Aquaculture Health Magazine

AQUACULTURE HEALTH
A T
ISSUE 5
MAY 2006
NZ$10.00
NEW INSIGHTS INTO

AMOEBIC GILL DISEASE
VETERINARIANS WITHOUT
BORDERS ASSIST IN SRI LANKA
WHIRLING DISEASE
UNDER THE SPOTLIGHT
CONTENTS
3
4
6
9
10
14
20
22
25
25
28
31
34
ISSUE 5, MAY 2006
EDITORIAL
Bird flu highlights the importance of effective communication skills
for animal health professionals
RESEARCH FOCUS
Insights into amoebic gill disease pathogenesis
DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY SERIES
AquaTechnics Inc at Carlsborg, Washington, USA
FISH VET CASEBOOK
Some perspectives on spring viraemia of carp
RESEARCH FOCUS
A US perspective on selected biotechnological advancements in
fish health. Part one
NEWS
Updates from around the globe
CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS
RESEARCH FOCUS
The advantages of vaccine-activated white shrimp
ORGANISATION
Veterinarians without borders assist in Sri Lanka
EDUCATION
An online certificate from Wisconsin, USA
FOCUS ON FINFISH
Developments in whirling disease research through the national
symposium
VACCINATION
Salmon - where is the correct
AQUAC
ULTURE
injection site?
HEALTH
I N
T E
R N
A T
I O
ISS UE
N A
5
MAY
L
200 6
NEW
AMOE INSIGHTS
BIC G
ILL DIS INTO
EASE
NZ$ 10.
INSIGHTS
INTO
AMOEBIC
GILL
DISEASE
31
VETERIN
BORDER ARIANS WITH
O
S ASSIS
T IN SR UT
I LANKA
WHIRLIN
UNDER G DISEASE
THE SP
OTLIGHT
See page 4.
EDITORIAL DIRECTOR: Dr Scott Peddie

PUBLISHER: Keith Ingram
ISSN 1176-86330 ISSN (web) 1176-8649
MANAGER: Vivienne Ingram
An informative journal for the

aquaculture health professional
ASSISTANT EDITOR: Mark Barratt-Boyes
Published by:
VIP PUBLICATIONS LTD
4 Prince Regent Drive
Half Moon Bay, Auckland 1706
New Zealand
Ph +64 9 533 4336, Fax +64 9 533 4337
Email [email protected]
www.aquaculturehealth.com
CONTRIBUTORS: Dr Mark Adams,

Dr Franck Berthe, Dr Andrew Bridle,
Dr Michael T Collins, Dr Philip Crosbie,
Dr Ralph Elston, Dr Joyce Evans,
Dr Dave Groman, Chris Haacke,
Dr Erik Johnson, Dr Myron J Kebus,

Dr Phillip Klesius,Arild Kollevg,Dr Chhorn Lim,
Dr Jeannette McDonald, Dr Richard Morrison,
Dr Barbara Nowak, Dr Matthew Rise,
Dr Mark Sheppard, Dr Craig Shoemaker,
Dr Craig Stephen,Klasa Stromberg,Robin Wardle
DESIGNER: Rachel Walker
PRE PRESS/CTP: BPG Digital
WEBSITE: Web4U
GENERAL: Reproduction of articles and materials published in Aquaculture Health International in whole or part, is permitted, provided the source and author(s)
are acknowledged. However, all photographic material is copyright and written permission to reproduce in any shape or form is required. Contributions of a nature
relevant to the aquaculture industry are welcomed and industry participants are especially encouraged to contribute. Articles and information printed in
Aquaculture Health International do not necessarily reflect the opinions or formal position or the publishers unless otherwise indicated. All material published in
Aquaculture Health International is done so with all due care as regards to accuracy and factual content, however, the publishers cannot accept
responsibility for any errors and omissions which may occur. Aquaculture Health International is produced quarterly.
2 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL MAY 2006
00
DR SCOTT PEDDIE, EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
t is hard to believe that a year has passed since Aquaculture Health

International was launched. Since going live in Bali in May 2005,
we have published around 30 articles covering a wide range of
disease issues in both fish and shellfish species. With contributions
from leading experts, we have been able to provide an eclectic mix of
cutting edge articles from across the globe.
Our reader response has been very favourable to date.
Aquaculture Health International has a growing number of
subscribers in Asia, South America, North America, Australia and
New Zealand. Perhaps not surprisingly, our main concentrations of
readers are found in Norway, Chile, the UK and the USA. All sectors
of industry and academia are represented and include biologists,
veterinarians, policy makers and fish and shellfish farmers.
Although we have the capacity to produce a printed version of the
magazine alongside the pdf version, we have found the costs of
producing the former and distributing it to an international audience
prohibitive. As a consequence, you will have noticed that we have
concentrated on producing the online version - this has several
advantages. The first is that we have not been restricted in the amount
of material we can include in each issue, so we have been able to
increase the content issue by issue. Secondly, we can reach a wider
audience more effectively.
Looking to the year ahead, we want to increase the scope of the
magazine to include more articles and news items on the ornamentals
industry. We also want to provide more practically orientated articles to
engage more fully with those at the coal face of the aquaculture
industry. So in essence, we want to make the magazine more responsive
and relevant to our increasingly diverse readership. In order to do this
we need as much feedback from you, the reader, as possible. So I would
encourage you to contact me with any suggestions you might have. Are
there any areas of fish or shellfish health you want us to focus on? Do
you want to highlight your area of research or special interest by
writing an article for us? If so, Id be delighted to hear from you!
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Those of us living in the UK would have found it hard not to be aware
that a dead swan infected with H5N1 was found on our shores at the
end of March. The dreaded H5N1 strain of bird

flu had arrived. Thankfully it appears to be an
isolated case in a non-native whooper swan, and
in mid-April the authorities relaxed some of the
emergency biosecurity restrictions put in place.
Why are we discussing bird-flu in a magazine
devoted to fish and shellfish health, I hear you
ask? Well, it seems to me that the UK
occurrence highlights some important points
for those of us involved in aquatic animal health. Firstly, it
demonstrates the importance of effective communication between
those on the ground and the regulatory authorities. That a member of
the public was sufficiently aware of the bird-flu threat prompted them
to report the dead swan to the relevant agency. In the aquaculture
industry, the first line of defence is almost always the fish farmer; an
appreciation of what constitutes normal mortality rates, feeding
response and overall behaviour in their stock is essential. Together
with both passive and active surveillance methods, simple routine onfarm monitoring by knowledgeable staff on the ground helps to
ensure that potential disease threats are identified quickly and can be
dealt with effectively. Perhaps we take this for granted in the developed
regions of the world. The situation in other areas of the globe can be
more challenging - there can be particular difficulties in disseminating
basic health information to small-scale farmers operating in isolated
areas devoid of an effective communications infrastructure.
The second point also relates to communication, but this time
between experts and the public. Although scientists are sometimes
accused of being notoriously poor at communicating complex science
to a general audience, it seems to me that this time the message has got
through. The buying public has taken on board the message that
poultry and poultry products are safe to eat, therefore there has been
no substantial shift in consumer behaviour to date, at least in the UK.
So the message is clear. Good communication between key
stakeholders in the food production industry with respect to potential
or actual disease issues is of increasing importance. Animal health
scientists play a key role in the chain of communication, therefore
their skills in this area are progressively coming to the fore. So perhaps
we should all ask ourselves this question: am I ready for the
communications revolution?
SUBSCRIBE NOW!
Be sure to get your

copy of Aquaculture Health International direct by email
Name _______________________________________________________________________
Address _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________ Postal code ___________________
Email ________________________________________________________________________
Visa
Mastercard
Bankcard
(other cards are not accepted)
Card Number
__________________________________________
Card Name ______________________________
Signature_________________________________
ENCLOSE A CHEQUE FOR
___________________________________
NZ$40.00 Electronic version by email, see www.aquaculturehealth.com
Expiry date /
POST TO: VIP Publications Ltd, 4 Prince Regent Drive, Half Moon Bay, Auckland 1706, New Zealand
GST No: 68-684-757
MAY 2006 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL 3
EDITORIAL
AQUACULTURE HEALTH
INTERNATIONAL - ONE YEAR ON
RESEARCH
INSIGHTS INTO AMOEBIC

GILL DISEASE PATHOGENESIS
BY DR RICHARD MORRISON, ASSOC PROF BARBARA NOWAK, DR PHILIP CROSBIE, DR MARK ADAMS,
DR ANDREW BRIDLE (UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA) AND DR MATTHEW RISE (UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MILWAUKEE)
tlantic salmon aquaculture in Tasmania, Australia has

expanded since its inception and approximately 17,000
tonnes of fish are now harvested annually.
This has provided a stable economic benefit to Australias island
state and revitalised many regional municipalities. However,
production in the seawater phase is restrained by a recurrent
parasitic condition, amoebic gill disease, or AGD.
AGD can be easily mitigated, yet the cost is something farmers
could do without. This article describes aspects of AGD, together
with the outcomes of recent studies within our research group at
the University of Tasmania, or UTAS.
NEOPARAMOEBA PEMAQUIDENSIS
LABELLED WITH DNA-SPECIFIC
FLUORESCENT DYE
NEOPARAMOEBA PEMAQUIDENSIS
BOUND BY FLUORESCENTLY LABELLED
ANTIBODY
A LIGHT MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF NEOPARAMOEBA PEMAQUIDENSIS
GROSS AGD
PATHOLOGY.
NOTE THE WHITE
LESIONS
AMOEBIC GILL DISEASE (AGD)

THE TASMANIAN PARADIGM
As the name suggests, amoebic gill disease develops after amoebae
Neoparamoeba spp. colonise and replicate on the gills of susceptible
fish. In turn, host epithelial cells adjacent to the amoebae
proliferate unabated until death.
Salmonids grown in Tasmanian waters are susceptible to AGD,
but the condition has also been reported in Atlantic salmon,
rainbow trout, Chinook salmon, coho salmon, turbot and seabass
in North America and/or Europe.
In Tasmania, Atlantic salmon smolts were first transferred to
seawater during the mid-1980s. Subsequently, AGD outbreaks
occurred and were responsible for demoralising losses.
Fortunately, freshwater bathing is an effective treatment, and the
development of commercial-scale freshwater bathing allowed the
industry to prosper.
Bathing involves moving all fish from a net-pen into fresh water
contained within a canvas liner for three or four hours, then
releasing them back into a net-pen. This is an expensive process
and reportedly accounts for up to 20 percent of production costs.
It is also limits production, as fish must be farmed within reach of
a suitable source of fresh water.
AGD is observed in association with 35 parts per thousand
salinity and may be detected year-round in these conditions.
However, outbreaks are most prevalent during the warmest
months of the year.
During this time, all fish are repeatedly bathed in fresh water, as
often as monthly. Surveys of marine sites around Tasmania
indicate that Neoparamoeba spp. is ubiquitous, and therefore in the
long run the industry would prefer to adopt preventative measures
such as vaccination.
To this end, current collaborative research supported by the
Australian Government Cooperative Research Centre programme
is aimed at producing an anti-AGD vaccine. In addition, our
research group at UTAS is complementing the vaccine
development initiative by investigating AGD pathogenesis.
COMBINING FISH AND

CHIPS TO LEARN MORE ABOUT AGD
While AGD histopathology is well described, molecular pathways
affected by AGD are yet to be identified. Our collaborators at the
University of Victoria in Canada have developed a salmonid DNA
micro-array chip. This is a glass slide that has been coated with
16,006 microscopic DNA spots, representing thousands of
individual genes.
It is used to detect genes that are switched on or off in response
to various parameters such as disease. Lists of affected genes can be
compiled to identify related genes within molecular pathways that
are affected.
Recently, we used this cDNA micro-array chip to identify nearly
200 genes that were switched on or off during AGD. A gene called
as AG-2 is consistently switched on in AGD-affected gill tissue, and
interestingly, the equivalent gene is known to be strongly expressed
in human cells that are rapidly multiplying.
This observation was confirmed using quantitative PCR, and it
was also shown that as AG-2 up-regulation was restricted to AGD
FRESHWATER BATHING OF ATLANTIC

SALMON AFFECTED BY AGD
LEFT:
AGD
HISTOPATHOLOGY.
NOTE THE AMOEBA
ASSOCIATED WITH
HYPER-PROLIFERATIVE
TISSUE
RIGHT:
A MICRO-ARRAY SLIDE
AFTER BINDING OF
FLUORESCENTLY
LABELLED DNA PHOTO
COURTESY OF GLENN
COOPER, UVIC
lesions relative to unaffected tissue.

Human AG-2 has been shown to block the activity of the p53
tumour suppressor protein that can control the growth of human
cells. Therefore p53 and p53-regulated gene expression was also
tested by quantitative PCR. This data not only showed that the p53
tumour suppressor gene is switched off in affected tissue,
permitting uninhibited cell division, but also p53-regulated genes
were affected.
AGD pathogenesis is certainly a complex process, given the
number of affected genes, but p53 and as AG-2 may be
fundamental to the development of this condition. Knowing how
AGD works may well help in the design of a vaccine.
Research on AGD is continuing with the support of the
Tasmanian Salmonid Growers Association, and is a collaborative
effort between the University of Tasmania, the University of
Technology, Sydney and CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric
Research. Micro-array chips are available for purchase.
See www.uvic.ca/cbr/grasp
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A UTAS/UVic collaborative team conducted the micro-array
research. Thanks go to Glenn Cooper and Prof Ben Koop at UVic
for ongoing support. This research formed part of a project of the
Aquafin Cooperative Research Centre, and received funds from the
Australian governments CRCs Programme, the Fisheries R&D
Corporation and other CRC participants.
FURTHER READING
Morrison RN, Cooper GA, Koop BF, Rise ML, Bridle AR, Adams
DR RICHARD MORRISON
WITH PHD STUDENT
BENITA VINCENT
MB, Nowak BF (2006). Transcriptome profiling the gills of amoebic

gill disease (AGD)-affected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L). A role
for the tumour suppressor protein p53 in AGD-pathogenesis?
Physiological Genomics, Feb 21 [Epub ahead of print]
von Schalburg KR, Rise ML, Cooper GA, Brown GD, Gibbs RA,
Nelson CC, Davidson WS and Koop BF (2005). Fish and chips:
Various methodologies demonstrate the utility of a 16,006-gene
salmonid micro-array. BMC Genomics 6. pp126-144

DIAGNOSTICS
DIAGNOSTIC
LABORATORY SERIES
SERIES EDITORS: DR DAVE GROMAN AND DR FRANCK BERTHE
(ATLANTIC VETERINARY COLLEGE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, CANADA)
variety of service, research and teaching laboratories exist

worldwide which support the aquaculture industry. These
laboratories often offer disease screening and diagnostic
services, with various levels of testing and quality assurance. In
addition, some laboratories may not engage in pro-active
international marketing. As a result, many aquaculture companies
and their fish health service providers are not always aware of the
range of laboratory resources available in the global marketplace.
This series of laboratory articles will provide Aquaculture Health
International readers with a guide to diagnostic laboratories which
offer regional, national or global routine - fee for service
veterinary diagnostic services to finfish, mollusc and crustacean
producers and their veterinary service providers.
In addition, the articles will focus on affiliations that these
diagnostic laboratories may have with universities, government
agencies and institutes linked to aquatic health training or
research. The articles will seek input from each laboratory as to
their strategic goals and operational philosophy.
This objective services review, in combination with subjective
input on management philosophy, will provide readers with a
balanced description of the laboratory, and will ultimately help

aquaculture veterinary professionals to make informed decisions
on selecting appropriate diagnostic service laboratories, aquatic
health training and research programmes.
To accomplish this, we will provide a formative review of the
services provided by each laboratory, with the approval and
assistance of the company, programme or laboratory management.
To this end, we have developed an aquatic health diagnostic
services evaluation checklist which will detail information on the
type and scope of services offered:
quality assurance programmes
referral options
reporting methods
client base, and
the cost of testing.
We will strive to capture a thorough description of the diagnostic
component of the laboratory, with a capsulated summary of
services provided. If a laboratory prefers not to participate in the
series, we will only provide a description based on published
information, public advertising or government documentation.
FEATURED DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY:

AquaTechnics Inc (Carlsborg, Washington, USA)
BY DR RALPH ELSTON
quaTechnics, a private aquatic animal diagnostic and

environmental evaluation service, has operated from
Sequim, Washington since 1995. Founded by Dr Ralph
Elston, AquaTechnics mission is to assist aquaculture clients in
managing aquatic animal health, reducing waste and minimising
environmental impacts from farmed aquatics production, and
maximising clients operating profits.
The company also assists a variety of clients in environmental
restoration projects and environmental damage assessments, many
of which involve aquatic animal health issues. Clients range from
small shellfish farms to Fortune 500 companies, and services are
provided for companies in North and South America, Asia, Europe
and Australia.
AquaTechnics also serves regional and national governmental
agencies and non-governmental organisations. Its philosophy
emphasises diligence, quality, value and follow-through, resulting
in a high level of repeat customer business. The companys prime
objective is to find permanent solutions to client problems.
Company staff members have assisted high-intensity shellfish
production facilities by identifying bacterial pathogens and
formulating management and remediation procedures
involving water treatment, sanitation protocols and feeding and
bacterial management. In addition, staff members have
identified several previously unrecognised infectious disease
agents that may affect both cultured and wild stocks, including
bacterial pathogen designated NP-1, and were the first to
identify the OIE-reportable molluscan disease agent Mikrocytos
mackini in the United States.
A TECHNICIAN
SAMPLES
FLUPSY SEED
FACILITIES AND STAFF

AquaTechnics started as a home-based business in 1995, but quickly
grew to a dedicated business location with office, laboratory and
wet laboratory space in Sequim, Washington, located on the
Olympic Peninsula. An expansion is currently underway in a newly
purchased property adjacent to the existing facility.
Ralph and Heidi Elston are the president and vice-president of
the company, which employs four to six additional staff members
and has a web of contractor-associates who provide ancillary
services to clients upon demand.
Technical staff members include:
Dr Ralph Elston, a specialist in molluscan and fish health and
environmental assessment
Dr Arthur Gee, a specialist in molecular genetics and
bacteriology
Karen Humphrey, a registered pharmacist and laboratory
operations supervisor
Hans Daubenberger, PCR specialist, and
Dr James Humphrey MD
The company also employs laboratory technical specialists.
Associated collaborators and consultants include Dr Paul Frelier,
DVM (DACVP), PhD, Dr Barbara Watrous, DVM (DACVR), Dr
Jerry Heidel, DVM (DACVP), PhD and Dr John Pitts, DVM.
Facilities and hardware include a necropsy and histology
preparation laboratory, a microbiology laboratory, bacterial
fermentation and concentration facilities, a PCR laboratory, bright
field, fluorescent and stereo microscopy and a variety of routine
laboratory equipment. The facilities include a wet laboratory
building with recirculating marine life support systems permitted
by the state authority for use with non-indigenous pathogens.
AQUATECHNICS
SCIENTISTS PREPARE A
BACTERIAL FERMENTER
By emphasising a differential diagnostic approach and applying

appropriate technology, the company has been successful in
elevating health standards on clients marine farms and in
reducing the effects of infectious diseases and inferior
environmental quality.
Of particular importance to hatchery and nursery clients has
been the identification of pathogenic bacteria and protozoa which
can persistently and opportunistically infect early life stages of
molluscs. In addition, AquaTechnics maintains reference samples
for both histological and molecular diagnosis of many OIEreportable diseases and other diseases of regional significance,
including an archive of bacterial pathogens.
SERVICES PROVIDED
Diagnostic services are provided primarily to shellfish (mollusc)

farms, but a smaller portion of clientele produce freshwater and
marine finfish and shrimp. AquaTechnics has developed a reputation
for identifying and solving persistent and difficult problems in
aquatic animal production, particularly related to animal health.
Services include on-site evaluations and laboratory-based
evaluation utilising technologies as indicated in the aquatic health
diagnostic services evaluation checklist. A combination of classical
and molecular methods is used to optimise diagnostic efficiency.
WATER QUALITY
PHYCOLOGY
NECROPSY
CLINICAL
CHEMISTRY
HAEMATOLOGY
CYTOLOGY
HISTOPATHOLOGY
BACTERIOLOGY
MYCOLOGY
VIROLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
TOXICOLOGY
SEROLOGY
ENDOCRINOLOGY
Fin-Fish
Mollusc
NA
NA
Crustacean
NA
NA
Agent ID
AC
AC,I
QA
IN
IN
IN
IN,EX
IN
IN,EX
IN,EX
IN
IN,EX
IN,EX
IN,EX
IN
IN,EX
IN
IN,EX
Referral
Reporting
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
P,F,E
Client Base
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
R,N,I
$,P$
Cost ($)
ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY
CATEGORY
CLINICAL VISITS
Aquatic health diagnostic services evaluation checklist

This table summarises the level and diversity of aquatic diagnostic testing provided, as well as information on methods
of pathogen or agent confirmation, laboratory quality assurance, referral services, reporting options, client base and
cost of testing. (See key below.)
M,C,I,G M,C,I,G M,C,I,G M,C,G
KEY
Scope of testing
Pathogen/agent ID
Quality assurance scheme
Referral testing
Full testing available = F

Selective testing = S
By morphology = M
By culture = C
By immunology/serology = I
By genomic / molecular = G
By analytical chemistry = AC
Internal quality control = IN
External quality assurance/ring testing = EX
Certification = ISO
Available = A
Not available = NA
Reporting options
Client base
Cost of services
By post = P
By fax = F
By email = E
By website = W
Regional = R
National = N
International = I
Full cost recovery = $
Partial subsidy = P$
Full subsidy = F
DIAGNOSTICS
AQUATECHNICS INC (CARLSBORG, WASHINGTON, USA)
AN AQUATECHNICS TECHNICIAN AND

SCIENTIST AT WORK
THE AQUATECHNICS LABORATORY IN SEQUIM, WASHINGTON
Related services. As a result of implementing successful health

management programmes, clients have requested the company
assist them in farm site selection, establishing environmental
compliance programmes, assessing environmental damage and
meeting regulatory authority requirements. These services are
often provided for the companys aquaculture clients and also for
other clients where analytical and scientific depth is required for
marine environmental health and damage assessment.
Shellfish High Health Guideline. Under the auspices of a Pacific
Shellfish Institute (Olympia, Washington, USA) study funded by
the National Marine Fisheries Service Saltonstall-Kennedy
Programme, Dr Elston developed a Shellfish High Health
Programme which has been implemented through AquaTechnics
assistance to shellfish producers.
The programme is a set of health-oriented guidelines for
shellfish farmers endorsed by the Pacific Coast Shellfish Growers
Association. It has been incorporated into the requirements of the
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, or APHIS, of the US
Department of Agriculture for the certification of shellfish farms
as qualified export farms in regard to meeting standards of
shellfish health.
APHIS currently recognises only seven farm sites on the western
coast of the United States that utilise the Shellfish High Health
Programme as export-eligible mollusc farms for live molluscan
product destined for receiving waters.
Through implementation of the Shellfish High Health Program,
incorporation of other APHIS health surveillance requirements,
and farm examination by a network of AquaTechnics cooperating
veterinarians, qualifying farms may maintain their status for
APHIS certification of shellfish health and health certificates
required for admission of live animal products by importing
national governments.
APHIS Certification and Farm Surveillance. To help farm clients
establish and maintain their ability to export healthy shellfish
stock, AquaTechnics is an APHIS-approved laboratory for the
examination of shellfish for

infectious diseases reportable to
the OIE (Office Internationale
Epizooties).
In addition to examining
specific lots of shellfish proposed
for export, AquaTechnics
conducts regular surveillance for
private shellfish producers for
international export support,
interstate transfer support and farm management health
maintenance purposes.
Regional Surveillance. AquaTechnics also assists various state and
local governments by conducting testing to support infectious disease
surveillance of wild stock fish and shellfish. Through such regional
surveillance, AquaTechnics staff first reported the presence of
Mikrocytos mackini, an OIE-reportable disease, in the United States.
The company has worked with state and federal agencies and
private farms to not only conduct additional surveillance but also to
assess and manage risk from this disease through farm risk evaluation
procedures and formal risk assessment and risk management
procedures. In collaboration with the Pacific Shellfish Institute,
AquaTechnics staff conducted a formal risk assessment and risk
management process and workshop on managing Mikrocytos mackini,
the causative agent of Denman Island disease of Pacific oysters.
COLLABORATIONS AND LINKS

AquaTechnics is linked to the University of Washington by support
of graduate students and participation in research programmes
headed by the university and the Pacific Shellfish Institute.
AquaTechnics is also linked to Pacific Lutheran University in
Tacoma, Washington, Washington State University and Oregon
State University by providing educational opportunities and
collaborative research and diagnostics.
AquaTechnics conducts Small Business Innovation Research
grant projects funded by the US Department of Agriculture and
other federal agencies, where such projects are directly tied to
assisting the companys client base.
For further information contact the company president,
Dr Ralph Elston. Telephone +1 360-681-3122, fax +1 360-681-3123
Email [email protected]
Mailing address, AquaTechnics Inc, PO Box 687, Carlsborg, WA
98324 USA. Office and laboratory location and courier address is at
455 West Bell Street, Sequim, WA 98382 USA
See www.aquatechnics.com
CASEBOOK
SOME PERSPECTIVES ON
SPRING VIRAEMIA OF CARP
BY DR ERIK JOHNSON (JOHNSON VET SERVICES, GEORGIA, USA)
magine youre standing in your back yard looking

at your fish pond when two men in a sinisterlooking car drive up your driveway.
Are you the owner of this pond?
Why, yes I am, you reply.
One of them holds out a piece of folded paper
and says, This is to serve as notice that these
premises are under quarantine for spring viraemia
of carp, and will shortly be depopulated. You may
from this point forward only keep fish here under
the purview of our organisation, and you will not
keep fish here until we give you clearance to do so.
Could this happen to you? Yes, it could.
Firstly, I would like to expand my thoughts on the
above scenario, which is surely uncommon, but
nevertheless possible. The virus that causes such a
ruckus is called spring viraemia of carp, or
Rhabdovirus carpio. It can kill tens of carp in a
group of a hundred.
Yes, I said SVC might be responsible for the loss of whole hand
nets full of fish affected by this virus. My professional experience
with SVC has been that it can kill nearly five percent of affected
fish. Wow! Imagine losing five out of every hundred fish to this
virus. Worse, because the virus may be endemic in a fish
population, you could lose over five percent of your livestock every
spring and probably not even notice.
Those are the worst kinds of losses, because they remain
unmeasured and they dont calculate into your losses or expenses.
Fortunately, there is a treatment that eliminates the virus
affecting the fish, and testing for SVC is now relatively reliable. In
the United States, fish with the virus are (as required by law)
reported to Federal agencies, and incinerating or burying the
infected fish solves the problem. The owner is spared the anxiety of
taking any further risk of selling infected fish to the public because
their business will be terminated, and re-opened at the
convenience of the regulators.
SVC SYMPTOMS
A FISH WITH SVC
diagnosed with SVC. He told me that they were losing a few fish in
a particular pond and, just to be on the safe side, they sent fish
out for diagnostics.
By the time the results came back as SVC - theyd lost a few fish
and sold the rest - it was 12 weeks after the fish were showing
some symptoms that the government came into their lots and shut
them down.
The upshot to the story is that the government has since passed
into law an indemnification policy, and payments are made to
farmers who lose everything to the test and elimination
programmes instituted on their farms.
Whether the lost fish are accurately assessed for financial impact
or whether you can survive being closed down until the
government indemnifies you is a risk you can avoid.
IN CONCLUSION
Spring viraemia of carp is a reportable viral disease of cyprinids,
including goldfish and carp. The impact of the virus on livestock is
not catastrophic, having unknown morbidity and usually mild
mortality. However, the regulatory effect of the discovery of the
virus on a farm lot is catastrophic, with the assignment of 100
percent morbidity and therefore 100 percent mortality.
I acknowledge that I am trivialising the virus, but I am not
trivialising the regulation of it.
See www.koivet.com
SVC looks like a bacterial infection because the virus by itself in

vivo is not usually effective at killing pond fish without a bacterial
co-morbidity. So the signs are indistinguishable from bacterial
sepsis, dropsy or furunculosis.
Other signs that suggest the virus may be present can include
dead or dying fish in small
numbers over the course of
A FISH EXHIBITING A DERMAL LESION. SVC INFECTIONS FREQUENTLY
OCCUR IN CONJUNCTION WITH BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
years, making it
indistinguishable from the
normal operation of a fish
business.
The purpose of my discussion
of SVC is to try and convey my
opinion and experience with this
rarely encountered viral
condition. This experience
comes directly from a fish
farmer whose fish were
RESEARCH
A US PERSPECTIVE ON
SELECTED BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENTS IN FISH HEALTH
PART 1: VACCINES
DR PHILLIP H KLESIUS, DR JOYCE J EVANS, DR CRAIG A SHOEMAKER AND DR CHHORN LIM
(USDA, ARS, AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH RESEARCH LABORATORY, AUBURN AND CHESTERTOWN, USA)
This article is the first part of a two-part series looking at selected biotechnological
advances in aquaculture. The second part will look at genetic stock improvement,
biosecurity tools and alternative protein sources in fish diets.
emarkable biotechnological advancements have been made

in the aquaculture industry in the past five years. These
advancements in areas such as fish vaccines, improved
genetic stock, biosecurity tools and alternative protein sources in
fish diets are necessary to meet the rapid growth of the
aquaculture industry worldwide, and the ever-increasing demand
for fish and other seafood.
These contributions to the future of the industry are fully
interactive, and focus on supplying large amounts of fish and
seafood to the worldwide consumer with minimal impact on the
environment. The benefits to the aquaculture industry are shown
in Figure 1. The aim of this two-part article is to review some of
these important biotechnological contributions.
During the past decade, aquaculture production has significantly
increased in many parts of the world. From 1992 to 2001, total
seafood supply increased by 29.8 percent, while the supply of wild
captured fish increased by only 8.3 percent (FAO 2002). Seafood
provides 16 percent of animal protein consumed by humans.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation has
reported that global aquaculture is increasing by 11 percent per
year and is the worlds fastest-growing food producing sector. The
FAO also forecasts the demand for seafood to increase by 3.3
FIGURE 1. SELECTIVE ADVANCEMENTS IN AQUACULTURE
billion pounds or 35 to 50 percent by the year 2010 (FAO, 2004).

More than 38 million people are employed in aquaculture and
associated industries worldwide, and 131 aquatic species are
currently being commercially cultured.
In the United States, channel catfish production represents a
rapidly growing sector. Six hundred and sixty million pounds were
produced in 2003, yielding $675-690 million in sales. (See
www.usda.mannlib.cornell.edu)
US PRODUCTION
The leading state producers of channel catfish in the United States
are Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas and Louisiana. The majority of
catfish is processed into frozen whole fillets, nuggets, fingers and
value-added products. The commercial catfish industry is
responsible for over 48 percent of the value of aquaculture
production in the United States (See
www.usda.mannlib.cornell.edu).
The consumption of tilapia is becoming more popular in the US
and Europe. Tilapia production in the US has increased more than
20 percent between 1991 to 1998. The US production of tilapia is
about 9100 tonnes annually. (See
www.ag.arizona.edu/azaqua/ata.html)
The value of imported frozen tilapia-fillets
was $176 million in 2005. The cultivation of
fish will continue to be a growing industry
that supplies an important source of food,
employment and domestic and international
trade, worldwide.
DISEASES AND
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The incidence and emergence of new infectious
diseases has almost paralleled the growth of the
aquaculture industry. The greater impact of
infectious diseases on production is likely the
result of production husbandry practices,
intensive culture at high fish densities, lack of
health management practices and introduction
of sick fish to healthy populations. The
movement of fish, eggs and genetic material
from country to country has resulted in the
introduction of new diseases for which the fish
have little or no resistance.
The economic impact of fish disease is
difficult to determine, but may be as high as

FIGURE 2: EFFECT OF IMMUNISATION WITH ESC AND FLAVOBACTERIUM ATTENUATED VACCINES
10 to 15 percent of the total value of fish
ON SURVIVAL OF CHANNEL CATFISH INFECTED WITH LIVE E. ICTALURI AND F. COLUMNARE
production worldwide. Certain diseases may
destroy the entire production chain and
results in the destruction of healthy fish in the
affected area to control the epizootic from
spreading to other regions or countries. The
risk of disease in channel catfish and tilapia is
very high due to the highly intensive
production systems they are reared in.
Aquaculture production systems are very
diverse, and vary from net cages to ponds,
from fresh to marine water, from small to
large production systems and from open
water to re-circulating water (anonymous,
2004). Catfish are raised in earthen levee
ponds that vary in size from 4.5-7ha (11 to
17 acres), and the water is from groundwater
or well sources, with ponds at a depth of 12m. The ponds are aerated using paddle
wheels or other mechanical devices.
Attenuated bacterial vaccines
The temperature tolerance of catfish is 4-35 Celsius and optimal
A biotechnological breakthrough was the development of
growth temperature is 25-27 Celsius. The production cycle is 16-18
attenuated bacterial vaccines. These vaccines are made by
months. Catfish fry are stocked in fingerling ponds or grow-out
changing virulent pathogens so they retain the ability to infect
ponds at 10 to 14 days post-hatch. The stock density in grow-out
and cause the host to mount an effective immune response
ponds is 6000 to 12,000 per acre, and the fish are harvested by
without causing mortality, adverse reactions or reverting to the
selective seining at about 1 pound for processing (anonymous, 2004;
virulent form.
Tucker and Hargreaves 2004).
Attenuated vaccines can be successfully administered by bath
Tilapia is produced in hot water re-circulating enclosed tanks or
immersion, a cost-effective method of mass immunisation of
raceways in the colder regions of the US, and outdoors in ponds,
large numbers of fish. Equally important, attenuated vaccines
tanks and raceways without heated water in warmer regions. The
can be successfully used to immunise fingerlings (Klesius and
temperature tolerance of tilapia (16-32 Celsius) determines what
Shoemaker 1999; Wise et al 2000) and fry as young as seven to
type of production will be needed (anonymous, 2004).
10 days post-hatch (Shoemaker et al 1999). This immunisation
Optimal growing temperatures and conditions for channel
will last the life of their production cycle as opposed to a
catfish and tilapia are also optimal bacterial growth conditions.
shorter duration of only six months for a killed vaccine. Finally,
This makes the need for vaccine protection against bacterial
in ovo immunisation of channel catfish eggs (US Patent
diseases of channel catfish and tilapia of utmost importance.
5,153,202) with attenuated enteric septicaemia of catfish ESC
VACCINE DEVELOPMENT
vaccine resulted in protection against ESC in fingerlings
Antibiotics have long been used to control many bacterial
(Shoemaker et al 2002).
diseases. However, they have been found to have many problems
This is the earliest life stage at which fish have been successfully
and are generally not a satisfactory solution. The major problems
immunised with an attenuated vaccine. The commercial use of in
ovo immunisation would allow for a very cost-effective method of
are antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as well as antibiotic
mass vaccinating fish.
contamination of the food chain and environment. Sick or
Examples of the first US licensed attenuated bacterial vaccines
infected fish are less likely to eat, which makes the antibiotic
are those against enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC) and
treatment less efficacious, as delivery of antibiotic treatment to
columnaris disease of catfish. These were developed and patented
fish usually occurs in the feed.
by the Agricultural Research Service, USDA Aquatic Animal Health
Finally, many countries, including the US, have adopted
Research Laboratory at Auburn, AL (US Patents 6,019,981 and
stringent policies prohibiting the use of toxic chemicals and
6,881,412 B1).
antibiotics to treat morbid or apparently healthy fish.
Edwardsiella ictaluri is the bacterium responsible for ESC which
The use of vaccines in humans, food animals and pets to prevent
costs the catfish industry about $50-60 million annually (Wagner
disease is a common practice (Klesius and Shoemaker 1999,
et al 2002). Columnaris disease is caused by the bacterium
Klesius et al 2001, Klesius et al 2004). Similar biotechnological
Flavobacterium columnare, and costs the catfish industry about $40
advancements in the development of vaccines for disease
million annually. (Wagner et al 2002). Both diseases are generally
prevention in cultured fish are on the rise.
found together, compounding these industry losses.
From 1976 to the present, the numbers of commercially
The Agricultural Research Service, USDA licensed both vaccines
available, safe and efficacious fish vaccines has increased from one
to Intervet, Inc of Millsboro, Delaware, which commercialised the
to more than 14 (Sommerset et al 2005). The majority of these
vaccines. The ESC and columnaris vaccines are commercially
vaccines are for the prevention of bacterial diseases. However,
labelled AQUAVAC-ESC and AQUAVAC-COL, respectively.
several vaccines are also available to prevent viral diseases.
The economic impact of the ESC vaccine is an increase of
The majority of the available bacterial vaccines are of the killed
producer profit by $1706 per acre, and a significant reduction in
type (ie, the infectious agent(s) are inactivated or killed). Killed
loss due to disease (Intervet). The effectiveness of these vaccines is
vaccines are primarily administered by injection and the duration
shown in an experimental vaccine trial (Figure 2).
of their protection is limited, unless an adjuvant is added. This
The cumulative mortality in the channel catfish immersion trial
means of immunisation is costly because of the need to handle
with fish vaccinated at 10 days post-hatch was significantly
and inject each fish.
RESEARCH
SELECTED BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS VACCINES

lower than for the non-vaccinated controls. The fish were
challenged with E ictaluri and F columnare at 30 days postvaccination. The results show that both vaccines significantly
increased the survival of the immunised channel catfish
(Shoemaker and Klesius 1997, Klesius and Shoemaker 1999).
Oral immunisation
Oral immunisation is also a relatively recent biotechnological
advancement. Vaccination of larger fish is compromised by their
aquatic environment. Vaccines must be delivered on a mass scale
to be effective, thus oral vaccination is appealing. The key to oral
vaccination is to protect the vaccine components from destruction
by the fishs digestive tract so that the antigens are able to penetrate
the intestinal lining and stimulate an immune response.
Encapsulation of the vaccine components or development of a
fish vaccine pill that contains and protects the vaccine
components appear to be plausible solutions for the successful
development of an oral immunisation method. PerOs
Technologies, Inc of St Nicolas, Canada, has developed its patented
OraljectTM technology that prevents the degradation of the
vaccines components by digestive enzymatic function and
increases the gastric pH of the fish intestine (Vandenberg 2004).
Currently, the ARS-patented (US Patent 6,379,677) Streptococcus
iniae vaccine (Klesius et al 2000, Klesius et al 2002) was
incorporated into OraljectTM and fed to tilapia twice for one day to
satiation. The S iniae OraljectTM vaccine was efficacious following
challenge with live S iniae in the orally immunised tilapia.
Streptococcus agalactiae is another major pathogen of tilapia that
causes serious economic losses in many species of fresh water,
marine and estuarine fish worldwide. A highly efficacious
S agalactiae vaccine (US patent pending) was developed using
formalin-killed cells and extra-cellular products (Evans et al 2004a,
2004b).
Increased global trade is

dependent on the continued
advancement of
biotechnological contributions
The vaccine was shown to confer protection for up to 180 days
post-vaccination and the protection was correlated with specific
antibody response to S agalactiae (Pasnik et al 2005a).
Furthermore, antibody specific for the S agalactiae extra-cellular
product was found to be correlated with the protective immune
response (Pasnik et al 2005b).
A specific antibody response appears to confer protection for
both the S agalactiae and S iniae vaccines (Shelby et al 2002). The
finding that extra-cellular products of these gram-positive
streptococci are important immunogens that confer protective
immunity following immunisation is a notable advancement in
the development of killed vaccines.
DNA vaccines
SUMMARY
The aquaculture industry is growing rapidly thanks in part to the
biotechnological advancements in many areas of the industry. This
paper has focused on the ability of the aquaculture sector to
provide a continuous and increasing supply of high-quality healthy
fish protein to the consumer. The recent biotechnological
advancements that include vaccine development will continue to
improve production efficiency.
Increased global trade of aquaculture products is dependent on
the continued advancement of these and other such
biotechnological contributions. Thus, the common goal of these
achievements is to ensure increased economic benefits through
providing safe and healthy sources of fish protein for the
consumer worldwide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Crystal Braden and Lisa Biggar
for their help in preparing this manuscript.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2004). Aquaculture is Agriculture.
See www.teamaged.org/aquaculture/aquaculture4.htm.
Evans JJ, Klesius PH and Shoemaker CA (2004a). Streptococcus
agalactiae vaccine. Invention Report # 0170.03. ARS Subject
Invention Serial # 10/807,575, filed March 18, 2004. Patent
pending.
Evans JJ, Klesius PH, Shoemaker CA and Fitzpatrick BT (2004b).
Streptococcus agalactiae and infection stress in Nile tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus. J Appl Aquac 16, 105-115.
Evans, JJ, Shoemaker CA and Klesius PH (2004c). Efficacy of
Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B) vaccine in tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) by intraperational and bath immersion. Vaccine 22,
3769-3773.
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (2002).
World review of fisheries and aquaculture-fisheries resources:
trends in production, utilisation and trade. FOA, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (2004).
World review of fisheries and aquaculture: Trends in production,
utilisation and trade. FOA, Rome.
Horne MT (1997). Technical aspects of the administration of
vaccines. In R Gudding, A Lillebaug, PJ Midtlyng, F Brown (Eds.)
Fish Vaccinology. Dev Bio Stand Vol 90. Karger, Basel 79-89.
Klesius PH and Shoemaker CA (1999). Development and use of
modified live Edwardsiella ictaluri vaccine against enteric
septicemia of catfish. In RD Schultz (Ed). Advances in Veterinary
Medicine. 41. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 523-537.
Klesius PH, Shoemaker CA and Evans JJ (2000). Efficacy of a
single and combined Streptococcus iniae isolate vaccine
administered by intraperitoneal and intramuscular routes in tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 188, 237-246.
Klesius PH, Shoemaker CA, Evans JJ and Lim C (2001). Vaccines:
prevention of diseases in aquatic animals. In C Lim and C Webster
(Eds) Nutrition and Fish Health. Haworth Press, New York, NY.
317-335.
Klesius PH., Shoemaker CA and Evans JJ (2002). Streptococcus
iniae vaccine US patent #6,379,677 B1.
CONTINUED ON PAGE 21
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) vaccination is another example of

biotechnological advancement (Lorenzen and LaPatra 2005) to
protect fish from pathogens. The basis of a DNA vaccine is the
delivery of a gene encoding for a protective vaccine antigen. The
vaccine gene is expressed by the host muscle cells to produce the
vaccine antigen, which in turn stimulates the hosts immune
system to provide protection against the pathogen.
Intramuscular injection of DNA vaccines against the important
viral diseases of salmon such as infectious haematopoietic necrosis

virus (IHNV) and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV)
(Lorenzen and LaPatra 2005) has resulted in protection in
laboratory trials.
Very limited success has been reported for bacterial pathogens
with DNA vaccines. Issues with safety and mass methods of
delivery of DNA vaccines have not been fully resolved.
CANADA: REVISED APPROACH

TO MALACHITE GREEN
Health Canada recently conducted a scientific
assessment to determine the risks to public health
associated with the presence of trace amounts of
malachite green and its metabolite, leucomalachite
green, in fish products.
Health Canada is advising the public that the
probability of serious adverse health consequences
associated with the daily consumption of fish containing
trace amounts of malachite green and leucomalachite
green is remote.
Based on Health Canadas assessment, and the
possibility that malachite green may be an unavoidable
contaminant, Health Canada is advising that on an
interim basis, fish containing malachite green and
leucomalachite green residues of one part per billion
(ppb) or less may be sold in Canada, provided that an
investigation rules out intentional use of malachite green in the
fish production lifecycle.
Fish products containing malachite green or leucomalachite
green at levels above 1ppb will not be allowed to be sold in
Canada. The interim guideline, which remains until adequate
scientific data can be generated, applies equally to imported and
domestic products.
Since it is unclear to what extent malachite green may be an
unavoidable contaminant, further investigation will be conducted
into possible sources.
Health Canada has a policy of zero-tolerance of deliberate use of
malachite green in food-fish, and says it acknowledges the
remoteness of health risks associated with the consumption of
trace amounts of malachite green and leucomalachite green. It also
ensures that Canadians have a safe and nutritious supply of fish.
Malachite green is only approved in Canada for use in aquarium
fish. It is not approved for use in fish intended for human
consumption.
See www.inspection.gc.ca
INTERNATIONAL:
THE RESPONSIBLE USE OF ANTIBIOTICS
The Food and Agricultural Organisation has published a report
entitled The responsible use of antibiotics in aquaculture. The
document was commissioned by the Fish Utilisation and
Marketing Service of the FAOs Fisheries Division, and aims to
raise awareness of the antibiotic resistance issue in fish farming
and related sectors. The promotion of the prudent use of
medicines is an important facet of the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries.
The document contains a review of the contribution of
antibiotics used in aquaculture to anti-microbial resistance using a
risk analysis framework. It also contains some recommendations
for responsible conduct in this area with a view to minimising risk.
See ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0282e/a0282e00.pdf
ROMANIA:
VHS OUTBREAK REPORTED TO THE OIE
The Romanian National Sanitary Veterinary and Food Safety
Authority has filed a report with the OIE, the world organisation
for animal health, detailing an outbreak of viral haemorrhagic
septicaemia (VHS) in the Arges region of the country.
The condition has affected rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) farmed intensively in a
6000sq m pond system. The reported morbidity rate is 80 percent
and the mortality rate is between 35 and 40 percent.
The Romanian authorities claim the trout originated from
embryonated spawn imported from Denmark and introduced into
the pond in March 2005 without the approval of the Sanitary

Veterinary and Food Safety Directorate in Arges. The origin of the
grass carp is unknown.
See www.oie.int/aac/eng/en_fdc.htm
INTERNATIONAL:
INNOVATIVE COMPENDIUM LAUNCHED
Source: www.fishupdate.com
CABI has launched the Aquaculture Compendium, an
encyclopaedic, multimedia information tool covering all aspects of
aquaculture production and health. Until now, there has been no
single source of information for the millions of people involved
worldwide in the industry.
The unique compendium took information specialists and
scientists three years to develop. It is available on the Internet and
will be released on CD-ROM.
CABI information specialist Martin Parr, who led the project, said,
Were the first to bring together in one place comprehensive
information, images, maps and authoritative articles from around a
hundred different organisations involved in the aquaculture industry.
The Aquaculture Compendium contains information on 300
commonly cultured aquatic species, including finfish,
crustaceans, molluscs, algae and live feeds. The data sheets cover
all aspects of their biology and production, including their
taxonomy, life cycle, reproduction, nutrition, feeding and
environmental requirements, genetics, behaviour, distribution,
and post-harvest handling and marketing.
Aquaculture production statistics and other economic data
from the Food and Agricultural Organisation and other
authoritative sources are integrated and linked to a graphic
interface, allowing the user to specify and generate visual
presentations. The database also includes hundreds of linked data
sheets on the main diseases and disorders of these species - from
the diseases host range and geographic distribution to its
economic impacts, and from its diagnosis, prevention and
treatment, through to food safety issues.
For those involved in treatment, the Compendium incorporates
a quick reference database of international veterinary drugs,
vaccines and pesticides. The compendium also brings together
issues and themes of critical importance to aquaculture today, says
Parr. This makes it an absolute must-have for anyone involved in
determining policy, investing in the industry or solving
aquaculture industry-related problems.
Major industry concerns such as the likely impact of aquatic
invasive species, the problem of aquatic pests and diseases in trade,
and the sustainable management of aquatic resources are covered
through a unique electronic library of around 1000 articles, book
chapters and data sets from internationally respected sources. Some
are previously published, but many have been specially commissioned
for the compendium. This gives users the latest take on hot topics in
the industry, including valuable insights into global trends.
The compendium is an initiative of a global development
consortium of technical institutions, development-assistance
agencies and private-sector companies.
CABI is an international not-for-profit organisation that
generates and disseminates information in the applied life sciences
via printed publications and electronic information products. It
also provides research, consultancy and training services.
See www.cabicompendium.org/ac
UK: WORKSHOP EXPLORED

SEA LICE IN FARMED SALMON
Forty aquaculture industry professionals gathered in Inverness earlier
this year to discuss the treatment of sea lice. The meeting focused on
treatment through the use of medicated feed, with emphasis on
optimising treatment practices and novel developments.
From a personal point of view, the extensive discussions

should be very beneficial in further ensuring safe and
efficacious use of in-feed medicines with regards to the
fish, the consumer and the environment.
ASIA/PACIFIC: AQUATIC ANIMAL

DISEASE REPORT RELEASED
The fourth quarter (October-December 2005) Aquatic
Animal Disease Report produced by NACA was
published in April. As well as the usual country-specific
disease surveillance returns, the report contains details of
the new reporting procedure, together with details of
how to fill in the revised returns form.
The foreword also contains an overview of two new
AusAid-supported aquatic animal health projects within
the region. The first is entitled Strengthening aquatic
animal health capacity and biosecurity in ASEAN. The
second, Operational guidelines on responsible movement
of live food finfish in ASEAN is also profiled.
See www.enaca.org/Health
CANADA: SYNDEL LABORATORIES SOLD
SEA LICE
NORWAY:
PROJECT TO IMPROVE CARP WELFARE
The research institute AKVAFORSK is to participate in a new EU
project called EuroCarp to make carp less susceptible to disease
and stress. Gene technology will be used in selective breeding so
that the carps beneficial genes are passed on more effectively. This
has never been tried before in carp.
The project is directed by Zsigmond Jeney of HAKI, a
Hungarian research institute, and has partners in Great Britain and
Russia, as well as Norway. In addition to the EU, the Research
Organised by the Schering-Plough Animal Health

Corporations Aquaculture Business Unit, the event attracted
veterinarians, health managers and biologists from salmon farms
throughout Scotland. Representatives from major feed
companies, including Skretting, Ewos and Biomar, as well as
academics and independent consulting veterinarians from
Scotland, Ireland and Norway provided additional perspectives
on managing the disease.
Tony Wall, the director of Fish Vet Group, Scotland, Dr Solveig
Gaas, a veterinarian with Marine Harvest in Norway, and Hamish
Rodger, practice principal of Vet Aqua International in Ireland,
presented their field experiences with sea lice, and the challenges of
effective control programmes, including appetite issues in relation
to optimum dosing.
Dr Gordon Ritchie, the fish health technical manager of the
Marine Harvests Technical Centre in Stavanger, Norway, discussed
the variability in medicated feed intake and the companys global
experience in optimising medicated feeding practices.
Crawford Revie, a quantitative epidemiologist at the University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow, introduced the concept of mathematical
modelling as a pragmatic tool in treatment strategies.
Dr Jon Erik Juell, Head of Research Group, Fish Welfare in
Aquatic Production, Institute of Marine Research in Bergen,
Norway, presented some of the concepts developed on fish
behaviour, and how these may impact in-feed treatments such as
response to stimuli.
The speakers and participants then split into teams to develop
and present practical approaches to optimising the success of infeed treatments and further enhancing the welfare and
performance of farmed fish affected by sea lice.
It was a very timely and useful meeting, Tony Wall said. The
range of competencies from various countries and areas of
expertise ensured all avenues of in-feed medication were explored.
Syndel Laboratories Ltd has been sold to Aquatic Life Sciences Ltd.
After 28 years of successful service to the fisheries and
aquaculture sector, it is time to expand the horizons of Syndel
as provider of approved fish health products both here and
abroad, said Monty Little, the president and founder of
Syndel. By combining the efforts of Syndel and Aquatic Life
Sciences we will be better able to respond to the needs of a
growing industry.
Little will remain with Syndel for a period of transition and as
a stakeholder in the subsidiary company, Syndel Asia. Syndel
becomes a sister company to Western Chemical Inc. of Ferndale,
Washington.
It just makes sense, says the chief executive officer and
president of Aquatic Life Sciences, Steven Becker. By combining
the resources of the two companies, both of which have been
serving the fisheries and aquaculture industry for almost 30 years,
we are collectively able to focus our efforts on meeting the growing
needs of our domestic and international clients.
Prior to the sale, Syndel was a distributor of Western Chemical
products. The philosophies and practices of the two companies
are a perfect match; they both focus on supplying quality approved
products and superior service, says Becker.
Both Syndel and Western Chemical have been developing
aquaculture chemicals and pharmaceutical products for a
worldwide market for decades. The product lines are developed
with the goal of being consistent and valuable to the industry. We
are market driven, says Becker. Their products are available in
more than 40 countries to supply the expanding fisheries and
aquaculture industries.
For more information, contact Dr Jim Powell, manager of
business development, Syndel Laboratories Ltd at + 1 (800) 8304886, email [email protected], or Steven Becker at +1 (800) 2835292, email [email protected]
Council of Norway is funding the portion of the project

being conducted by AKVAFORSK.
Carp is one of the most important fish species in the
world, both in volume and value, and in Europe it is the
second most widespread aquaculture species after
rainbow trout. Little has been done so far in the field of
genetics to improve the health of carp, despite several
threatening diseases in Eastern Europe.
After the carp genes are mapped out, it will be
possible to recognise the gene profiles of fish with
various characteristics. Researchers can then identify
the fish that demonstrate high resistance to disease
without testing disease resistance in practice. This will
be a valuable addition to the selective breeding
programme for carp, and the knowledge will be put to
practical use by implementing a selective breeding
programme.
Combining biotechnology with traditional breeding
methods for carp is a completely new approach. Kari Kolstad, the
head of the breeding and genetics division of AKVAFORSK, is
responsible for AKVAFORSKs contribution to the programme.
We will design this is such a way so that the methods in
biotechnology are used as effectively as possible. We will do this by
developing new experimental and statistical methods for
combining gene technology and traditional breeding.
The researchers hope to gain information about the biological
processes that make one fish more disease-resistant than another.
This information can lead to the development of alternative tests
or vaccines.
AKVAFORSK has already begun to establish a selective breeding
programme for carp in Serbia, and knowledge gained from the EU
project will be used in this programme.
FDA APPROVES AQUAFLOR

The recent approval by the United States Food and Drug
Administration of Aquaflor (florfenicol) type A medicated article
for the catfish marked a significant milestone in the industrys
combined efforts to make more products available for public and
commercial aquaculture, said Schering-Plough.
Schering-Plough invested more than five years bringing this
product to market, but we couldnt have done it without the
teamwork and commitment from our development partners, said
Dr Richard Endris, the research programme manager with the
Schering-Plough Animal Health Corporation, the company that
developed Aquaflor.
Dr Patricia Gaunt, associate professor, aquatic animal health at
Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine, who
played a significant role in the development of Aquaflor for US
channel catfish, approached Schering-Plough Animal Health in
1997 about a pilot project using florfenicol in catfish. It was
funded and completed the following year.
Shortly thereafter, Rosalie, Roz Schnick, the national
coordinator for aquaculture new animal drug applications,
proposed gaining approval of Aquaflor in a variety of fish species,
including channel catfish, through the Federal-State Aquaculture
Drug Approval Partnership Project under the auspices of the
International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
A self-described matchmaker, Schnick worked with state and
federal agencies as well as other organisations to support Aquaflor,
which last fall became the first in-feed antibiotic licensed for US
aquaculture in more than 20 years.
Not only was Aquaflor approved in the United States, but it
also became one of the first drugs to meet new FDA requirements
for antimicrobial resistance and microbial food safety, says
Schnick.
The result is that the US catfish industry has a new tool for
managing disease. Dr Gaunt helped Schering-Plough Animal

Health conduct the necessary studies on efficacy, residue depletion
and catfish safety. Dr Craig Tucker, head of the National
Warmwater Aquaculture Centre in Stoneville, provided
information to assess the environmental safety of Aquaflor in pond
systems.
Another research group, the Upper Midwest Environmental
Sciences Centre, US Geological Survey, in La Crosse, Wisconsin,
carried out the pivotal target animal safety study as part of the
cooperative effort.
Dr William H. Gingerich of UMESC says his group partnered
with Schering-Plough Animal Health and other members of the
aquaculture team to develop the safety data for catfish required by
the FDAs Centre for Veterinary Medicine.
The cooperation among all the groups involved was
unprecedented, he said. We were extremely pleased to be
considered by Schering-Plough Animal Health to be a member of
their team.
Dr Gaunt agreed. There was good communication and a strong
desire by everyone involved to make more products available for
US aquaculture. I think the level of cooperation with Aquaflor
will serve as a valuable model for other new products and
registrations, she said.
The FDAs Centre for Veterinary Medicine also loaned its
expertise. CVM has provided direct guidance to assure a more
efficient approval process for aquaculture drugs, says Schnick.
The agency has also helped to educate us on how to meet
requirements, and really formed a partnership with us through the
drug approval process.
Cooperation between this large number of groups is certainly
unique, as is the major role played by Schering-Plough and their
steadfast efforts and investment to get a new aquaculture drug
approved, said Dr Tom Bell of the US Fish and Wildlife Service
and its Aquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership Programme.
In the end, however, it was the dedication and commitment of
specific individuals who were leading the various teams. For
example, Gaunt credits Endris with coordinating the efforts of all
the scientists involved.
He watched over the approval process every step of the way,
making sure that the necessary studies were completed and reports
submitted to the FDA in a timely fashion.
She also credits Dwayne Holifield of Delta Western, a major feed
company based in Indianola, Mississippi, for his role in
manufacturing medicated feeds for the clinical studies as well as
the analytical studies.
There was no method in place for manufacturing FFC catfish
medicated feed when we began. Dwayne literally began from
scratch and helped develop a reproducible method for preparation
of feed that was accepted by the FDA.
With the approval of Aquaflor, aquaculture not only has the first
new drug in more than two decades, it has exclusive Veterinary
Feed Directive status from the FDA to regulate its use and ensure
its long-term effectiveness. This approval model for new drugs
allows for mutually beneficial partnerships to form, says Schnick,
and that can only benefit aquaculture.
Mississippi State University and AADAP continue working
jointly with Schering-Plough Animal Health to develop studies on
Flavobacterium columnare, the second leading cause of catfish
disease, which is also an important pathogen of salmonids.
UMESC and others are also working on other Aquaflor label
claims that will benefit all US aquaculture.
For more information on Aquaflor, catfish farmers should contact
their veterinarian, diagnostician or feed mill, or Schering-Plough
Animal Health at 1-800-521-5767. See www.Aquaflor-USA.com
Aquaflor is a registered trademark of the Schering-Plough
Animal Health Corporation.
EU: ORAL VACCINE RECEIVES

MORE RECOGNITION
Fourteen more EU member states of the European Union had
given their approval for the Schering-Plough Animal Health
Corporation to begin marketing AquaVac ERM Oral, the company
said on April 21. The booster vaccine improves the control of
enteric redmouth disease, or ERM, in rainbow trout.
Used successfully in the United Kingdom since 2001, AquaVac
ERM Oral vaccine prolongs immunity against ERM throughout
the production cycle, eliminating the need for antibiotic treatment.
Extensive field trials have shown excellent results, says Chris
Gould, PhD, the manager of global technical services (salmonids)
for Schering-Plough Animal Health Aquaculture, based in the UK.
UK farms using the vaccine as part of a comprehensive control
strategy have avoided any significant losses due to ERM
throughout the production cycle, Gould says.
The vaccine has produced no adverse side effects, nor has it
hindered growth or feed efficiency. Since the oral vaccine is added
to feed, you dont have to stress fish by handling them.
In addition, farmers have reported high palatability and have
found the oral vaccine easy to administer.
Gould says farmers using the vaccine also have more marketing
flexibility because there is no withdrawal time required with the
vaccine as there is with antibiotics. It also gives farmers a drug-free
option for ERM control at a time when consumers are urging fish
and livestock producers to minimise or eliminate the use of
antibiotics, he says.
AquaVac ERM Oral vaccine, the worlds only licensed oral ERM
FIELD TRIALS SHOW VACCINES EFFICACY

The results from extensive field trials show how AquaVac
ERM Oral vaccine boosts the protective effects of
AquaVac ERM immersion vaccine, providing optimal
protection against enteric redmouth disease (ERM) in
farmed rainbow trout, says Chris Gould, PhD, the
manager of global technical services (salmonids) for
Schering-Plough Animal Health.
For instance, at one intensive trout farm in the UK, 16 of
17 rainbow trout batches vaccinated only with the
immersion vaccine at the hatchery still required
antibiotic treatment five to nine months later for control
of ERM.
None of the batches of fish that received the full Total
Protection Programme, consisting of AquaVac ERM
immersion vaccine followed three to six months later by
AquaVac ERM Oral booster vaccine required
treatment.
One batch that was booster-vaccinated outside the
correct time frame required a single antibiotic treatment
to maintain full disease control. This clearly demonstrates
the need for carefully designed Total Protection
Programmes if the industry is going to move toward
antibiotic-free trout farming, Gould says.
The effectiveness of AquaVac ERM Oral vaccine is due
to the antigen protection vehicle, or APV, a patented
technology, says Gould. The APV ensures that antigens in
the vaccine are protected from stomach acids until they
can get to the hind gut, where they initiate an immune
response that prevents a clinical ERM outbreak.
vaccine, can be mixed into any type of feed, either at the

feed mill or on the farm. It is intended for use about four
to six months after initial vaccination with AquaVac
ERM, an immersion vaccine administered at the hatchery
when fish weigh between 2g and 5g, Gould says.
Since the early 1980s, when it was licensed for use in
Europe, AquaVac ERM immersion vaccine has
reduced ERM deaths in farmed rainbow trout by an
estimated 75 percent.
However, the immersion products duration of
immunity is unlikely to extend through the entire
production cycle, and antibiotic treatment for ERM is
often still needed late in the cycle.
He says boosting the fish with AquaVac ERM Oral
vaccine enables fish to maintain immunity against ERM
for the entire production cycle. (See sidebar)
ANTIGEN PROTECTION
The efficacy of AquaVac ERM Oral vaccine is due to a new,
patented technology known as the Antigen Protection Vehicle
(APV), which ensures that antigens in the vaccine get to the hind
gut, where they can initiate an immune response against Yersinia
ruckeri, the cause of ERM.
In the past, antigens in oral vaccines were degraded in the acidic
environment of the stomach, rendering them ineffective, but the
APV solves this problem, says Gould. AquaVac ERM Oral vaccine
can be used with AquaVac Ergosan*, a natural feed ingredient
based on seaweed that helps ensure good nutrition, enabling the
fish to mount an optimal immune response.
AquaVac ERM immersion vaccine and AquaVac ERM Oral
vaccine comprise a comprehensive ERM control plan known as the
Total Protection Strategy, developed by scientists at ScheringPlough Animal Health.
For rainbow trout, the strategy provides the most efficient and
cost-effective way to protect stock from ERM, but vaccination timing
is crucial to success, Gould says.
Individual farming methods and seasonal and disease cycles must
be considered. Toward that end, Schering-Plough Animal Health
Aquaculture provides individualised technical support to fish farmers
using AquaVac vaccines to assure they get the best results, he says.
European member states that recently granted a marketing
authorisation to AquaVac ERM vaccine are Austria, Czech Republic,
Germany, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, Denmark, Norway, Greece,
Spain, France, Ireland, Italy and Portugal. These states also agreed to
recognise the UK marketing authorisation for AquaVac ERM Oral
through the mutual recognition procedure and marketing
authorisations that Portugal and Denmark have already granted.
As the vaccine becomes more widely available throughout
Europe, we expect to see vastly improved ERM control in the
rainbow trout farming industry, Gould says.
For more information, contact Chris Haacke, marketing
manager, Global Aquaculture, Schering-Plough Animal Health, at
+44 (0) 1799 528 167 or by email at [email protected].
See www.spaquaculture.com
*AquaVac and Ergosan are worldwide trademarks of ScheringPlough Ltd or any affiliated company.
USA/INTERNATIONAL:
DATABASES AVAILABLE ONLINE
The AVMA has spearheaded the development of a unique resource

for veterinarians, potential clients and others to locate diagnostic
veterinarians and diagnostic laboratories. It has been released after
more than a year of development and testing. Individuals seeking
the services of aquatic veterinary medicine can now access more
than 2000 veterinarians and 100 diagnostic laboratories for no
charge at www.AquaVets.com.
Information about the veterinarians and laboratories

involved with aquatic species was previously known only
through word-of-mouth, said Dr David Scarfe, assistant
director of the AVMA Scientific Activities Division. Two
recent US national animal disease emergency
declarations, one affecting food-producing salmon, the
other for ornamental koi and other carp, have clearly
heightened the awareness of these veterinary needs, Dr
Scarfe said.
The databases were initiated with funds from the
Department of Agriculture as a resource for reducing
disease risks to commercial aquaculture. The databases
incorporate all disciplines of veterinary medicine that
involve any aquatic species, from crustacean and
molluscan invertebrates to finfish, reptiles, amphibians
and marine mammals.
The AVMA recognised that aquaculture is the fastest
growing segment of agriculture, said the president of
AVMA, Henry Childers. More than 47 percent of all animal
protein consumed is seafood, a third of which is farmed, yet no
single source of information on how to locate aquatic veterinarians
or diagnostic laboratories existed. This has left aquaculture
producers, animal owners, government agencies and other
veterinarians at a disadvantage.
Users can search the online databases using several criteria such
as person or laboratory name, location, species type served, or
disease and diagnostic test type. With password-protected access,
veterinarians and laboratories can update their profile at any time,
and new veterinarians and laboratories can easily register.
As part of registration, veterinarians and laboratories can choose
whether they want their information made public, and also if they
want to subscribe to AquaVetMed, an e-mail news service
moderated by the AVMA.
During the test phase of the AquaVets.com project, Dr Scarfe
said, the developers received a large number of requests from
companion animal practitioners to participate. We always
assumed that there were a large number of companion animal
veterinarians servicing aquatic animal clients, but the response was
quite surprising.
Consequently, the developers will examine the possibility of
adding modules to AquaVets.com for online continuing education,
disease surveillance, diagnostic laboratory submissions and
certificates of veterinary inspection, he said.
The AVMA, Aquaculture Underwriting and Management
Services, and GlobalVetLink LLC developed the databases as part
of the National Risk Management Feasibility Programme for
Aquaculture. The Department of Agriculture Risk Management
Agencys Federal Crop Insurance Corporation through the
Mississippi State University provided partial support.
A brochure on the resources available at www.AquaVets.com may
be obtained by calling the AVMA at + 1 (800) 248-2862, ext 6636.
ATLANTIC COD
(PHOTO BY FRANK GREGERSEN, FISKERIFORSKNING)
preventing diseases in the fish increases.

Scientist Marit Seppola at Fiskeriforskning, who is studying the
innate viral defence in Atlantic cod, says that they are injecting
synthetic dsRNA in the fish. Afterwards, we will attempt to study
which genes could be involved in the early defence against viruses.
This is only a simulated viral infection, but it is used because
it generally causes a stronger immune response than an ordinary
viral infection, says Seppola. Nevertheless, the results can give
us indications about which genes are important for fighting viral
infections.
To find the genes that are important in the immune system, we
have created a subtractive suppression hybridization library that
consists of a collection of genes. At present the collection contains
330 different genes and we are about to study some of these genes
more closely, she says.
One of the genes Seppola has worked with is called interferon
stimulated gene 15 (ISG15). It appears that the gene expression is
up-regulated as much as 800 times during a simulated viral
infection. Recent results also indicate that bacterial infection causes
an increased gene expression of Atlantic cod ISG15.
We can measure this increase already the first day after
injecting dsRNA, which can implicate this gene as an important
part of first defence against viral infections. This can mean that
we are about to reveal some of the tightly regulated key
mechanism of the innate immune system in Atlantic cod. But
there is still much further work, because the immune system is
complex, says Seppola.
This is time-consuming research, because there has not
previously been performed much research involving genes in the
immune system of Atlantic cod. Our work has also shown that
there is little gene homology between Atlantic cod and the more
studied fish species like Atlantic salmon and catfish. With this
project, we hope to generate knowledge to better understand the
immune system in Atlantic cod, she says.
The project is collaboration between Fiskeriforskning and the
Norwegian College of Fishery Science in Troms. It is financed by
the Research Council of Norway and Fiskeriforskning and will run
over five years until 2008.
Contact Marit Seppola (+47) 77 62 90 00.
ECUADOR: AQUA BOUNTY LAUNCHES

SHRIMP FEED ADDITIVE ONTO THE MARKET
NORWAY: MAPPING PARTS
OF THE ATLANTIC COD IMMUNE SYSTEM
Source: Marit Seppola, Fiskeriforskning, Norway
Scientists at Fiskeriforskning are mapping some of the important
parts of the immune system in Atlantic cod. The results could be
important for the aquaculture industry.
The objective of this mapping is to characterise genes involved
in the innate immune system of Atlantic cod. By increasing the
knowledge of how the immune system works, our chances of
Aqua Bounty Technologies, a biotechnology company focused on

health and productivity applications in the aquaculture sector,
has received regulatory approval for Shrimp IMS, its lead
product, in Ecuador. Ecuador is the leading producer of shrimp
in the Western hemisphere and the second country to approve
the product, following Mexico.
An initial commercial shipment of Shrimp IMS has been
made to Aqua Bountys licensee in Ecuador, Karakoram, a South
American pharmaceutical supplier working to distribute Shrimp
IMS in cooperation with Exportachura de Alimentos S.A.

(Expalsa), the leading aqua feed manufacturer in Ecuador.
Aqua Bounty plans to introduce IMS to the six Latin American
shrimp producing countries during 2006 with additional
product launches in Asian markets planned for 2007.
The global shrimp industry generates $13 billion in annual
revenues and is growing at a compound annual rate of 5%. The
expansion into Ecuador marks a major milestone in the
Companys growth strategy to exploit this market potential.
Shrimp IMS is a feed additive administered through the full
shrimp life cycle that reduces mortality by enhancing the
animals natural immune system; the shrimps disease-fighting
haemocyte production is increased by up to 250 percent. In
field trials conducted over several years in Mexico and Ecuador,
the Company has confirmed that Shrimp IMS is effective in the
presence of a number of common shrimp diseases, including
the Taura Syndrome and White Spot viruses, both implicated in
the catastrophic $280-million collapse of the Ecuadorian
shrimp industry in 1999. White Spot virus, in particular, has
caused over $1 billion of production losses in the Americas
since the 1990s. It is the most lethal, widespread viral disease of
shrimp. The trials demonstrated survival improvements of 70to-80 percent over untreated populations. In Mexico, during the
first year of commercial use, benefits to farmers were calculated
at $2.50 return on investment per dollar spent on treatment.
Ecuador has done a remarkable job rebuilding its position in
the shrimp market since the loss of production in the late
1990s, said Elliot Entis, CEO of Aqua Bounty Technologies. It
is again among the top farmed shrimp exporters in the western
hemisphere and an important supplier to the U.S. market. With
an effective immune stimulants like Shrimp IMS now available
through established market channels, biosecurity is likely to rise
in priority in both the regulatory and farming communities and
help reduce the risk of catastrophic epizootic events in the
future.
Aqua Bounty Technologies is a Boston-based biotechnology
company selling diagnostic tools, feed additives and
therapeutants to the global aquaculture industry. Pipeline
products include viral blockers, antifungals, fish vaccines and
transgenic salmon, trout and tilapia that grow more quickly than
standard farmed fish.
detect the A invadans water mould - one using sensitive

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedures, the other
using fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH). They first
validated these assays in the laboratory before applying
them to Atlantic menhaden taken from the Pamlico and
Neuse River estuaries in North Carolina.
The results of both assays were the same - all lesioned
menhaden tested positive for A invidans. The FISH
assay is the first molecular assay to provide unambiguous
visual confirmation that water mould from the ulcerated
lesions were exclusively A invidans, said Mark Vandersea
of NOAA, the corresponding author of the study. Until
this study, scientists had been unable to positively
identify A invadans as the only species of water mould
responsible for causing the lesions in wild caught fish.
The new study supports a growing body of research
evidence, including recently collected data by researchers
in southern Asia and Australia, indicating that A invidans,
rather than Pfiesteria, is the major cause of ulcers and lesions in
fish. A invidans, however, should not be considered the sole cause
for ulcerative lesions. Stress, poor nutrition, and certain parasite,
bacterial and viral infections are all capable of producing similar
lesions. Further studies will be needed to determine how natural
A invidans infections are caused.
The PCR and FISH assays developed in this study now make it
possible to screen the large numbers of environmental samples
needed to identify alternative hosts and sources of A invidans
infections, said NOAA scientist Wayne Litaker.
Identifying the sources and the conditions promoting the
growth and transmission of the pathogen will help resource
managers better predict when lesion events are likely to occur and
perhaps develop effective mitigation strategies.
USA: WATER MOULD LINKED TO ESTUARINE FISH

Source: Suzi Fraser (See www.aquafeed.com)
A new study led by NOAA scientists provides strong evidence
that the water mould known as Aphanomyces invadans is the
pathogen responsible for seasonal outbreaks of skin ulcers and
lesions observed in menhaden and other estuarine fish along the
eastern coast of the United States. The study was reported in the
peer-reviewed journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology.
Large fish lesion events in the 1990s, initially linked to the
dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida, caused widespread concern
over the safety of seafood and recreational waters. These
concerns caused many people to avoid the coast and to avoid
eating seafood. An independent study published in 2003 in the
journal Ocean and Coastal Management estimated that lost
revenues for the tourism, restaurant and seafood industries
exceeded $100 million.
Scientists from NOAAs Centre for Coastal Fisheries and
Habitat Research in Beaufort, North Carolina, led the research,
along with experts from the Florida Fish and Wildlife
Conservation Commission, the North Carolina Division of Water
Quality, the Virginia Institute of Marine Science at The College of
William and Mary, and North Carolina State Universitys College
of Veterinary Medicine.
The scientists developed two very specific tests or assays to
FORTHCOMING
CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS

NORTH AMERICA
Advanced Concepts in Epidemiology,
Surveillance and Biosecurity.
AVMA Convention 2006, Hawaii, July 19-21
The American Veterinary Medical Association will host a

three-day workshop in Hawaii from July 19 to 21 in
conjunction with the 2006 AVMA Convention (July 15-19).
The instructors include Dr Angus Cameron (AusVet Animal
Health Services, Australia), Dr Nora Wineland (USDAAPHIS-VS, USA), Dr Don Lightner (University of Arizona,
USA) and Dr Allen Riggs (Hawaii Department of
Agriculture, USA). Dr A David Scarfe from the AVMA will
moderate the proceedings.
THE WORKSHOP
This workshop will present concepts and methodologies for
aquatic animal surveillance and biosecurity, and discuss the
implications of recent changes to the OIE Manual. This is an
advanced course targeted at those responsible for national,
regional and on-farm biosecurity, and the design,
establishment or management of aquatic animal disease
surveillance systems, and the analysis of surveillance data.
The workshops will emphasise finfish and crustacean
aquaculture.
THE APPROACH
The approach used at the workshop will be based on a
combination of:
lecture-style presentations to introduce key concepts
small group and full group discussions
exercises working with problems given by the presenter
exercises based on participants own background and
workplaces
computer-based exercises to practice data analysis (if
resources and time permit)
utilise the principles learned in table-top exercises to
developing practical and applied surveillance and
biosecurity programmes applicable for aquaculture
operations
utilise the applied programmes to design a specific onfarm surveillance and biosecurity programme for an
operating aquaculture farm, and
utilise the information from validated diagnostic tests,
clinical observation of animals and disease surveillance
data to determine the status of disease at any point in time,
and to issue Certificates of Veterinary Inspection (Health
Certificates) for the movement of animals.
WORKSHOP OUTLINE
Day 1 Principles for on-farm biosecurity programme design
and application
Didactic interaction outlining the practical application of
disease diagnostics, epidemiology/surveillance necessary for

assessing the disease status of animal production systems
(emphasising all agriculture and aquaculture animal species)
and developing practical on-farm biosecurity programmes. It
will specifically cover:
introduction to surveillance
objectives of surveillance
context of surveillance trade, WTO, OIE
implications of changes to the OIE code
sources of surveillance data
monitoring endemic disease
demonstration of freedom from disease
Day 2 Designing on-farm aquaculture biosecurity programmes
Utilising the epidemiology principles covered in Workshop I,
design disease surveillance and biosecurity programmes that
are applicable for assessing, determining and certifying the
status or freedom of important diseases on finfish and
crustacean aquaculture operations. It will specifically cover:
approaches to collecting surveillance data
components of an effective disease surveillance system
data collection and management options
information systems, feedback and sustainability
aquatic animal surveys
survey design
sampling issues
analysis of surveillance data
approaches to the analysis of non-random data sources
analysis of monitoring data
group discussions, and the
development of surveillance systems by participants
Day 3 Implementing on-farm finfish and crustacean
aquaculture biosecurity programmes
Participants will be transported to a working aquaculture
operation. Acting as group consultants, participants will
develop an on-farm disease surveillance and biosecurity
programme using the principles and designs covered in
Workshops I and II.
The farm owner will implement this biosecurity
programme with the assistance of his/her local attending
veterinarian. If feasible, the instructor or attending
veterinarian may provide participants with periodic disease
status and biosecurity reports over the next 12 months, to
gauge the efficacy of the biosecurity programme.
While the programme primarily serves aquatic
veterinarians, state and federal officials, and non-veterinarian
professionals and producers involved in aquatic animal
health programmes are encouraged to participate. As
enrolment is restricted to 40 participants, online preregistration is very strongly encouraged. See
avmaconvention.org/

Registrants will also be able to participate in other
convention aquatic veterinary continuing education and
wetlab programmes from July 15 to 19.
For further information, contact Dr David Scarfe,
email [email protected]
5th International Symposium on

Aquatic Animal Health
San Francisco, USA. September 2-6
The 5th ISAAH programme will emphasise the multidisciplinary nature of aquatic animal health and includes
12 plenary lectures, more than 200 oral presentations and
up to 150 posters. Plenary lectures by outstanding
speakers of international stature will address topics of
broad interest.
See www.fisheries.org/fhs/isaah_2006.htm
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 12
SELECTED BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENTS VACCINES
Klesius PH, Evans JJ and Shoemaker CA (2004). Warmwater fish
vaccinology in catfish production. Anim Health Res Rev 5(2),
305-311.
Lorenzen N and LaPatra S (2005). DNA vaccines for aquacultured
fish. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 24(1), 201-213.
Pasnik DJ, Evans JJ and Klesius PH (2005a). Duration of protective
antibodies and correlation with survival in Nile tilapia Oreochromis
niloticus following Streptococcus agalactiae vaccination. Dis Aqua
Org 66, 129-134.
Pasnik DJ, Evans JJ, Panagala VS, Klesius PH, Shelby RA and
Shoemaker CA. (2005b). Antigenicity of Streptococcus agalactiae
extracellular products and vaccine efficacy. J Fish Dis 28, 205-212.
Shelby RA, Klesius PH, Shoemaker CA and Evans JJ (2002). Passive
immunisation of tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) with antiStreptococcus iniae whole sera. J Fish Dis 25, 1-6.
EUROPE
Shoemaker CA and Klesius PH (1997). Protection against enteric

septicemia in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque),
following controlled exposure to Edwardsiella ictaluri. J Fish Dis
20, 101-108.
4th International Veterinary Vaccines and

Diagnostics Conference
Shoemaker CA, Klesius PH and Bricker JM (1999). Efficacy of a

modified live Edwardsiella ictaluri vaccine in channel catfish as
young as seven days post hatch. Aquaculture 176, 189-193.
Oslo, Norway. June 25-29
The IVVDC has become an important meeting place for

regulatory authorities, pharmaceutical companies and the
scientific community. It provides an excellent opportunity to
be updated on recent progress and future perspectives in the
fields of vaccinology and diagnostics. The conference
includes a specific session on fish vaccines.
See www.ivvdc.org
OCEANIA
International Symposium on Veterinary
Epidemiology and Economics
Cairns, Australia. August 6-11
Includes sessions on aquatic animal health, together with a

pre-symposium workshop entitled Aquatic Animal
Epidemiology.
See www.isveexi.org
Shoemaker CA, Klesius PH and Evans JJ (2002). In ovo method

for utilising the modified live Edwardsiella ictaluri vaccine
against enteric septicemia in channel catfish. Aquaculture 203,
221-227.
Shoemaker CA, Klesius PH and Evans JJ (2005). Modified live
Flavobacterium columnare against columnaris disease in fish.
US Patent #6,881,412.
Tucker CS and Hargreaves JA (2004). Biology and culture of
channel catfish. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Vandenberg GW (2004). Oral vaccination for finfish: academic
theory or commercial reality? Anim Health Res Rev 5(2), 301-304.
Wagner BA, Wise DJ, Khoo LH and Terhune JS (2002). The
epidemiology of bacterial diseases in food-size channel catfish. J
Aqua Anim Health 14, 263-272.
Wise DJ, Klesius PH, Shoemaker CA and Wolters WR (2000).
Vaccination of mixed and full-sib families of channel catfish
Ictalurus punctatus against enteric septicemia of catfish with a live
attenuated Edwardsiella ictaluri isolate (RE-33). J World Aquac
Soc. 31, 206-212.
ASIA
First International Symposium on Viral Nervous
Necrosis of Fish
This symposium will be the first opportunity to review,
collate and discuss the current information and knowledge
on various aspects of viral nervous necrosis (VNN) and its
causative agents, Nodaviruses.
It is expected to attract scientists active in this particular
field from many parts of the world, including Europe, North
America, Oceania and Asia.
See www://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/fishpath/vnn2006
VIP.AC04
Hiroshima, Japan. November 28-December 1
RESEARCH
THE ADVANTAGES OF VACCINE

ACTIVATED WHITE SHRIMP
CHRIS HAACKE & ROBIN WARDLE (SCHERING-PLOUGH ANIMAL HEALTH, AQUACULTURE BUSINESS UNIT, UK)
ommercial trials have identified

TABLE 1
Vibromax* feeding regime
significant production and feed
efficiency gains when white
shrimp hatcheries gave a vibriosis
vaccine simultaneously with an alginebased complementary feedstuff. The
results indicate key advantages at every
stage of production from larval through
harvest when compared with a control
sample. The financial impact
demonstrated advantages of over
US$40,000 in harvest values alone.
The trial conducted in Sinaloa,
Mexico, by Schering-Plough Animal
Healths aquaculture business unit,
utilised the companys AquaVac*
Vibromax* vaccine and AquaVac
Ergosan* complementary feedstuff. The
company supplies both products as an
integral part of its Total Protection
Strategy approach to aquaculture
health.
The trial included in excess of 51
common with many production areas and is at risk to Whitespot
million shrimp and measured performance across three separate
virus disease out breaks.
production phases. Improved performance values, including
The trial population was 51.054 million nauplii, purchased
mortality, feed intake, feed conversion and yield in the trial, gave
from a single independent hatchery. For larval rearing they were
an increase of over 15% in crop value and a recorded
stocked into 7 m3 tanks with 250 nauplii per litre. The results in
improvement of US$8,657 per million PLs stocked.
Sinaloa confirmed the success of previous trials.
Dr. Victoria Lopez-Doriga PhD, Clinical Trials Manager with
Schering-Plough Animal Health explains the background. We had
PHASE 1:
previously trialled AquaVac Vibromax vaccine and AquaVac
SURVIVAL RATES 10.3% SUPERIOR
Ergosan together at commercial sites in Thailand. The results had
TO NON-ACTIVATED SAMPLE
already shown us significant performance uplift right through the
At production phase 1 (Zoea 1 - Post Larvae 8,) AquaVac
growth stages. The shrimp were stronger and more active, they had
ErgosanTM was added directly to the tanks as a feed supplement at
more appetite and feed intake levels were higher and feed
a level from 5 grams per tank per day at Z1 to 20 grams per tank
conversion improved. We decided to undertake a larger trial to see
per day at PL8. Survival rates in the AquaVac ErgosanTM sample
if the initial results would be replicated in the different farming
averaged 71.3% in comparison with 61.6% control sample.
environment encountered in Mexico.
Dr. Lopez-Doriga confirms We know that Vibrio is associated
In Sinaloa the established production system is divided into
with high mortality in hatcheries and grow-outs. It is for this
three stages, hatchery rearing, post larval rearing and grow-out.
reason that AquaVac Vibromax was developed. We have now
Due to the temperature profile of the region there is a single
developed a program for administering the vaccine to shrimp
grow-out season lasting from May to October. This region is in
Summary of PL performance
TABLE 2
RESEARCH
THE ADVANTAGES OF VACCINE ACTIVATED WHITE SHRIMP

post larvae which we call Activated PLs. The cost benefit for
producers is highly measurable, particularly when optimum
production and margins are threatened by viral challenge.
PHASE 2:
INCREASED APPETITE, 18.4% LARGER
PLS AND IMPROVED FCR
At phase 2 (Post Larvae 9 - Post Larvae 18) raceways were stocked
with 3.75 million PLs each. At this stage the vaccination process
with AquaVac Vibromax commenced. Vibromax was introduced
via feeding by bio-encapsulation in artemia (feeding rates are
shown in Table 1). It is critical that only instar 2 Artemia nauplii
are used for this process. Increased appetite levels were evident at
this stage. Dr. Lopez- Doriga makes an important point, Where
shrimp at this stage are looking for more feed it is essential to
make additional feed available. Maintaining feed to appetite will
reduce the risk of cannibalism and maximises growth. The trial
showed that AquaVac Vibromax improved the potential of the
shrimp, allowing them to convert feed more efficiently and grow
larger she adds.
It is worth noting that whilst the survival rates at the end of
phase 1 were generally the same, the PLs coming forward into
Phase 2 were a significant 18.4% larger.
During phase 2 both activated and un-activated shrimp PLs
were exposed to a Vibrio challenge and subsequently treated with
an antibacterial disinfection. It is recognised that Vibrio infection
will affect growth and performance of shrimp. The trial suggests
that the Vibromax Activated PLs displayed a response to the
challenge and in addition it was observed that they returned to
feed sooner than the non-activated control populations. The
growth rate, size and FCR of the Activated PLs were superior. The
cumulative benefits at this stage of the trial included improved
survival, 18.4% larger PLs and a superior FCR in the activated
groups (Table 2).
PHASE 3:
16% INCREASED HARVEST VALUE, HIGHER
AVERAGE WEIGHT, IMPROVED FCR AND
ENHANCED REALISABLE VALUE DUE TO
MORE SHRIMP IN HIGHER WEIGHT BANDS
The trial at phase 3 sought to evaluate performance of the
Activated PLs in the grow-out phase. Ponds were stocked at two
different densities. During this stage the farm was subjected to a
White spot viral disease outbreak. Typically White spot viral
disease presents a major challenge to economic production in the
grow-out phase. The consequential financial losses can be large. In
this case over 62% mortality was recorded in the low density
TABLE 3
ponds and 68% in the higher density ponds. The only

management option is to harvest the shrimp early. This results in
shrimp size and weight well below their optimum, effectively
raising the average cost of production and limiting achievable
prices, margin and overall profitability. The Activated PLs were
harvested last as they showed a higher resistance to the disease.
However at the end of the period the total mortality in both
Activated and standard control groups was the same.
When the results were collated, the differences in performance
between the activated and non-activated samples continued. The
average mean weight of the activated PLs was 1.78 grams higher
at 18.70 grams. Most significantly in activated PL populations
five out of nine (5/9) ponds were harvested in the 31/35 (20
gram plus) size category but none of the control ponds reached
this size, while only 2/9 were in the smaller 41/50 size category
compared to 5/9 nine of the standard control ponds. All ponds
were harvested early due to the White spot disease problem
although the Activated PLs were considered resistant enough to
be kept a few days longer. The daily FCR was 2.153 for the
activated and 2.34 for the non-activated giving a further
economic advantage calculated as being worth $1000 per million
PLs stocked.
HARVEST RETURNS
The AquaVac Vibromax activated population was harvested with
an increased biomass of 6.61% and the total crop value which was
17.1% higher when compared directly with the standard control
population (Table 3).
For the standard control group the average end weight was
17.07 grams and harvest values were US$268,627 at an average
price of US$6.82 per kilo (Table 3).
The harvest values for the AquaVac Vibromax group were an
average end weight of 19.04 grams and total harvest value of
US$314,625 at an average price of US$7.57 per kilo (Table 3).
The cumulative effect of these improvements in the activated
PLs compared to the standard control PLs was worth US$45,998
for the activated population (Table 3).
The trial indicates that the implementation of an Activated PL
programme utilising AquaVac Ergosan and AquaVac Vibromax
produced more, bigger and stronger shrimp throughout the
growth cycles. Shrimp grew quicker, converted more efficiently
and as a result of the increased numbers of shrimp in larger size
bands they achieved superior returns at harvest.
* AquaVac, Ergosan and Vibromax are worldwide trademarks of

Schering Plough Ltd, or any affiliated company.
ORGANISATION
VETERINARIANS WITHOUT
BORDERS ASSIST IN SRI LANKA
BY DR MARK SHEPPARD AND DR CRAIG STEPHEN (VETERINARIANS WITHOUT BORDERS, CANADA)
DR MARK SHEPPARD TOURS

AQUACULTURE FACILITIES
emerging diseases, zoonotic disease control, food safety and

aquaculture.
One of the first and most important lessons learned was
that Sri Lankan agriculture and aquaculture is not focused
on maximising profits and production of integrated and
corporate farms. Rather, it is focused on supporting
individual farmers as a critical part of the national
strategy for improving the health of individual
citizens and lifting people from poverty.
Helping smallholder farmers produce enough
safe and secure food for their families, as well as
producing a small surplus of fish to sell to
others to generate a modest income, is the
prevailing agricultural model of Sri Lanka.
However, there is also an eye on
developing export markets into which
the local farmers, as well as the few
larger-scale producers, could sell their
products.
There were three main aquaculture
interests within this trip. The
freshwater inland food fishery
(comprising tilapia and carp production
in seasonal earthen ponds), the freshwater
ornamental fish market, and shrimp
production for export. Even though the goal is to
develop the latter two industries for exports to
eterinarians Without
Borders/Vtrinaires sans Frontires
Canada (VWB) is a new
organisation that aims to work with
SRI LANKA
disadvantaged communities around the
world to foster the well-being of livestock,
domestic animals and wildlife, and to
promote public and ecosystem health.
VWB Canadas inaugural project
recently became a successful reality in Sri
Lanka thanks to generous donations. VWB
was asked by the Sri Lankan Department of
Animal Production and Health (DAPH) to
explore how VWB could contribute to Sri
Lankas veterinary public health and fish
health capacity. This trip took place between
November 20 and 30, 2005. Drs Craig
Stephen and Mark Sheppard were invited to
tour parts of the country and meet educators,
regulators and farmers to conduct a needs
assessment of all stakeholder groups, and
discover if partnerships between Canadian
veterinarians and Sri Lankans could be
developed. Over the course of their 10-day trip,
the two veterinarians focussed on learning about
the Sri Lankan veterinary and animal production
systems, and the challenges they faced in exotic and
RESEARCH
VETERINARIANS WITHOUT BORDERS ASSIST IN SRI LANKA

RESEARCHERS OF THE NATIONAL
AQUATIC RESEARCH AGENCY
supports the export of shrimp and ornamental fish by

conducting water quality testing for pathogens-of-concern in
transport water of animals during export.
TWO LOCATIONS
FEEDING TIME
Europe and North America, the overall strategy still includes

having family farms and local cooperatives produce fish for sale
into these markets, rather than focusing on developing larger
corporate farms.
Our VWB/VSF team toured a variety of aquaculture sites
starting with a visit to a national fisheries research centre of
National Aquatic Research Agency (NARA). The aquaculture,
fisheries and oceanography programs at NARA were halted
December 2004 when a 4-foot wall of water and mud flooded
labs, destroyed critical analytical equipment as well as their
research vessel. Rebuilding has been slow but steady. NARAs
latest projects involve developing a basic and affordable farmermade fish feed that can be used for ornamental fish culture and
the subsequent sale of fish into the pet trade. NARA also
Inland, Sheppard and Stephen visited two locations run by the

National Aquaculture Development Authority (NAQDA). The
first site was an experimental farm developing broodstock for
ornamental fish culture. The ornamental fish trade not only
reduces the use of wild-caught fish for the pet industry but also
is a significant contributor to the agricultural economy. Our
VWB team toured this new facility and consulted with the staff
about fish health management, diagnostic needs and various
treatment strategies.
The second NAQDA site was a carp and tilapia brood farm
and hatchery that provides numerous types of fry to
cooperative farming groups and local farmers. They in turn
grow the fish for community consumption. The grow-out phase
of this industry takes place in seasonal reservoirs (natural and
man-made large, earthen ponds) that become filled with fresh
water during the rainy seasons and eventually dry up after
seven to eight months.
As with the ornamental industry, support for diagnostics and
fish health management is currently limiting the size and
output capacity of this food-producing industry. Increasing the
role of fish health specialists in fish management plans and
operations will be a key to increasing fish survival and
productivity.
The final facet of the aquaculture tour involved marine
shrimp farming. Our VWB team visited one large commercial
operation as well as many small farms that consisted only of one
or two ponds. Shrimp farming is a redeveloping and growing
sector that the recently elected government has recognised as a
target industry.
ONE OF THE FACILITIES RUN BY THE NATIONAL

AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY
In years past the shrimp industry of Sri Lanka was largely

unregulated, and many farmers succumbed to widespread
outbreaks of white spot disease. In fact, many ponds remain
inactive and largely abandoned today, awaiting rejuvenation
under recent recommendations and revised regulations set forth
by the current government.
The goal of the government is to facilitate the rebuilding of
150 shrimp farms to bring annual production back to 2500 to
3000 metric tonnes. The shrimp farms are located on the
western coast of Sri Lanka adjacent to natural lagoons and the
historic Dutch Canal built in the 1400s.
As part of the response to the historical outbreak of white spot
disease, a large project is under way to dredge several key areas of
the Dutch Canal. This canal is the main water source for many
shrimp farms, but its flow had been interrupted by the
accumulation of silt and solids from shrimp farm waste and
sediment piled on retaining dikes.
In addition to the dredging project, government extension
officers are working with farmers to change waste and water
management practices to reduce the sharing of pathogens
between sites. Water management will be addressed by
coordinating shrimp production cycles based on predetermined zones and based on six-month grow-out seasons
throughout the sector.
Much of our exploration of veterinary public health in Sri
Lankan took place in Kandy city, a World Heritage city located in
the mountainous interior. Many key facilities and people are
headquartered here, including the veterinary school at the
University of Peradeniya, the federal Veterinary Research Institute
(which serves as the primary diagnostic laboratory for the
country) and the head offices of the Department of Animal
Production and Health (DAPH).
Here plans were developed for partnerships in food-borne
disease, training in field epidemiology and new initiatives in
A SHRIMP GATE. SHRIMP CULTURE

IS A GROWTH INDUSTRY IN SRI LANKA
public health and aquaculture.

The VWB/VSF-Canada trip to Sri Lanka culminated in an
unexpected invitation to meet with the newly re-elected Minister
of Agriculture, who emphasised his support for our work and the
importance of agriculture production for the health and prosperity
of the average Sri Lankan.
This meeting highlighted for us the strong interest in partnering
with Canadian veterinarians to help improve animal production
and public health as a major way to combat poverty and improve
the quality of life in Sri Lanka.

Kind support for the ongoing project in Sri Lanka was provided by
Aeroplan, Schering-Plough Animal Health and Dr Chas Povey, all of
Canada, and Marine Harvest, Japan.
EDUCATION
AN ONLINE CERTIFICATE
FROM WISCONSIN
BY DR MYRON J KEBUS (WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TRADE & CONSUMER PROTECTION, DIVISION OF ANIMAL
HEALTH, USA); DR MICHAEL T COLLINS (UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, USA)
DR JEANNETTE MCDONALD (UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON, WISTREC, USA)
ABOVE LEFT: THE EXPERTS INVOLVED IN

DELIVERING THE ONLINE PROGRAMME
ABOVE: A STUDENT EXAMINES A SPECIMEN TO
GAIN VALUABLE PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
t originated with foresight. The state of Wisconsin has a large fish

farming and sport fishing industry, and in 1999 the state hired its
first aquaculture veterinarian to oversee this growing market.
Rather than try to cover the whole state singlehandedly, the new
aquaculture veterinarian decided to deputise veterinarians around
the state, freeing the central office to focus on progressive efforts
rather than limiting itself to an endless array of sample collection
and submission.
In partnership with Wisconsins School of Veterinary Medicine, the
state first established a continuing education short course, and more
recently an online Fish Health Medicine Certificate Programme. The
long-term plan was to train individuals to recognise fish diseases and
be able to provide health services to fish farms.
The new, online programme was adapted from the intensive,
two-day short course that provided practical training in field
techniques for sample collection and field diagnostics.
The initial programme, called Aquaculture Veterinary Medicine
for Practitioners, was developed by the Wisconsin Department of
Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protection (commonly referred
to as DATCP), in collaboration with the University of WisconsinMadison School of Veterinary Medicine (UW SVM). All
veterinarians in Wisconsin who wish to be certified to issue fish
health certificates or a Report of Veterinary Health Assessment of
Fish were required to complete this course.
The course has been adapted for online delivery through the
continuing education portal of UW SVM. (See
www.vetmedce.org). It is constructed as a series of six modules.
The first five modules can be taken at any time and anywhere
over the Internet using narrated Powerpoint presentations and
supplemental reading materials delivered using new educational

technology software. Each module is followed by a test that is
automatically generated and computer-scored. The successful
completion of each module results in the award of CE credits that
can be used to satisfy state veterinary licensing requirements.
The final module is a one-day, hands-on practice of the principles
and techniques learned in the five online modules, with the course
instructor judging final proficiency. Passing the final module will
result in the awarding of the Fish Health Medicine Certificate.
The content for these modules is a collaborative effort between
Dr Myron Kebus, State Fish Health Veterinarian at DATCP and Dr
Michael Collins, professor at the UW SVM, with special
contributions by:
Dr Grace Karremann, president of the Association of
Aquaculture Veterinarians of British Columbia, Canada
Dr Julie Bebak-Williams, director of Aquatic Animal Health at
the Freshwater Institute in Sheperdstown, West Virginia, USA,
and
Dr Jill Rolland, aquaculture specialist with USDA-APHIS
Veterinary Services, Maryland, USA.
Dr. Jeannette McDonald and her staff at WisTREC (Wisconsins
Technology Resource for Educating Care-Providers) at the
University of Wisconsin produced the modules.
INTENSIVE DETAIL
Module one of the programme introduces the course. It provides
basic information on the US aquaculture industry and discusses a
national partnership designed to reduce risks related to fish
farming. Module two provides more detail on risk management
ABOVE: STUDENTS DISCUSS

WATER QUALITY ISSUES
DURING A PRACTICAL CLASS
LEFT: DR MYRON KEBUS
UNDER THE SPOTLIGHT
FAR LEFT: WATER QUALITY

MANAGEMENT IS AN
INTEGRAL COMPONENT
OF THE COURSE. STUDENTS
LEARN ABOUT WATER
CHEMISTRY
IN INTENSIVE
RECIRCULATION SYSTEMS
and biosecurity on fish farms, and describes best management

practices for raising fish.
The third module focuses on water quality, the aspect of fish
farming that is most novel to veterinarians and the most critical to fish
health. The fourth explains how to conduct a fish health inspection in
order to test for a select set of pathogens controlled by government
regulations. Module five describes a practical how to method of
performing a veterinary health assessment, or VHA, on fish.
The VHA is a relatively novel new tool for the surveillance and
management of fish health problems. Wisconsins VHA originated
as a fish health/condition assessment procedure developed in 1976
by Ron Goede from the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. It was
designed to assess the health of fish reared in state and federal fish
hatcheries for stocking.
In 1994, Dr Kebus modified the procedure and developed the
Wisconsin Veterinary Health Assessment for evaluating fish on
commercial fish farms.
In 1999, as the director of the newly created Fish Health
Programme at DATCP, he began to develop the VHA as an
objective measure of fish health. This gives fish buyers and
regulators of fish movement a tool for making sound decisions.
The VHA can be used for all fish species, but specifically fills a
void of health inspections of non-salmonids. While voluntary in
most situations, the VHA can also be used to satisfy some state
regulations.
In Wisconsin, they use the VHA to meet the health requirements
for fish that are imported to the state or will be stocked in public
waters. In 2004, DATCP reviewed 243 VHAs submitted by 23
veterinarians and four non-veterinary inspectors. A growing
LEARNING HOW TO MEASURE DISSOLVED

OXYGEN LEVELS IN A HOLDING TANK
EDUCATION
AN ONLINE CERTIFICATE FROM WISCONSIN

number of other states are finding it a useful tool to reduce the
risk of moving diseased fish.
GOALS AND REGISTRATION
STUDENTS TAKE A
CLOSER LOOK AT
PATHOLOGY SAMPLES
AQUACULTURE AND
VETERINARIANS IN WISCONSIN
Though fish producers and veterinarians in most states recognise
that there are important diseases (eg spring viremia of carp,
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) virus, and heterosporis
of non-salmonid fish, there are very few examples in the US of
health standards and health forms for non-salmonid fish, and
most states are still struggling to develop standards and forms.
Wisconsin chose to proceed based on its state law, which
specifies that veterinarians are certified to perform specific,
specialised veterinary activities, in contrast with accredited
(limited to veterinarians who work for federal animal health
programmes, such as the US Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS).
Examples of veterinary activities that require certification
include Johnes Disease testing in cattle, chronic wasting disease
testing in deer, and fish disease testing.
By training and certifying private practice veterinarians,
DATCP privatised many of the on-farm fish health services that
in other states are performed by government employees. This
has allowed DATCP staff to work on progressive efforts, as
opposed to working solely on sample collection and
submission for disease testing, and provides more accessible
and more knowledgeable local services for fish farmers.
As a result of its decision, Wisconsin has developed a fish
health certificate for all fish introduced or imported to waters
of the state. Since 1999, all fish stocked into waters of the state,
and from 2001, all fish imported to Wisconsin, have been
required to meet health standards. A valid Report of Veterinary
Health Assessment of Fish must be provided prior to stocking
or importing non-salmonid fish. This report is viewed as a first
step in developing health certificates for non-salmonids.
Producers have viewed the assessments favorably, largely
because they highlight positive as well as negative findings, and
they are practical, quick and affordable.
DATCP has assisted the Wisconsin aquaculture industry
since 1988, initially through the Division of Agricultural
Development. The fish health programme includes registration
of fish farms, certification of veterinarians, rules for health
standards for fish introduced into public waters, and issuance
of fish import permits. A key component of the programmes
success has been the close working relationship among DATCP,
fish farmers and veterinarians.
The development of the certificate programme was funded by the

USDA Risk Management Programme, administered through
Mississippi State University. Training accessibility and selfsustainability are two critical elements. The primary goals are to
increase the number of well-trained veterinarians available to fish
farmers to help them prevent economic losses due to disease and
improve fish farm biosecurity, ie limit the chances of the
introduction of diseased fish to farms or public water.
While the training is targeted at veterinarians, anyone is welcome
to take the online training. Within the US, we hope that the
certificate programme will grow and one day be used by all states.
The programme could easily be adapted to the needs of other
countries, and international collaboration to expand training of
veterinarians in fish diseases is welcome.
For more information, contact Dr Myron Kebus at
[email protected]
A GROWING INDUSTRY
As Wisconsins markets for farm-raised fish have grown, the
need to keep fish healthy on the farm has increased. There are
more than 350 commercial fish farms and 1739 hobby fish
farms in the state. There are also 14 state, two federal and four
tribal hatcheries. The farmers see the investment in fish health
as an investment in the future of the $17.5 million aquaculture
industry in Wisconsin.
According to the UDSA 2002 Census of Agriculture (USDA
NASS 2002), Wisconsin ranks third in baitfish production and
seventh in trout production in the US, and has led the US in
efforts to research the commercial rearing of yellow perch
(Perca flavescens).
A large number of fish are transported into Wisconsin from
26 states and Canada. In 2003, Wisconsin imported 726
metric tonnes of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), 202
tonnes of golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas), 272
tonnes of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni), 374,000
walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), and six million yellow perch
(Perca flavescens).
A person importing live fish or fish eggs into Wisconsin must
first obtain an annual import permit from the DATCP. The
DATCP only issues the permit to the Wisconsin facility that
will receive the imported fish when it has approved a valid
veterinary health assessment report.
A copy of the permit is sent to those who will deliver the fish
from out of state, and the hauler is also required to carry a
copy during transport.
Since 1997 DATCP has issued over 750 import permits for
fish originating from 26 states and Canada. In 2003, 105 fish
import permits were issued, similar to the number issued in
2001 and 2002.
The DATCP Wisconsin maintains a list of aquaculture
veterinarians who are accredited and certified to perform
regulatory services on Wisconsin fish farms. Wisconsin has
trained and identified over 75 private veterinary
practitioners who are certified to issue a Report of
Veterinary Health Assessment of Fish to private
aquaculture, state-run aquaculture, and tribal fish
hatcheries in nine states.
The online Fish Health Certificate Programme is another
example of Wisconsins leadership role in fish health protection
in the United States.
FINFISH
WHIRLING DISEASE RESEARCH

FOCUSES OFTEN ON THE
VARIABILITY IN SUSCEPTIBILITY
AMONG TUBIFEX TUBIFEX, THE
ALTERNATE HOST OF THE PARASITE
(PHOTO COURTESY OF LEAH
STEINBACH ELWELL)
DEVELOPMENTS IN WHIRLING
DISEASE RESEARCH THROUGH
THE NATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
BY KAJSA STROMBERG, (WHIRLING DISEASE INITIATIVE, MONTANA WATER CENTER, USA)
IMPACT OF WHIRLING DISEASE

In the years following its introduction, impacts of whirling disease
on public and private aquaculture enterprises were severe, in part
as a result of fish health regulations imposed to control the further
spread of the parasite.
During that time, the detection of the parasite could signal the
destruction of infected trout stocks, expensive renovations and
even the closure of facilities. Millions of fish were destroyed and
the economic costs were high. Regulations attempted to keep pace
with the spread of the parasite, restricting the transfer of fish and
fish parts.
However, the parasite continued to spread through inadvertent
introductions and M cerebralis was detected in an increasing
number of waters. The consequences of M cerebralis for
aquaculture in the United States continue to be severe in many
cases.
For example, in the state of Utah, the total value of trout sales in
Utah was reduced nearly 29 percent during 2005. This is largely
attributed to whirling disease, since six private hatcheries went out
of business in 2005 due to detection of the parasite, according to
the Utah Department of Agriculture and Food.
The first observations of the effect of whirling disease on wild fish
populations occurred in the early 1990s in Colorado and Montana.
Biologists observed declines in wild rainbow trout, and by 1994
whirling disease was identified as the primary cause. Reductions in
recruitment of 90 to 100 percent were observed in the worst cases,
and biologists, managers, and anglers became very concerned.
The parasite was already widespread, and its distribution
continued to increase. In addition, it was well known that
hen the first national Whirling Disease Symposium was

held in 1995, there was a great sense of urgency among
coldwater fisheries managers, aquaculturalists and a
concerned public.
Whirling disease, caused by the myxozoan parasite Myxobolus
cerebralis, had recently emerged as a major threat to wild trout in
the United States. Since that time, intensive research has increased
knowledge about the parasite, its two hosts and the potential for
managing the disease.
Although investigations about the complicated disease seem to
raise more questions for every one that is answered, research
results presented at the 12th annual symposium have yielded new
information that can be put into practice on the ground.
The first detection of M cerebralis in the United States occurred in
Pennsylvania in 1956 (Hoffman 1962). The parasite was also detected
at nearly the same time in California. Researchers suspect the parasite
was introduced from Europe, where it is native, in a shipment of
infected frozen trout (Bartholomew and Reno 2002). The parasite
soon became widely distributed as a result of inadvertent stocking of
infected fish and the use of infected fish for food in hatcheries.
Low levels of infection in wild fish and a lack of visible signs of
disease allowed the parasite to spread largely unnoticed. By 1970,
the parasite had been detected in 10 states. By 1990, it had spread to
an additional seven states, from the eastern to the western coast of
the country. Currently, the parasite has been reported in 23 states.
However, despite this widespread distribution, prior to 1994
observations of clinical whirling disease were largely limited to
aquaculture facilities, and population-level impacts were not
documented in the wild.
FINFISH
DEVELOPMENTS IN WHIRLING DISEASE RESEARCH THROUGH THE NATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

management and eradication in aquaculture facilities was highly
difficult and expensive. Concerns were raised that M cerebralis
might decimate wild trout and salmon populations throughout
North America and run producers out of business.
THE NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

In this atmosphere of urgency and concern, the first national
Whirling Disease Symposium was held in Denver, Colorado in
1995. This annual event, organised by the Whirling Disease
Foundation, is the main gathering for whirling disease-related
scientific research.
Scientists from a wide spectrum of scientific fields, including
pathology, parasitology, fish ecology and genetics, attend the
meeting each year. It provides a forum to share the latest research
developments and management lessons, and facilitates cooperation
and strategic planning.
This year marked the 12th annual Whirling Disease Symposium,
and it is evident that research has become increasingly
sophisticated and that the cooperative research programmes have
matured. There is no single solution to the problems of whirling
disease, and its clear that a variety of approaches will be required.
As the scientific community struggles to provide the answers
needed by managers and policy-makers, research focus areas
continue to shift. The primary drivers of research related to
whirling disease are the Whirling Disease Foundation and the
Whirling Disease Initiative, each with their own priorities and
strategies, but complementary and cooperative.
In the beginning, during the 1990s, research was mainly focused
on basic questions of biology, ecology, diagnostics and treatment.
Research revealed more information about the parasites complicated
life cycle, and deepened our understanding of the factors that
influence whether the parasite becomes established in a locale, and
causes infection and mortality. Research has also provided tools for
detecting the parasite at very low levels in fish and in the wild.
This achievement has resulted in a regulatory programme that is
much more efficient at preventing further parasite spread as a
result of inadvertent movements of infected fish, and also in
providing better information on where the parasite life cycle had
become established. As this information was obtained, attention
shifted to the study of management applications of these results
and large-scale, watershed level investigations that would provide
more insight on how the parasite spreads and under what
conditions it results in disease.
THE 2006 WHIRLING DISEASE SYMPOSIUM

Research presented during the 2006 symposium focused on where
M cerebralis infection occurs and why, particularly emphasising
aspects of resistance and susceptibility of the parasites two hosts:
salmonid fishes and Tubifex tubifex worms.
One series of investigations examined the relationships between
land use, habitat characteristics, T tubifex genotype and the
prevalence of M cerebralis. There are multiple,
distinct genetic lineages of T tubifex
(Beauchamp et al 2002).
Lineages are determined by mitochondrial DNA (mt 16S)
sequences that indicate genetic relationships, but are not
necessarily indicators of specific resistance or susceptibility to the
parasite. However, there is some indication that genetic differences
may reflect variations among T tubifex worm populations with
regard to their ability to support the parasite and produce the
triactinomyxon life stage.
This variability between lineages may therefore be an important
factor in determining infection rates among fish (Baxa et al 2006).
This recent discovery has generated considerable interest in the
implications for management of M cerebralis. Future studies are
planned to investigate the mechanisms for resistance in T tubifex
and how this information can be applied.
Studies regarding the salmonid host also focused on resistance
to M cerebralis infection. Naturally occurring resistance is being
investigated on the Madison River, Montana, where researchers
hypothesise that selective processes are yielding a surviving
population of fish that is more resistant to M cerebralis infection
(Vincent 2006). Despite a high parasite concentration, the severity
of infection in young rainbow trout in the Madison River in 2004
and 2005 is much lower than during the 1990s. However, many of
these fish are not surviving to reproductive age due to factors still
unclear. Research is continuing to evaluate the possibility of a
developing resistance and what implications it may have for
management.
Another life of research on resistant trout focuses on a domestic
strain of rainbow trout known as the Hofer strain developed in
Germany. These fish have been identified as having a high degree
of resistance to whirling disease (Hedrick et al 2003). Crosses
between this domestic strain and naturalised strains, like the
Colorado River rainbow trout, are being evaluated for potential
stocking into parasite-positive waters (Schisler et al 2006).
Pilot introductions have taken place in the Gunnison River,
Colorado and survival will be carefully tracked and evaluated.
These fish may provide managers with a sportfish that will survive
in waters where infection levels are high. Additional studies
investigated the mechanisms of resistance, evaluating the physical
processes involved and genetic analyses.
Advances in M cerebralis diagnostics have been helpful for
researchers, and have provided managers with highly sensitive
tools for detecting low parasite levels in fish. However, the
increasingly diverse questions being asked have presented
challenges that require development of a new tool.
One area of interest has been
in the development of nonlethal sampling methods,
and one of the methods
presented at this years
symposium could
provide an indicator
of infection status of
HABITAT CHARACTERISTICS, LAND

USE AND OTHER LANDSCAPE
VARIABLES INFLUENCE THE
LIKELIHOOD OF WHIRLING DISEASE
ESTABLISHMENT AND INFECTIVITY
(WHIRLING DISEASE INITIATIVE)
a fish population by measuring antibody levels (Adkinson et al

2006).
Other researchers are investigating methods to identify the
parasite in soil and fecal material through molecular techniques
that have already proved successful for detection in fish and water
(Gates and Guy 2006, Steinbach Elwell et al 2006).
Risk assessments, habitat studies and manipulations continued
to be vital research areas in 2006. Hatchery operations were in the
spotlight, with a case study from Utahs Springville fish hatchery,
where composting provided a valuable disposal option for infected
fish (Cavender and Wilson 2006).
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

Whirling disease is nothing if not complicated. With multiple
hosts and parasitic forms, Myxobolus cerebralis has introduced new
complexities to the management of salmonids in the wild and in
hatcheries. Since the parasite first appeared in the United States in
1956, research has advanced significantly, yet the parasite and the
disease it causes continues to spread. Each year we add a few more
pieces to the puzzle and solve a few more questions.
As time goes by, the perspectives shift. What once was
commonly viewed with panic is now more often viewed with
resignation. What once was considered solely a fish health issue is
increasingly considered in a context with other aquatic nuisance
species, gaining attention broadly on a national scale collectively as
a major emerging threat.
The full impact of whirling disease in the US may not yet have
been observed, nor have all the questions been answered.
Meanwhile, through an unprecedented collaboration of scientists,
fishery managers, biologists and aquaculturalists, we continue to
increase our understanding of the disease biology and develop
measures for control and management.
NEW DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES ARE IMPROVING THE DETECTION OF M

CEREBRALIS IN AQUACULTURE AND WILD SETTINGS (WHIRLING DISEASE INITIATIVE)
myxospores from sediment utilising a soil texture centrifuge

technique and sodium hexametaphosphate: at what level does
sediment quantity in a sample interfere with extraction efficiency?
Schisler GJ and Schler PJ (2006). Performance of Hofer rainbow
trout compared with other domestic stocks in Colorado trout
rearing facilities.
Steinbach Elwell LC, Kerans BL and Koel TM (2006). A comparison
of methods for detection of Myxobolus cerebralis in pelican feces.
Vincent ER (2006). Are wild rainbow trout in the Madison River
developing resistance to severe infections by the whirling disease
parasite (Myxobolus cerebralis)?
FURTHER READING
Bartholomew JL and PW Reno (2002). The history and
dissemination of whirling disease. In Bartholomew JL and Wilson
JC (Eds) pp3-24. Whirling disease reviews and current topics.
American Fisheries Society, Symposium 29, Bethesda, Maryland
Beauchamp KA, Gay M, Kelley GO, El-Matbouli M, Kathman RD,
Nehring RB, Hedrick RP (2002). Prevalence and susceptibility of
infection to Myxobolus cerebralis and genetic differences among
populations of Tubifex tubifex. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 51,
2002. pp113-121
Hedrick RP, McDowell TS, Marty GD, Fosgate GT, Mukkatira KS,
Myklebust KA and El-Matbouli M (2003). Susceptibility of two
strains of rainbow trout (one with suspected resistance to whirling
disease) to Myxobolus cerebralis infection. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 55. pp37-44
Hoffman GL (1962). Whirling disease of trout. United States
Department of the Interior. Fishery Leaflet 508. Fish and
Wildlife Service
From Proceedings of the 12th Annual Whirling Disease
Symposium. Denver, Colorado.
Adkinson MA, Myklebust KA and Hedrick RP (2006).
Non-lethal testing for Myxobolus infection by enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay.
Baxa DV, Mukkatira KS, Beauchamp KA, Kelley GO, Hedrick RP
(2006). Susceptible and resistant strains of Tubifex tubifex in
lineage III: Preliminary research findings on the effect of
substratum on the development and release of the triactinomyxon
stage of Myxobolus cerebralis and impact of interactions.
Cavender W and Wilson C. (2006). Utahs Springville Fish
Hatchery: a case-report on the detection of Myxobolus cerebralis.
Gates KK and Guy GS (2006). Extraction of Myxobolus cerebralis
VA C C I N A T I O N
SALMON WHERE IS THE

CORRECT INJECTION SITE?
BY ARILD KOLLEVG (INTERVET NORBIO AS, NORWAY)
n recent years, between 160 and 170 million salmon and rainbow
trout have been vaccinated each year in Norway. The vast majority
of these were vaccinated by injection (intra-peritoneal) with oilbased vaccines. Recent experience in the field has shown that the
quality of the vaccination procedure per se may have a big influence
on how the fish progresses through the whole production cycle, in
terms of both the efficacy of the vaccine to protect against the targeted
diseases and any side-effects that may arise from the vaccination.
The most serious problems often arise when S0 smolts are being
vaccinated, and when a large number of fish are being vaccinated
during a short period. Under these circumstances, the quality of
the vaccination procedure per se may be reduced, and a higher
proportion of the fish are of a small size, which in turn increases
the risk of incorrect vaccination. Indeed, even apparently
insignificant deviations from the recommended injection site can
reduce the vaccine efficacy and also result in a higher incidence of
side-effects (ie local reactions in the internal viscera).
Over the years, Intervet Norbio AS has performed several
vaccination audits in Norway. Vaccination techniques have
certainly become better, but there is still room for improvement.
The greatest challenge is to perform the vaccination correctly on
every fish on every day of the vaccination period.
It is also worth mentioning that new legislation (Norwegian
Regulation of Aquaculture Management, No. 55) entered into force
in Norway in December 2004. The new legislation requires closer
inspection of the vaccination process when automatic vaccination
equipment is used. It is also possible that similar legislation will be
enacted in other fish vaccination countries in the future.
RECOMMENDED PLACEMENT
The recommended position of the injection site is in the midline
of the abdomen, one pelvic fin length in front of the base of the
pelvic fins.
Intervet Norbio now has extensive research data showing that
water temperature and fish size are key factors that may influence
the development of local reactions in vaccinated fish.
Optimally, the temperature should be below 15 Celsius from
FIGURE 1. Optimal injection site. The fish shall be injected in the
abdominal midline, slightly in front of the pelvic bone (that lies beneath
the flesh) and one fin length in front of the base of the pelvic fins (marked
with an X). The green area depicts the ideal area for injection and the
yellow area depicts the outer limits for acceptable deviations to this
the time of vaccination until several weeks after sea transfer, and
the individual fish size at vaccination should be 35g. A high
and/or sudden increase in the water temperature during this
window will possibly contribute to a greater incidence and severity
of local reactions in the fish.
Although it is likely that some of the link between (small) fish
size and greater side-effects is due to fish size per se, undoubtedly
some is also due to operators injecting the vaccine in the wrong
position in fish that are below the recommended size. See Figure 1.
SITE DEVIATION
Section 55 of the Norwegian Regulation of Aquaculture Management
states that the percentage of deviation from the correct site of
injection shall not exceed 0.1 percent. In practice, it will be hard to
attain such a low percentage deviation, but the rule of thumb should
be to keep the deviation as close as possible to 0.1 percent.
A deviation in the injection site occurs when the vaccine is
deposited in a way where it does not float freely in the abdominal
cavity. When this occurs, it usually means that the injection site
was outside the recommended injection area. Other reasons could
be that the depth of the needle was not correct (Figure 2,
adjustment of the length of the needle) or that the angle of the
needle was not optimal. These types of injections can lead to
improper vaccination and/or unwanted damage.
Examples of deviations in the injection site are:
Incorrect position of the injection site (Figure 3), where the
injection is given outside the yellow area depicted in Figure 1.
Too shallow an injection (Figure 4). The vaccine is injected
directly into the muscle or between the muscle (abdominal wall)
and the peritoneum.
Too deep an injection (Figure 5). The vaccine is injected into the
internal organs, such as the appendix (pyloric caecae), spleen,
liver or intestines, and may even reach the kidney.
Tears and bleeding at the injection site (Figure 6). The needle
causes wounds in the skin or muscle on the outer surface or on
the inside of the abdominal wall.
FIGURE 2. Adjustment of the length of the needle. The needle should
penetrate 1mm to 2mm into the abdominal cavity
FIGURE 3. The injection site is placed too far forward, resulting in injecting
inside the pyloric caecae. This may also occur if a vaccinator forces
the needle
FIGURE 4. Vaccination with a needle that is too short or placement of

the injection site is too far back. The vaccine is deposited between the
peritoneum and the abdominal wall
FIGURE 5. Depositing the vaccine into the intestine raises the danger of
a reduced vaccine efficacy
FIGURE 6. Tears and bleeding at the injection site due to using

damaged or blunt needles, or by too rough handling. It raises the
danger of vaccine leakage or wounds that can lead to infection
Wrong timing of injection. The vaccine is injected when the

needle is on its way into or out of the abdominal cavity.
The usual causes of deviation of the injection site include:
Uneven size of fish. If the difference between the small and big
fish in the group to be vaccinated is too great, this could lead to
either shallow or deep injections.
Lack of validation of the vaccination technique. The deviation in
the injection site during the vaccination period will not be
recognised and corrected.
The speed of vaccination is too high. This could lead to reduced
precision of vaccination.
Lack of routine adjustment of the equipment for each individual
vaccinator, together with long working days. This creates a
higher risk of human error with vaccination.
Not withholding feed for a period before vaccination increases
the risk of injecting the vaccine into the internal organs.
Vaccination with improperly honed needles or needles that are
blunt. This leads to tears and bleeding at the injection site.
CONSEQUENCES OF A DEVIATION
Mortality after vaccination. Injection of the vaccine into internal
organs may lead to acute mortality.
Reduced efficacy. Injection of the vaccine into the muscle or internal
organs, or incomplete injection of the correct vaccine volume, can
result in insufficient protection against diseases after vaccination.
Side-effects (local reactions). Injecting the vaccine into the
pyloric caecael region or into the stomach or intestines can lead
to a traumatic local inflammatory reaction as a result of leakage
of contents from the intestines into the abdominal cavity.
Downgrading of fish quality at harvest as a result of

pigmentation/melaninisation in the muscle. Injecting vaccine
directly into the external muscle or between the membrane
(peritoneum) covering the inner side of the abdominal cavity
and the abdominal wall (Figure 3).
Unvaccinated fish. This occurs when the vaccine has been
deposited inside the front or hind intestine, or inside the
stomach. The vaccine would then be flushed out with the faeces
a short time after vaccination. When a high percentage of fish
are vaccinated in this way, there is the additional risk that the
group protection (or herd immunity) will not take place.
SUMMARY
Correct placement of the injection site is best attained when the
fish to be vaccinated are equal in size and when trained personnel
using good work practices perform the vaccination.
The vaccination should be performed in cooperation with the
fish health service and the vaccine manufacturer. Routine auditing
of the vaccination procedure is crucial for attaining a consistently
good quality vaccination process.
Correct vaccination of fish 35g in size and at water
temperatures below 15 Celsius with a quality vaccine will
normally result in fish with good protection against disease and a
low incidence and severity of side-effects. This will ensure the
farmer gets good production performance and correspondingly
good margins.
Importantly, it also means that in Norway, the farmer can ensure
good animal welfare standards in accordance with the Norwegian
Regulation of Aquaculture Management as founded on the
Norwegian Law of Animal Welfare.


Aquaculture Health Magazine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aquaculture Health Magazine

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aquaculture Health Magazine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AQUACULTURE HEALTH

NEW INSIGHTS INTO

ISSUE 5, MAY 2006

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR: Dr Scott Peddie

MANAGER: Vivienne Ingram

An informative journal for the

ASSISTANT EDITOR: Mark Barratt-Boyes

CONTRIBUTORS: Dr Mark Adams,

Dr Erik Johnson, Dr Myron J Kebus,

2 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL MAY 2006

DR SCOTT PEDDIE, EDITORIAL DIRECTOR

t is hard to believe that a year has passed since Aquaculture Health

end of March. The dreaded H5N1 strain of bird

Be sure to get your

(other cards are not accepted)

ENCLOSE A CHEQUE FOR

NZ$40.00 Electronic version by email, see www.aquaculturehealth.com

GST No: 68-684-757

MAY 2006 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL 3

INSIGHTS INTO AMOEBIC

tlantic salmon aquaculture in Tasmania, Australia has

A LIGHT MICROSCOPE IMAGE OF NEOPARAMOEBA PEMAQUIDENSIS

4 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL MAY 2006

AMOEBIC GILL DISEASE (AGD)

COMBINING FISH AND

FRESHWATER BATHING OF ATLANTIC

lesions relative to unaffected tissue.

MB, Nowak BF (2006). Transcriptome profiling the gills of amoebic

salmonid micro-array. BMC Genomics 6. pp126-144

variety of service, research and teaching laboratories exist

balanced description of the laboratory, and will ultimately help

FEATURED DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY:

quaTechnics, a private aquatic animal diagnostic and

FACILITIES AND STAFF

By emphasising a differential diagnostic approach and applying

Diagnostic services are provided primarily to shellfish (mollusc)

Aquatic health diagnostic services evaluation checklist

M,C,I,G M,C,I,G M,C,I,G M,C,G

Quality assurance scheme

Full testing available = F

MAY 2006 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL 7

AQUATECHNICS INC (CARLSBORG, WASHINGTON, USA)

AN AQUATECHNICS TECHNICIAN AND

THE AQUATECHNICS LABORATORY IN SEQUIM, WASHINGTON

Related services. As a result of implementing successful health

examination of shellfish for

COLLABORATIONS AND LINKS

magine youre standing in your back yard looking

A FISH WITH SVC

SVC looks like a bacterial infection because the virus by itself in

MAY 2006 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL 9

emarkable biotechnological advancements have been made

billion pounds or 35 to 50 percent by the year 2010 (FAO, 2004).

difficult to determine, but may be as high as

MAY 2006 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL 11

SELECTED BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS VACCINES

Increased global trade is

12 AQUACULTURE HEALTH INTERNATIONAL MAY 2006

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) vaccination is another example of

viral diseases of salmon such as infectious haematopoietic necrosis