Name: Onisha St.

Jean
Class: 4 waldron
Subject: physics
School: D.S.D.A.S.S.
Teacher: Ms Dupuis

Introduction
This portfolio is mainly based Kinetic theory and heat.The key terms are further defined.

Kinetic theory of gases describes a gas as a large number of small particles (atoms or
molecules), all of which are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles
constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory explains
properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion and aso the arrangement of
particles. The theory posits that gas pressure is due to the impacts, on the walls of a container,
of molecules or atoms moving at different velocities.

Acknowledgements
Firstly Most thanks goes out to The Almighty for granting life, wisdom and understanding in
order for this project could be completed; Secondly Special and warm Thanks goes out to my
Parents for providing me with the equipments necessary to complete this project. Last but
least Id like to acknowledge my self for my hard work and dedication.

The three states of matter :

Solid
A substance that retains its size and shape without a container; a substance whose molecules
cannot move freely except to vibrate. Solid matter is composed of tightly packed particles. A
solid will retain its shape; the particles are not free to move around. A solid's particles are
packed closely together. The forces between the particles are strong enough that the particles
cannot move freely; they can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape and
a definite volume. Solids can only change shape under force, as when broken or cut. A solid
can transform into a liquid through melting, and a liquid can transform into a solid
through freezing. A solid can also change directly into a gas through a process
called sublimation.

Liquid
A substance that flows and keeps no definite shape because its molecules are loosely packed
and constantly moving. It takes the shape of its container but maintains constant volume.
Liquid matter is made of more loosely packed particles. It will take the shape of its container.
Particles can move about within a liquid, but they are packed densely enough that volume is
maintained. A liquid is a fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but that retains a
nearly constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite (does not change) if
the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it
becomes liquid because the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. This
means that a liquid is not definite in shape but rather conforms to the shape of its container.
A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the
substance's boiling point or through reduction of pressure at constant temperature. This
process of a liquid changing to a gas is called evaporation.

Gas

A substance that can only be contained if it is fully surrounded by a container (or held
together by gravitational pull) Gaseous matter is composed of particles packed so
loosely that it has neither a defined shape nor a defined volume. A gas can be
compressed. Gas molecules have either very weak bonds or no bonds at all, so they
can move freely and quickly. Because of this, not only will a gas conform to the shape
of its container, it will also expand to completely fill the container

Diffusion states using Kinetic Enery:

The transfer of Kinetic energy involved in the collision causes a shift in the velocities
of both molecules. The net result is each molecule seems to be moving in a random
fashion. The whole group of large molecules that start out concentrated in a small area
moves from the region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
Diffusion in a solution can be sped up by heating the solution. This makes sense when
you consider that heat is the total amount of kinetic energy in a solution. Likewise to
slow diffusion down the solution can be cooled. Be careful not to confuse diffusion
with convection currents caused by unequal heating of solutions or with the kind of
mixing that can come about by stirring a solution
Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their
kinetic energy of random motion. Consider two containers of gas A and B separated
by a partition. The molecules of both gases are in constant motion and make
numerous collisions with the partition. If the partition is removed as in the lower
illustration, the gases will mix because of the random velocities of their molecules. In
time a uniform mixture of A and B molecules will be produced in the container.

Osmosis
Osmosis the movement of water molecules from a solution of less negative water potential
to a solution of more negative water potential through a semi permeable membrane .Osmosis
is the net movement of water from a high water concentration to a lower water concentration
through a selectively permeable membrane. In osmosis there is a net movement of molecules
from high to low concentration .You will get some molecules moving back across. Water will
keep moving until it reaches equilibrium. Water potential () is a measure of the kinetic
energy of water molecules. Water molecules are constantly moving in a random fashion.
Some water molecules collide with the cell membrane, creating pressure on it known as water
potential ,The higher their kinetic energy, the more they move and hit the membrane and the
higher their water potential l. Solutes restrict the movement of water so a stronger sugar
solution with lots of solute particles will lower the kinetic energy and hence the water
potential of the water .Water movement is restricted due to the attractive forces that exist
between the water molecules and the solute particles, causing hydration shells .As the solute
molecules dissolve it becomes charged and attracts the charges on the water molecules. Water
6

molecules surround it. The water molecules are no longer free as the solute molecules tie
them up. This reduces the free water molecules in the solution.

Liquids in a syringe
Matter can gain or lose energy. When heat is applied to a substance, its molecules move
faster, so they experience an increase in their kinetic energy. In the liquid phase, the particles
of a substance have more kinetic energy than those in a solid. The liquid particles are not held
in a regular arrangement, but are still very close to each other so liquids have a definite
volume. Liquids, like solids, cannot be compressed. Particles of a liquid have just enough
room to flow around each other, so liquids have an indefinite shape. A liquid will change
shape to conform to its container. Force is spread evenly throughout the liquid, so when an
object is placed in a liquid, the liquid particles are displaced by the object.
The magnitude of the upward buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the object. When the buoyant force is equal to the force of gravity pulling down on the
objects mass, the object will float. This principle of buoyancy was discovered by the Greek
mathematician Archimedes.

Difference between the Caloric and Kinetic

Theory of Heat
The kinetic theory of heat states that the temperature of a body is determined by the average
kinetic energy of its particles and that an inflow of heat increases this energy. This means that
the temperature of the body would be directly related to the amount of movement of the
particles of that body and the temperature of a body can also be influenced when the energy
from another body is transferred to another body. The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific
theory that is centred on a self-repellent fluid called caloric. The theory states that this fluid
flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that
could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids. It implies that caloric is the substance of
heat and that cold or lack of heat is due to the lack of caloric. The difference between these
two theories is theories is that the caloric theory implies that heat is transferred from one
body to another by means of fluids while the kinetic theory says that heat is produced by the
rapid movement of the particles of a body.

Role of joules experiment: establishing the

principal of conservation of energy
James Prescott Joule was an interesting man that may not have had the conventional way of
coming into physics. Joule had a relation with Lord Kelvin who is also another famous figure
in physics. It was when he was young that he and his brother went to Dalton to be tutored,
from these lessons Joule became one of the premier scientists of his age. These teachings are
what made him one of the most exact measurement takers of his day. Joule also had an
interest in brewing in his earlier years. This affinity comes from his father who owned a
brewery. This brewing hobby becomes Joules first time to use physics. Making all of his
machines and devices more efficient is where his skills for physics came to shine. In doing
this his studies with energy began.
Joule's major contributions to physics were in proving that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, finding the mechanical equivalent of heat, and discovering Joule's law. The idea of
conservation of energy was proved by Joule in a series of experiments. In his early years
Joule proved that heat produced in a small electromagnet built by him was from electrical
energy which was in turn generated by mechanical energy which powered the dynamo. From
this experiment Joule concluded that the heat produced in the electromagnet was energy
which came directly from the human effort that went into the machine. Joule recognized and
espoused the need for standard units of electricity. Joule perceived the relationship between
his discoveries and the kinetic theory of heat. Joules findings challenged the caloric theory of
heat which most physicists believed in at that time. In the caloric theory, heat was believed to
be a fluid substance.
Another stumbling block to the acceptance of Joules findings was a disbelief of the
incredible accuracy of his measurements. The principle of energy conservation involved in
Joules work gave rise to the new scientific discipline known as thermodynamics. While
Joule was not the first scientist to suggest this principle, he was the first to demonstrate its
validity.

Difference between heat and temperature

Heat is energy. Heat is the total of energy processed by the molecules in a piece of matter.
This energy is both kinetic energy and potential energy. The heat an object contains is the
amount of its thermal energy, measured in joules or J.
Temperature is not energy. It is a number that relates to one type of energy possessed by the
molecules of a substance. Temperature directly relates to the kinetic energy of the molecules.
The molecules have another type of energy besides kinetic, however; they have potential
energy, also. Temperature readings do not tell you anything directly about this potential
energy. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of an object. The temperature of an
object is to do with how hot or cold it is, measured in degrees Celsius. Note that the unit of
temperature is written as C.

Types and uses of thermometers

Name
Clinical
thermometer

10

Feature
Clinical
thermometer is
a slight
modification of
mercury
thermometer.
They provide
simple
operation , and
a high accuracy
and a fast
response

Diagram

Use
It is specially
designed to
measure the
human body
temperature.

Thermocoupl A thermocouple
e thermometer consists of two
types of wires
made of
different metals
such as copper
and iron. The
ends of the
wires are joined
together to form
two junctions.
The
temperature is
then calculated
using the
readings of a
voltmeter. Any
junction of
dissimilar
metals will
produce an
electric
potential related
to temperature.
thermocouples
are inexpensive,
interchangeable
, are supplied
with standard
connectors, and
can measure a
wide range of
temperatures. In
contrast to most
other methods
of temperature
measurement,
thermocouples
are selfpowered and
require no
external form of
excitation.
11

Thermocouples
are widely used
in science and
industry;
applications
include
temperature
measurement
for gas
turbine exhaust
, diesel, and
other industrial
processes.
Thermocouples
are also used in
homes, offices
and businesses
as the
temperature
sensors in
thermostats,
and also as
flame sensors
in safety
devices for gaspowered major
appliances.

Minimum and
maximum
thermometers

12

A combination
maximumminimum
thermometer. It
has a U-shaped
glass tube
whose bottom
half is filled
with mercury.
The left-hand
horn is filled
with alcohol,
and the righthand horn is
partially filled
with alcohol;
the remaining
portion has a
gas above it. A
colored glass
index contains a
thin iron pin in
the center on
both sides of
the tube on top
of the mercury.
When the
temperature
increases, the
alcohol in the
left side
expands and
forces the
mercury and the
alcohol column
on the right side
into the gas
chamber. The
index in the
right-hand tube
also rises. When
the temperature
decreases, the
alcohol in the

Six's
thermometer is
a registering
thermometer
which can
record the
maximum and
minimum
temperatures
reached over a
period of time,
for example 24
hours. It is used
to record the
extremes of
temperature at
a location, for
instance in
meteorology
and
horticulture.

Laboratory
thermometer

13

left side
contracts and
the gas
expands,
forcing the
liquid back into
the left side and
pushing the
index along
with it. The
indices retain
their position,
which they
achieve when
the maximum
and minimum
temperatures
are reached.
They are reset
with an external
magnet.
Laboratory
thermometers
are used in
research and
scientific
applications
such as
monitoring
experiments,
maintaining a
sterile work
environment,
calibrating
other laboratory
instruments,
and testing
materials.
They are
sometimes in
expensive .

an instrument
for measuring
temperature.
Originally, it
consisted of a
sealed glass
tube, was
marked in
degrees Celsius
or Fahrenheit,
and contained
liquid such as
mercury or
alcohol. The
liquid rises or
falls as it
expands or
contracts
according to
changes in
temperature.
Laboratory
thermometers

are used to
measure
temperatures or
temperature
changes with a
high degree of
precision. They
are made of
metal or glass
and
strengthened
through
thermal
tempering or
annealing.

Methods of heat temperature

Conduction:

the movement of heat or electricity through something (such as metal or

water). The process of heat conduction depends on four basic factors: the temperature
gradient, the cross section of the materials involved, their path length, and the properties of
those materials. A temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes in which
direction and at what rate the temperature changes in a specific location. Temperature always
flows from the hottest to coldest source, due to the fact that cold is nothing but the absence of
heat energy. This transfer between bodies continues until the temperature difference decays,
14

and a state known as thermal equilibrium occurs. Cross-section and path length are also
important factors. The greater the size of the material involved in the transfer, the more heat
is needed to warm it. Also, the more surface area that is exposed to open air, the greater
likelihood for heat loss. So shorter objects with a smaller cross-section are the best means of
minimizing the loss of heat energy. Last, but certainly not least, is the physical properties of
the materials involved. Basically, when it comes to conducting heat, not all substances are
created equal. Metals and stone are considered good conductors since they can speedily
transfer heat, whereas materials like wood, paper, air, and cloth are poor conductors of heat.
A bimetallic strip is a simple device which converts thermal energy into mechanical motion.
It is used as a thermally activated switch or heat indicator and works on the principle of
differential expansion of heated dissimilar metals. The bimetallic strip is made up of two
different metals which are bonded together to form a straight, flat strip or a concentric coil.
When the strip is heated, one of the metals heats up and expands faster than the other, causing
the strip to bend. When any solid, fluid, or gas is heated, its molecules start to move away
from each other leading to expansion. If, for some reason, the material is contained or
prevented from expanding along one of its surfaces, the unrestrained expansion in the rest of
the material will cause it to deflect or bend. Obviously some materials will heat up quicker or
expand more than others depending on their molecular structure. If two such dissimilar
materials bond together, the one that heats slower will restrict expansion along one face of the
other and cause this deflection phenomenon to occur. Each metal has what is called a linear
expansion coefficient that is the amount the metal will expand in a straight line as the
temperature increases. In an Iron the iron work like this: So if you put two different metal
strips together, one will lengthen more than the other one. If you put an electrical contact at
the end of the combined strips, at some point an increase in temperature will bend cause the
strip to bend because one metal expands more than the other one. This will break the contact
and keep the iron from overheating. In the refrigerator the bimetallic strip is used to to sense
temperature, and closes a contact when the temperature goes above a set point. The closed
contact turns on the compressor, which starts cooling the refrigerator. After a bit, the
temperature goes low enough and the contact opens, turning off the compressor. This cycle
continues. Negative feedback, from the top of my head, is a process where an error signal is
amplified and used to control a process that decreases the error. The error signal is the
difference between the desired temperature and the actual temperature, which is sensed by the
bimetallic strip and (amplified) used to control the compressor, which will decrease the error,
i.e., cool the frig. A bimetallic strip is a long thin strip consisting of two dissimilar metals
15

soldered or riveted together, and wound into a coil. Since the two metals have different
thermal expansion properties, as the temperature changes the coil winds tighter or unwinds.
This causes to contacts to close or open, like a switch or relay. You can see one of these in
most room thermostats.

Convection:
Convection is the name for a means of heat transfer, as distinguished from conduction and
radiation. It is also a term that describes processes affecting the atmosphere, waters, and solid
earth. In the atmosphere, hot air rises on convection currents, circulating and creating clouds
and winds. Likewise, convection in the hydrosphere circulates water, keeping the temperature
gradients of the oceans stable. The term convection generally refers to the movement of
fluids, meaning liquids and gases, but in the earth sciences, convection also can be used to
describe processes that occur in the solid earth. This geologic convection, as it is known,
drives the plate movement that is one of the key aspects of plate tectonics.Heat, in its
scientific meaning, is internal thermal energy that flows from one body of matter to another
or from a system at a higher temperature to a system at a lower temperature. Temperature
thus can be defined as a measure of the average molecular kinetic energy of a system.
Temperature also governs the direction of internal energy flow between two systems. Two
systems at the same temperature are said to be in a state of thermal equilibrium; when this
16

occurs, there is no exchange of heat, and therefore heat exists only in transfer between two
systems.
A sea breeze describes a wind that blows from the ocean inland towards land. This breeze
occurs most often in the spring and summer months because of the greater temperature
differences between the ocean and nearby land, particularly in the afternoon when the land is
at maximum heating from the sun. During the day, the sun heats up both the ocean surface
and the land. Water is a good absorber of the energy from the sun. The land absorbs much of
the suns energy as well. However, water heats up much more slowly than land and so the air
above the land will be warmer compared to the air over the ocean. The warm air over the land
will rise throughout the day, causing low pressure at the surface. Over the water, high surface
pressure will form because of the colder air. To compensate, the air will sink over the ocean.
The wind will blow from the higher pressure over the water to lower pressure over the land
causing the sea breeze. The sea breeze strength will vary depending on the temperature
difference between the land and the ocean.
At night, the roles reverse. The air over the ocean is now warmer than the air over the land.
The land loses heat quickly after the sun goes down and the air above it cools too. During
the day, the blacktop road heats up and becomes very hot to walk on. At night, however, the
blacktop has given up the added heat and is cool to the touch. The ocean, however, is able to
hold onto this heat after the sun sets and not lose it as easily. This causes the low surface
pressure to shift to over the ocean during the night and the high surface pressure to move over
the land. This causes a small temperature gradient between the ocean surface and the nearby
land at night and the wind will blow from the land to the ocean creating the land breeze

17

Radiation: Heat radiation (as opposed to particle radiation) is the transfer of internal
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For most bodies on the earth, this radiation lies
in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation is energy that comes from a
source and travels through space and may be able to penetrate various materials. Light, radio,
and microwaves are types of radiation that are called nonionizing. The kind of radiation
discussed in this document is called ionizing radiation because it can produce charged
particles (ions) in matter.
Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable atoms
because unstable atoms have an excess of energy or mass or both. Radiation can also be
produced by high-voltage devices.
Atoms with unstable nuclei are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these atoms
give off, or emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation. The
temperature of the terrestrial surface environment is controlled not only by the Suns
18

electromagnetic radiation but also in a sensitive way by the Earths atmosphere. As noted
earlier, each substance absorbs and emits electromagnetic radiation of some energies h
and does not do so in other ranges of energy. These regions of transparency and
opaqueness are governed by the particular distribution of internal energies of the substance.
The Earths atmosphere acts much like the glass panes of a greenhouse: it allows
sunlight, particularly its visible range, to reach and warm the Earth, but it largely inhibits
the infrared radiation emitted by the heated terrestrial surface from escaping into space.
Since the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude above the Earth,
there is less atmospheric absorption in the higher regions of the atmosphere. In the infrared
region, the absorption is caused by molecular vibrations and rotations. In the ultraviolet and
X-ray regions, the absorption is due to electronic excitations in atoms and molecules.
Without water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are, together with certain industrial
pollutants, the main infrared-absorbing species in the atmosphere, the Earth would
experience the extreme temperature variations between night and day that occur on the
Moon. The Earth would then be a frozen planet, like Mars, with an average temperature of
200 K, and not be able to support life.

Gas laws
Boyles law
19

Boyle's law states that at constant temperature for a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the
volume of a gas are inversely proportional. The law can also be stated in a slightly different
manner, that the product of absolute pressure and volume is always constant.
Equation :PV=k
P denotes the pressure of the system.
V denotes the volume of the gas.
k is a constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the system.

Charles law
20

Charles's law states that if a given quantity of gas is held at a constant pressure, its volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the
volume will be directly related. (at a constant pressure the volume of a given mass of gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.)
Formulae=V/T=K
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in
temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two
different sets of conditions. The gas law wasfirst pulbished by French natural philosopher
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
Graph:

21

Pressure law
Pressure law is also known as Daltons law. Dalton's law of partial pressure states that "the
total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressure of the individual
gases present." A partial pressure is the pressure that a gas in a mixture of gases would exert
if it were present alone under the same conditions.( in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the
total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases)
Graph:

Formulae --- Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P

22

General gas law

As the result of many different scientists and experiments, several gas laws have been
discovered. These laws relate the various state variables of a gas.

State Variables of a Gas

Pressure (P)
Volume (V)
Temperature (T)
Molar mass (n)

These gas laws can be used to compare two different gases, or determine the properties of a
gas after one of its state variables have changed. The combined gas law is a gas law that
combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for
this law.

Formula:
P is the pressure
V is the volume
T is the temperature measured in kelvin
k is a constant (with units of energy divided by temperature).

23

Bibliograpghy:

Physics for csec, last edition

(A Course on Thermodynamics of Materials) An online book
Discover Physics
Physics A+B college edition book
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index;_ylt=A0LEVrxc4oNVVcoAYNYPxQt.;_ylu=X3o
DMTByOHZyb21tBGNvbG8DYmYxBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzcg--?
qid=20080414153831AAGjvTV&p=how%20does%20the%20bimetallic%20strip%20works
%20in%20the%20refrigerator
https://search.yahoo.com/search;_ylt=A0LEVxgTq4NVcy8AWkhXNyoA;_ylc=X1MDMjc2
NjY3OQRfcgMyBGZyA3locy1pbnZhbGlkBGdwcmlkA2NsXzlyNlZBUWh1Umt3VFEyZjli
S0EEbl9yc2x0AzAEbl9zdWdnAzIEb3JpZ2luA3NlYXJjaC55YWhvby5jb20EcG9zAzIEcHF
zdHIDcmFkaWF0aW9uIGluIHBoeXNpY3MgYW5kIHRoZSBncmVlbiBob3UEcHFzdHJsA
zM4BHFzdHJsAzQ2BHF1ZXJ5A3JhZGlhdGlvbiBpbiBwaHlzaWNzIGFuZCB0aGUgZ3JlZ
W5ob3VzZSBlZmZlY3QEdF9zdG1wAzE0MzQ2OTI2ODI-?
p=radiation+in+physics+and+the+greenhouse+effect&fr2=sa-gp-search&fr=yhs-invalid

24

Table of Contents:
States of matter

4-5

Diffusion using kinetic energy

6-7

Difference between the Caloric and Kinetic Theory of Heat ..8

Role of joules experiment: establishing the principal of conservation of energy .9
Difference between heat and temperature 10-13
Methods of heat transfer.14-18
Gas Laws.19-22

25