Soft Tissue Mechanics

Soft tissues
A primary group of tissue which binds, supports
and protects our human body and structures
such as organs is soft connective tissue.

Examples for soft tissues are muscles, tendons,

ligaments, blood vessels, skins or articular
cartilages among many others.

 Tendons are muscle-to-bone linkages to stabilize the bony

skeleton (or to produce motion), while ligaments are bone-tobone linkages to restrict relative motion.
Blood vessels are prominent organs composed of soft tissues
which have to distend in response to pulse waves.
The skin is the largest single organ (16% of the human adult
weight).
Soft connective tissues are complex fiber-reinforced composite
structures.
Their mechanical behavior is strongly influenced by the
structural arrangement of constituents such as collagen and
elastin, and respective function in the organism.

Collagen: Collagen is a protein which is a major constituent of

the extracellular matrix of connective tissue. It is the main load
carrying element in soft tissues.
Elastin: Elastin, like collagen, is a protein which is a major
constituent of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue.
It is present as thin strands in soft tissues such as skin, lung,
ligaments.

Types of Muscles
Skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscles are those which attach to bones and have the
main function of contracting to facilitate movement of our
skeletons.
Smooth muscle
- Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as involuntary muscle
due to our inability to control its movements.
- Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs such as the
Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in the walls of blood vessels.

Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)

This type of muscle is found solely in the walls of the heart. It has
similarities with skeletal muscles in that it is striated.

Muscle
Gross Morphology

Muscles are described as running

from a proximal origin to a distal
insertion.
A muscle generally receives its blood supply from one main
artery, which enters the muscle in a single/branches.

A single nerve, which carries both motor efferents and

sensory afferents.
Efferent nerves, otherwise known as motor neurons, carry nerve
impulses away from the CNS to effectors such as muscles or glands.
The opposite activity of direction or flow is afferent.

Skeletal muscle
- Skeletal muscle is a fascinating biological tissue able to transform
chemical energy to mechanical energy.

- Skeletal muscle has three basic performance parameters that

describe its function:
Movement production
Force production
Endurance
- The production of movement and force is the mechanical

outcome of skeletal muscle contraction.

Skeletal muscle..
The skeletal muscles like the joints, are designed to
contribute to the bodys needs for mobility and stability.
Muscles serve a mobility function by producing or
controlling the movements of a bony lever around a joints
axis.
A human skeleton without muscles will collapse when
placed in the erect standing position.
Skeletal muscles are length- and velocity-dependent
force generators.

The muscles transmit force to bones via tendons.

 Biological soft tissues are nonlinear, anisotropic, fibrous

composites.
One can separate these tissues based on their mode of
loading: cartilage is generally loaded in compression;
tendons and ligaments are loaded in tension; and muscles
generate active tension.
The structure and material properties differ to accommodate
the tissue function.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

- The functional unit that produces motion at a joint consists
of two discrete units, the muscle belly and the tendon.
- The muscle belly consists of the muscle cells, or fibers, that
produce the contraction.
Structure of an Individual Muscle Fiber

- A skeletal muscle fiber is a long cylindrical, multinucleated

cell that is filled with smaller units of filaments (Fig).
- These filamentous structures are roughly aligned parallel to
the muscle fiber itself.

Structure of muscle..

The largest of the filaments is the myofibril, composed of

subunits called sarcomeres that are arranged end to end the
length of the myofibril.
Each sarcomere also contains filaments, known as
myofilaments. There are two types of myofilaments within each
sarcomere.
The thicker myofilaments are composed of myosin protein
molecules, and the thinner myofilaments are composed of
molecules of the protein actin.

 The myofilaments in each sarcomere are 1 to 2 m long; the

myosin myofilaments are longer than the actin myofilaments.
Thus sarcomeres in humans are a few micrometers in length:
varying from approximately 1.25 to 4.5 m with muscle
contraction and stretch.
Sliding of the actin myofilament on the myosin chain is the
basic mechanism of muscle contraction.

The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction

The sarcomere, containing the contractile proteins actin and
myosin, is the basic functional unit of muscle.
Contraction of a whole muscle is actually the sum of singular
contraction events occurring within the individual sarcomeres.
The organization of the sarcomere.
The thinner actin chains are more abundant than the myosin
myofilaments in a sarcomere.
The actin myofilaments are anchored at both ends of the
sarcomere at the Z-line and project into the interior of the
sarcomere where they surround a thicker myosin myofilament
(Fig. 4.2).

 The amount of these contractile proteins within the cells is

strongly related to a muscles contractile force.
Contraction results from the formation of cross-bridges
between the myosin and actin myofilaments, causing the actin
chains to slide on the myosin chain (Fig 4.3).
The tension of the contraction depends upon the number of
cross-bridges formed b/w the actin and myosin myofilaments.
The number of cross-bridges formed also depends on the
frequency of the stimulus to form cross-bridges.

 Contraction is initiated by an electrical stimulus from the

associated motor neuron causing depolarization of the muscle
fiber.
When the fiber is depolarized, calcium is released into
the cell and binds with the regulating protein troponin.
The combination of calcium with troponin acts as a trigger,
causing actin to bind with myosin, beginning the contraction.
Cessation (stop) of the nerves stimulus causes a reduction in
calcium levels within the muscle fiber, inhibiting the crossbridges
b/w actin and myosin.

 The muscle relaxes stimulation of the muscle fiber occurs at a

sufficiently high frequency, new cross-bridges are formed before
prior interactions are completely severed, causing a fusion of
succeeding contractions.
Ultimately a sustained, or tetanic, contraction is produced.
Modulation of the frequency and magnitude of the initial
stimulus has an effect on the force of contraction of a whole
muscle.

The Connective Tissue System within the Muscle Belly

The muscle belly consists of the muscle cells, or fibers, and
the connective tissue that binds the cells together (Fig. 4.4).

The outermost layer of connective tissue that surrounds the

entire muscle belly is known as the epimysium.
The muscle belly is divided into smaller bundles or fascicles
by additional connective tissue known as perimysium.
Finally individual fibers within these larger sheaths are
surrounded by more connective tissue, the endomysium.

Thus the entire muscle belly is invested in a large network of

connective tissue.

 The amount of connective tissue within a muscle and the size

of the connecting tendons vary widely from muscle to muscle.
The amount of connective tissue found within an individual
muscle influences the mechanical properties of that muscle.

Effect of Fiber Length on Joint Excursion

Fiber length has a significant influence on the magnitude of the
joint motion that results from a muscle contraction.

The fundamental behavior of muscle is shortening, and it is

this shortening that produces joint motion.
Each sarcomere can shorten to approximately the length of its
myosin molecules.
Because the sarcomeres are arranged in series in a myofibril, a
muscle fiber can produce is the sum of the shortening in all of
the sarcomeres.

 Thus the total shortening of a muscle fiber depends upon the

number of sarcomeres arranged in series within each
myofibril.

The more sarcomeres in a fiber, the longer the fiber is and

the more it is able to shorten (Fig. 4.5).
The amount a muscle fiber can shorten is proportional to its
length. A fiber can shorten roughly 50 to 60% of its length.

Sliding filament model of muscle

Basic Behaviors of the Skeletal Muscle

Extensibility the ability to be stretched or to increase in
length
Elasticity the ability to return to the original length after a
stretch
Irritability the ability to respond to a a stimulus
Ability to develop tension: the ability to decrease in length

Contractions
A concentric contraction is a type of muscle contraction in
which the muscles shorten while generating force.
During a concentric contraction, a muscle is stimulated to
contract according to the sliding filament mechanism.
An eccentric contraction occurs when a muscle is contracting,
and an external force is trying to lengthen the muscle ( strain).
- An eccentric contraction is also a type of strengthening
exercise for a muscle, when performed in a controlled manner.

 An isometric contraction of a muscle generates force without

changing length. An example can be found when the muscles of
the hand and forearm grip an object.

Effect of Muscle
The moment arm depends on the location of the muscles
attachment on the bone and on the angle between the line of pull
of the muscle and the limb to which the muscle attaches.
This angle is known as the angle of application (Fig).
The sine of the angle of application, , can be measured directly.

Fig.: The relationship between a muscles moment arm and excursion.

Structural Organizaiton of Skeletal Muscle

Depends on muscle fiber, motor unit,
fiber types, and fiber architecture
- parallel fiber arrangement parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the muscle,
e.g. sartorius, biceps brachii, etc.

- pennate fiber arrangement at an angle to the longitudinal

axis of the muscle, e.g. rectus femoris, deltoid, etc.
The greater the angle of pennation, the smaller the amount of
effective force transmitted to the tendon
The angle of the pennation increases as tension progressively
increases in the muscle fibers

Muscle Size and Its Effect on Force Production

The angle at which the fibers insert into
the tendon also influences the total force.
This angle is known as the angle of
pennation.
The tensile force generated by the whole
muscle is the vector sum of the force
components that are applied parallel to the
muscles tendon (Fig. 4.11).
Therefore, as the angle of pennation
increases, the tensile component of the
contraction force decreases.
Figure 4.11: The overall tensile force (FM) of a muscle is
the vector sum of the force of contraction of the pennate
fibers (FF).

Muscle strength
The muscles tensile force of contraction and its resulting
moment are related by the following:
M=rXF
where M is the moment generated
F = the muscles tensile force applied at a distance,
r is the muscles moment arm
The primary factors influencing the muscles strength are
Muscle size, Muscle moment arm, Stretch of the muscle
Contraction velocity, Level of muscle fiber recruitment
Fiber types composing the muscle

Mechanical Properties of the Skeletal Muscle

Force-Length/Length-Tension Relationship
The tension that a muscle generates
varies with its length
Found when a muscle under isometric
contraction and for maximum activation
of the muscle

In a single muscle fiber,

peak force is noted at normal resting length
a bell-shaped length-tension curve
In a muscle, force generation capacity increases when the
muscle is slightly stretched because of the effect of both active
and passive components.

Force-Velocity Relationship
Muscle force decreases as the velocity of contraction increases

(Hill, 1938)
- only true for concentric contraction
Muscle force decreases with increased velocity of contraction
during concentric contraction whereas it increases with
increased velocity of contraction during eccentric contraction.

 Eccentric strength of a muscle can exceed isometric strength by

a factor of 1.5 to 2.0, but this is true only under electric
stimulation of the motor neuron.
Maximum strength can be generated either by recruitment of
more motor unit or by increase in muscle length

Forcevelocity relationship
The speed at which a muscle changes length also affects the
force it can generate.

Force declines in a hyperbolic fashion relative to the isometric

force as the shortening velocity increases, eventually reaching
zero at some maximum velocity.
The reverse holds true for when the muscle is stretched
force increases above isometric maximum, until finally reaching
an absolute maximum.
This has strong implications for the rate at which muscles can
perform mechanical work (power).

Effects of the magnitude of the contraction velocity

on force production in muscle
Contractile velocity of a muscle is
determined by the change in length per
unit time.
Thus an isometric contraction has zero
contraction velocity.

In contrast, a concentric contraction (shortening contraction),

is shortening of the muscle, has a positive contraction velocity.
The contractile force is maximum when contraction velocity
is zero (isometric contraction) and decreases as contraction
velocity increases (Fig. 4.19).

 Since power is equal to force times

velocity, the muscle generates no power
at either isometric force (due to zero
velocity) or maximal velocity
(due to zero force).

Instead, the optimal shortening velocity for power generation

is approximately one-third of maximum shortening velocity.
These two fundamental properties of muscle have numerous
biomechanical consequences, including limiting running speed,
strength, and jumping distance and height.

Muscle Architecture
It is typically described in terms of muscle length, mass, myofiber
length, and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA).
PCSA: The standard measure used to approximate the number of
fibers of a whole muscle, projected along the muscles line of
action, it is calculated as:

Where M = muscle mass, = muscle density (1.056 g/cm3

in fresh tissue), = surface pennation angle, and L f = myofiber length.
This formulation provides a good estimate of experimentally measured
isometric muscle force output

Muscle Force-Velocity Relationship Under conditions of constant load

the relationship between force and velocity is nearly hyperbolic.
The shortening force - velocity relation can be described by:

Where a and b are constants derived experimentally, P is muscle force,

Po is maximum tetanic tension, and v is muscle velocity.

Mechanical Model
The combined effects of muscle contraction and stretch of
the elastic components are represented mechanically by a
contractile element in series and in parallel with the elastic
components (Fig).
Fig: A mechanical model of the
contractile and elastic components of a
muscle.
A muscles contractile (actin and
myosin) and elastic (connective tissue)
components are modeled mechanically
as a combination of a contractile
element (CE) with springs that
represent the elastic elements that are
both in series (SE) and in parallel (PE)
with the contractile component.

Mechanical Model of a Muscle

contractile component muscle fiber

series elastic component (SEC) tendon

parallel elastic component (PEC) muscle membrane

Neuromuscular disease
It is either directly, via intrinsic muscle pathology, or indirectly,
via nerve pathology, impair the functioning of the muscles.
Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles
and/or their nervous control.

In general, problems with nervous control can cause

either spasticity or some degree of paralysis, depending on the
location and the nature of the problem.

A large proportion of neurological disorders leads to problems

with movement.
Some examples of these disorders include
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's Disease),
- Cerebrovascular accident (stroke),
- Parkinson's disease,
- Multiple sclerosis,
- Muscular dystrophy,
- Myasthenia gravis, etc

Cartilage
Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found
in the joints between bones, the ear, the
nose , in joints, and the intervertebral discs.
It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer
and less flexible than muscle.
Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called
Chondroblasts , composed of Type II collagen fibers,
and elastin fibers.
It does not contain blood vessels. thus it heals very slowly.
These mechanical properties include the response of
cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile loading.

 Such experiments reveal that when the muscle is

very short, stimulation produces a small contractile

force.

As the stretch increases and stimulations continue,

the tension in the muscle increases.
The overall tension of the muscle is greatest when
the muscle is stretched maximally.

Structure of Soft Tissue

Cartilage

Articular cartilage is found at the

ends of bones, where it serves as
a shock absorber and lubricant between bones of 1-2mm
thickness.
The composition of articular cartilage consists of approximately
20% collagen, 5% proteoglycan, & remaining 75% water.

Tendons
A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that
usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of
withstanding tension.
Tendons are similar to ligaments and fasciae as they are all
made of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to
another bone, and fasciae connect muscles to other muscles.
Tendons and muscles work together.
Normal healthy tendons are composed mostly
of parallel arrays of collagen fibers closely packed together.
The mechanical properties of the tendon are dependent on
the collagen fiber diameter and orientation.

- Finally, multiple fascicles are bundled into a complete tendon

or ligament encased in a reticular membrane.
- Individual collagen fibrils also display some inherent
elasticity, and these two features are believed to determine
the bulk properties of passive tensile tissues.

FIGURE 2.1 Tendons are organized in progressively larger

filaments, beginning with molecular tropocollagen, and building
to a complete tendon encased in a reticular sheath.

Ligaments
It is most commonly refers to a band of
tough, fibrous dense regular connective tissue
comprising attenuated collagenous fibers.
Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form a joint.
Ligaments are viscoelastic. They gradually lengthen when
under tension, and return to their original shape when the
tension is removed.
They act as mechanical reinforcement.
Instability of a joint can over time lead to wear of the
cartilage and eventually to osteoarthritis.

Tendon and Ligament

Because

the biomechanical behavior of a tissue is deter-mined by

its composition and structure, the mechanical properties of
ligaments, tendons, and cartilage are also considerably different.
The structural properties are inuenced not onlyby the properties
and geometry of the tissue but also by the mechanical properties of
the bonetissue and muscletissue junctions.
The passive tensile tissues, tendon and ligament, are composed
largely of water and collagen.
The collagen fibrils, with the 2040-nm fibrils being bundled into
0.212-m fibers.
The fibers are bundled into fascicles, supported by fibroblasts or
tenocytes, and surrounded by a fascicular membrane.

Tendon & Ligament

Ultimate tensile stress of
tendon considerably high (50100 MPa)
Viscoelastic behaviors
creep, stress-relaxation
strain rate sensitivity,
different from bone
fast strain rate ligament
injuries, slow rate
(avulsion fracture)
Partial failure
Geometry

Tendon & Ligament

Age
before maturity: more
viscous & compliant
maturity: stiffness &
modulus of elasticity
After middle age:
viscosity, weak
insertions