1943), 17, 28,
39, 76, 132
Algar, 3
Algeciras, 19, 55
Amorpropio, 91
Anarchism, 17-19, 42, 53, 61, 125,

J
59>
127, 130-1, 133, i53~4 ?
220-3
Ancient Greece, 26
Aparceria (see half-shares), 43, 45
Aragon, Kingdom of, 14
Arcos, Duke of, 5, 216-7
The Face of Spain, 128
Buena
conducta, 17
Buleria,
170
Bulls, bullfight, 11, 36, 69-70, 78,
85,90,221
Byron, 203
Gabaneria, 37
Cacique, cadquismo, 17, 75, 135, 141,
Bandit, 51, 130-2, 141, 165, 178

etseq., 200-1, 213, 220
Barcelona, 50, 126
BAROJA, pfo. Las Noches del Bum
Retiro
,
(Madrid, 1934), 80
Cesar o Nada (Madrid,
Beggars, 27-8, 33, 54, 59-61, 68,

74~5> l6 5> l8 5~ 6 > !93> 204-5,
Manual Juridico-Admini-
dopedia
(1933), 17? i?
197 etseq.
Calio, 192,
Cakario, 3, 10
Campanilismo, 30
216
Benalurln,
3,
8-10, 12, 21, 39, 122,
Carlist
Benaocaz, 12-13
Benaojan,
BERNALDO.DE QUiROS,
c.
Los Reyes
Espana
XVI al JT/JT (Madrid,
CARO BAROJA,
QUIROS, C. and
ARDILA, LUIS, El Bandolerismo
(Madrid, 1931), 141? 180-1,
220
Berners, Lady, 187
4, 73, 203,
JULIO,
Los
VoSCOS
(San Sebastian, 1949), 137

,
DE
15
219
Andlisis
de
la
Cultura
(Barcelona^ 1949), 17^
1929), 4, 181
Black Hand,
17,
Carnaval, 176 et seq.
la Colonizacidn Interior de
desde el Siglo
2, 39, 50
Verde, Marque's de, 50,
213-4
War,
Benamahoma, 40
BERNALDO
Campina,
Campo
124, 216
P.S.
211, 2l6
Cadiz, Marques de, 216
CALATAYUD SANJUAN, EMILO, Entistrativo
1912), 141
157, I59 ? l6 8> 182, 204, 220

Cddiz, 3-4, 1 1, 19, 23, 39, 56, 120,
"Las 'nuevas pobla-
de Sierra Morena y
Andalucia," in Clavileno, 1952
(no. 18), 181
?
220
ciones'
Algunos Mitos Espanoles
(Madrid, 1944)?
93
INDEX
228
CARRi6N, PASCUAL, Los Latifundios
en Espana (Madrid, 1932), 39
Casa de los Tiros, Granada, 214
Casino, 2, 27, 67, 77, 87, 122, 134*35> 162
39
Castile,
Kingdom
of,
14
Catalonia, 220
CELA, CAMILO jos, La Familia de

Pascual Duarte (Madrid 1942),
198
Cervantes, 80
Cicero, 179
Guard, 16-18, 23, 28,
122,
126,
129-33,
67, 72,
J
i45>
47>
156-7, 170-1, 174-5, *8o, 182186, 193, 200, 206, 220

Class,
(social),
32,
34,
80-1,
"8-9, 125
.Class,
middle, 81, 157, 203, 218,
220
Communications,
4, 17, 22-3, 49,
Compadres, compadrazgot 32, 107
et
la Division
du Travail Social (Paris, 1902),
Economic change or
18,21,49,53,62
Education, 61,
71-1,
decline,
75-7,
4,
84,
102, 124-5, !4 8 , 190, 192, 201,
215
Education, lack of, 105, 113, 192,
202
El Castor, 10, 17-18, 24, 28
Eljaral, 2,9, 10-11,24,55,58
ElViso, ii
EmpadronamientOy 8
Ensenada, Marques de la, 214

ESTAMPA, 1934, Z 8s
EVANS-PRITCHARD, E. E., Witchcraft,
Oracles and Magic among the
Evil Eye, 198
et
seq.,
204
138, 142, 153, 208
Compadres de Carnaval, 107, 176

ConsuegrO) 76, 96, 106-7
Cordoba, 19, 141, 181

Comdor, dealer, 33, 39, 57-9, 64,
129, 186-7
Corrientes, Diego, 179-80
Cortes, 184
Courting (see JVbz/io), 6, 9, 13, 68,
93^^,98, 100-1, 106
Cousin, 103-6,
Cuba, 4
Cuckold,
80
n 6,
164, 172
69
FERRERO, GUGLIELMO, The Prifa
ciples of Power (New York, 1942),
Feria, 8,
157
Flores, 182
Folklore, 10, 12, 96, '133, 170
Ford, Richard, i
FOSTER, GEORGE M., Empire's Chil
dren
(Smithsonian
32
Freud, 118
Institute),
Friend, friendship, 23, 28, 32, 43,
Cursi,
59-61, 64, 68, 88, 104, 106-9,

in, 119-20, 131, 137 et seq.,
DIAZ DEL MORAL, j,
Histona de
Campesinas Andaluzas (Madrid, 1929), 19, 61,

181, 221
las Agitaciones
Doctor,
DURCKHEIM, EMILE, De
Azande (Oxford, 1937), 195
55-6, 135, 214, 216, 223

seq.,
(Paris,
'95i)> 78
24
Castile,
Civil
DUMONT, LOUIS, La Tarasque,
6,
66-7, 72, 124, 199-200
Don, 72-4, 81, 83

DOUGLAS, NORMAN, Old
(London, 1915), 162
Calabria
160, 168, 210, 213

Fuenteovejuna, 19, 158
Gago, Mateos, 55
Galica, 14
GARCIA OVIEDO, Derecho Admini

strative (Madrid, 1951), 14, 219
'
Gaucin, 184
INDEX
229
Juan
Gibraltar, 26, 58, 184, 192
GONZALEZ, JULIO, Repartimiento

Sevilla (Madrid, 1951), 39
Governor, 15, 23, 122 et seq.
de
Jus
Jus
el
Nene, 182
sanguinis,
soli,
30
30
Justice of the Peace, 129-30
Gratia, 189 etseq.
Granada, Kingdom
213-4,217,219
Grazalema, 11, 13
of,
4, 50,
i,
Labourers
10,
5,
39, 42, 50, 170-1,
13, 20, 33,
80
Gypsies, 33, 48, 60, 70, 164, 174,
86
et seq. 3
198
Carolina, 31
Lacidula, i
La Linea, 192
La Mancha, 39
(see
38-9,
aparceria)^
42.50
HARDY, THOMAS,
The
Mayor of
HEMINGWAY, ERNEST, For Whom

Bell Tolls, 132
162
Housing, 3-5, 46, 99

Huerto, Huerta (see irrigation), 4,
40-1, 43-4, 52, 90, 142
et seq.,
207
217
1932), 39
Ley de Fugas, 131
Liberals, 36, 218-19.
Logrono, 11
Lope de Vega, 19
Lopez, Curro, 141
El
Inheritance, 46, 79, 98-9, 102-4,
196
20-1,
142,
39
Latifundismo, 181
MACHADO Y ALVAREZ,
Igualeja, 182, 184
6,
23,
148,
33,
155,
50,
178,
206
Irrigation, 2-4, 21, 35, 40-1, 50,
A. (Editor),
Andduz> 12
MACIVER, R. M., The Web of Govern
ment (1947), 67
and PAGE, Society (London,
Folklore
1949)^5
MADOZ, PASCUAL, Diccwnano Geogrqfico-Estadistico-Historico
53
3-4, 9, n-12, 17, 195

2i-4> 29, 33, 5i* 55> 59> IO 5>
Jacinas,
131, 170,
i, 3,
216
r
20, 181, 203
Jesuits, expulsion of,

Jimena, 10,
215
Es-
de
pana (Madrid, 1846), 54

Madrid, 14, 217, 220, 223
Mairena, 11
Malaga, 16, 18, 36, 57, 120, 139,
154.157,217
The Beginnings
MARETT, R. R.,
of Morals and Culture,** in An
Outline
Knowledge
of Modern
.
10-11, 16, 19, 22, 26,
55-6> I0 9>
en
LEVI-PROVENAL, E., UEspagW Musulmane au Xbne Sikle (Paris,
Hortelanoy 41, 48, 52-3, 90-1, 126,
138,
LATOUR, ANTOINE DE, Un Voyage

Espagne (Paris, 1855), 203
Latifundia>
the
Hombre Bueno, 129
Ice-pits, 56, 171,
168, 219
La Sauceda, 184
170
Casterbridge>
Haro, ii
Jerez,
43-6,
16, 25, 37-9,
51-2, 58-9, 66-9, 72-3> 75> 125,
Half-shares
128,
17,
3, 4,
La
Land-owners,
Inspector,
Wages),
83, 99, 132, 134, 216, 220
Guadalete, 55
Guadalmesi, 3,
(see
23> 27, 32, 37, 42-3, 45, 48, 59,
(London, 1931), 113
INDEX
230
MARIANA, PADRE JUAN DE, De Rege
(Spanish trans
lation, Madrid, 1864), 158
et Regis Institutione
Marriage
(see courting), 16, 24, 26,
79,82,84,91-6,98^^,,
175,
208
MARSHALL,
T.
Social Class
H.,
Citizenship
and
(Cambridge, 1950),
15,
Pasos Largos, 183

Patria chica,
Mayor, 15-16,
41, 52, 55, 66, 73,
77,122^^,141,147,
154, 156
Mayorazgo, 102
Menstrual magic, 195, 197 et seq*
MERIMEE, PROSPER, Voyage en Espagne 9 180
Mesta, 217
Patron Saint,
8,
11,
13, 30,
133,
221
Hi
40> 48-53 3 58, 13 !>
et se
162, 192, 200, 206
Naturaleza (place of birth), 8, 30,

III, 120
Neighbour
(vecino), 7-8, 28, 108,

122, 137, et seq., 146, 156, 158,
168-9, 171, 173, 182, 185, 193,

7,
8, 31,
126,
160
Phylloxera, 4
Piropo,
92
Plebs,
8,
73, 76-7, 80, 118, 133,
6, 88,
Polis,
30
Poltergeist, 195
ANTONIO, Vioje
(Madrid, 1787), 4, 53
Power, definition of, 67
16,
Priest,
93-8, 109-11,
77,
130,
Primo de Rivera, General, 56, 131,

157
33
Puerto Santa Maria, 8
Prostitute, 27,
of Yucatan (Chicago, 1941), 198
Rio Genal,
9, 181,
184
DUQUE DE, "El Ventero",
published in Los Espanoles Pin

tados por si mismos
(Madrid,
9,
n,
1843), 207
25-6,
28-9,66, 123, 140, 159, 161, 164,

215
Owner-farmer, 25-6, 36, 40, 4445> 105
Padrino, 107-10, 140-1, 155
39-40
72,
132-4, 201, 205, 215

Primitive societies, 31, 160
RIVAS,
Parauta, 182, 184
67,
Espana
REDFIELD, ROBERT, The Folk Culture
117, 119, 176-7, 191, 196
Orgullo, 91
Outsider (forastero),
51,
de
et
201
jVbr/io, novia,
Philip II, 214
PONZ,
Montejaque, 9, 11, 12, 24

Moors, i, 13, 31, 196, 205-6, 216
Murcia, 14
206-9
Nicknames,
13
Perez de Alamo, 220
141, 152, 161, 167, 179
Mills, miller, 4, 6, 20-1, 23, 25, 33,
Pareela,
30
Patronage, 63, 140-1, 154-5, 204,

207, 209, 213, 219, 221
PEREZ CLOTET, PEDRO, La Serrania

de Ronda en la Literatura (Cddiz),
Maton, 141
Olvera,
23-4, 33, 123-5, 129,
152, 157, 217
Penaloja, 6-8, 15, 21, 24, 54-5, 123
34,81
Aiatanza, 85
seq.,
Partido,
ROJAS,
FERNANDO DE, La
Celestina,
193
Ronda,
i, 13, 17,
19, 22-4, 36,
54-7, 68, 125, 148, 181-3, 193,
217, 220
ROWSE, A, L., A Cornish Childhood,
170
Ruling Group,
16, 32-3, 66-9, 77,

I34-5* 152, J55> *79> 200-1, 209
INDEX
231
Sabia, 96-7, 179, 189 et^seq.,
199-
201, 221-2
Sacamantecas,
Syndicates, 15, 52, 67, 122, 127-8,
i34 ? 223
System
204
Sanctions, 67-8, 92, 965 121, 184,
(see sanctions, values), x,
xiii-xv, 58, 63, 81, 83, 91, 98,
206, 208-10
109, 145, 153-5,
,jural, 173
201, 204, 211-13, 217, 224
6o, 162, 182,
legal, of organised force, 160-1,
178, 200-1, 213

,
moral, of public opinion, 27,
31, 109, 113, 118-19, 158, 161,
168-9, i75-7>
200, 202, 213
i?9>
185,
188,
San Martin, 3, 8, n, 216

San Pedro de Alcantara, 8
Santiago de Galicia, 217
Timing
Senor, 74, 81-3

Sefiorito, 61, 74-83, 87, 98, 108,
118-20, 133, 135, 167-8, 204
60,
70,
109,
uzetseq., 139, 154, 157-9, 184185, 198-9, 202

Shameless behaviour, 12, 27, 60-1,
102, 144, 147, 153, 171, 176-7*
184-8
Shepherds, herdsmen
9, 33>
*6,
24~
125
Shilluk Kings, 12
Smugglers, i, 183-4, 200, 207, 220
24, 30, 32-3, 88,
204, 206, 213
Sophocles, 31
Sorcery, 195-8, 206
Status, xiv, 26, 29, 32, 65-83, 92,
120, 125, 137, 1 60, 182, 209,
216
Structure, x,
xiii,
xiv, 13, 29-30,
34> 49* 56, 59> 66, 81, 98, 103,

106, 115, 120, 122, 132-4, 160161,
179,
15-16, 27-8, 32,

de
ley
los,
23
Town Hall, 5,
15-16, 22, 31, 36-7,

44> 5 6 > 59> IIO > J 2i ttseq.t 146,
162, 213, 217-18
Trade, 19-22, 25, 33, 48
etseq.,
57
et seq,
Transhumance, 23
Ubrique, n, 216
VALERA, JUAN, Pepita Jimenez, 141
La Leyenda Negra> 202

,
Values, xiv, xv, 12, 46, 59-60,
,
84-5^89,9^106,
112, 114, 118,
141, 158, 160, 176, 178, 200-4,
Soberbia, 91, 157

16,
9,
(ganaderos),
37-8, 48, 6 9~7>
Solidarity,
6,
35-6, 40, 55
Ttrminos municipales,
Secrecy, 206-7, 213
(Verguenza),
214, 216
Tax-collector, 16, 209
Tempranillo, Jose-Maria el, 180

Tenant-farmers, 25-6, 40, 44-5,
51, 75, 83, 104-5, I34 3 l6 5> 180
systems of, 156, 206

San Jos6 del Valle, 221
,
Shame
Tangier, 192
Taxation, 22, 44, 123, 126, 210,
184,
188,
194,
213, 215, 221, 223

Supernatural, xiv, 96-7,
seq.
Syndical regulations, 42
207,
189,
et
206, 209, 213, 223

,
economic, 62-3, 65
egalitarian, 61, 71,
137,
156,
209, 213
113, 115, 145, 158, 202
-, moral,
of the pueblo, 31, 49, 62, 118120, 137, 166, 175, 203, 221
system, 46, 62, 66,

158, 179. 208
VEBLEN,
Class
T.,
18-19,
The Theory of the
44>
Leisure
(New York,
1922), 70
VERGARA, MARTIN, "L.OS ApodoS
Colectivos", in the Boletin de la
Real Sodedad Geografica (Vol.

1918), 8
XV,
INDEX
232
Villa Faderique, 11-12, 28
Villaluenga del Rosario, 8, 13
Vito,
169-75, 201
Widows,
58, 89, 103, 130, 170-1,

i?3> 175
Wme, 9, 12, 23, 35, 57
Witchcraft, 192
Wages,
22-3, 25, 37, 43-5, 59,

75> OO-ôo, 123, 127, 214
WASHINGTON IRVING, The Alhambra
4,
(London, 1832), 60
WEBER, MAX, The
Protestant Ethic
and the Spirit of Capitalism (Lon

don, 1930), 62
WEULERSSE, J., Pqysans de Syrie et
du Proche-Orient (Paris, 1946), 47
et seq. t
221
WOOLSEY, GAMEL, Death's Other

Kingdom (London, 1939), 18
Zahara, 10, 12
ZOILO ESPEJO, Costumbres de Derecho
yEconomia Rural (Madrid 1900),
44
ZUGASTI, JULIAN, El Bandolerismo
(Madrid, 1876), 141, 157
CD
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MO. PUBLIC LIBRARY

THE PEOPLE OF THE SIERRA

Copyright^ iQ^fa by Criterion Books, Inc.

Printed in Great Britain by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, London

JULIO CARO BAROJA

Foreword by Professor E. E. Evans-Pritchard

Industry and Trade

Marriage and the Family

Friendship and Authority

XII Law and

XIII Law and Morality,

The Community and

Nicknames and the

Bandits and Gypsies

Appendix: The Present and the Past

Gathering Esparto grass

Corpus Ghristi procession

valley below the

Oxford and an Oxford anthropologist. His great-grand

The General's grandson and the Author's father.

on which this book is based and for which he was

This decision demanded not only

ative but also courage because such studies have hitherto

the sociologist, and the claim by anthropologists that they

a work of sound scholarship and

writes about are real

the printed page or

people and not

units in statistical tables.

of the community he describes and he speaks

is a complicated set of inter

This sort of study

by the nature of the

to fairly small communities. But the prob

scale where they present themselves as problems

system, political structure,

religious cult, legal codes, judicial institutions, educational

here set forth and studied as relations between persons

mayor, the policeman, the priest, the lawyer,

to discuss the topics treated

Pitt-Rivers in his fascinating study of the pueblo of Alcald or

he needs no guidance from me, for all is set

having accomplished successful research in what must have

THIS BOOK is about a Spanish town. More precisely, it

every description of social

method and terms it employs an implied theory of society,

seam of gold which may

repay the cost of mining it.

and so on. This is not what a

agglomeration of persons but a system of social relations.

what is the nature of

leave to philosophers to whom it properly belongs. But many

and are determined by the other institutions of their society,