A Z of Psychology

Personality & Health (p.184-186)

1. Personality & stress

Stress is part of our daily lives and most of the time we can cope fairly well

Some people however generally cope better than others

If we cant cope our bodies can show symptoms of physical illness in reaction to stress

Many factors influence our ability to cope and personality is one of them

People with a particular personality type tend to have more illnesses

Personality alone is not the cause of the illness but it contributes to the risk of getting
the disease

Prolonged stress is often associated with psychosomatic diseases

Type of disease that will develop depend on the weakness or poor functioning of certain
areas (parts) in the body

In presence of stress the weaker parts in the body is more vulnerable

That is why a person may respond to stress by always getting headaches or upset
stomachs

This is called response specificity = tendency to respond to stressors in a specific way

We look at what they call the cardiac personality referring to people at high risk for
heart disease

Studies were done to classify peoples risk of heart disease on basis of their personality

People with Type-A personalities are high at risk

The type-B personality are unlikely to have a heart attack

Type of Personality

Characteristics

Type A personality

Strive hard for success

They to have time urgency & chronic anger and
hostility
Push themselves very hard
Tendency not to trust others
Always hurrying, get impatient, everything is urgent
Get frustrated & angry with people who do things
slowly or stand in their way
Tend to bottle up emotions & do not express them
This increase blood pressure & heart rate that
increases the chances for heart attacks

Hardy personality

Type of type A personality but seem to be unusually

resistant o stress
Difference is their approach to life:
a)

Personal commitment to their work,

families, themselves & other stable values

b)

Had sense of control over their lives &

work

c)

Type B personality

See life as series of challenges rather than

threats or problems
More laid back
Not as rushed for time
Less angry and hostile
Do not get frustrated and irritated easily

2. Strategies for reducing hostility

Be aware of your angry & hostile thoughts record them in a diary or journal

Admit to someone that you have a problem with excessive anger

Interrupt hostile thoughts when they occur

When having these thoughts try to work out why they are irrational or unreasonable

When angry put yourself in the other persons shoes

Learn to laugh a yourself

Learn how to relax

Practice trusting others

Make effort to listen to what others are saying

Learn to make a point being assertive not aggressive

Dont let small irritations get in you way

Try to forgive others rather than blaming them

A Z of Psychology
Personality concepts (p.187-190)

1. Personology

1.1

When trying to understand human behaviour we turn to the study of personology

Personology theories helps us to describe, explain and predict human behaviour

Many of the theories are based on psychotherapists work with people

More than 30 different personality theories

Reason for this is that our behaviour is influenced by many factors like:

1)

biological factors

2)

environmental stimuli

3)

interpersonal situations

4)

cultural & social factors

5)

psychological and spiritual factors

All these factors independently or in interaction influence our behaviour

Each personality theory highlights one or more of these factors

Concepts
Personality theorists have specific meanings for the following concepts:

Personality

Is the sum of all our physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics

that influence our behaviour

Most theorist have their own idea about what characteristics is part of
the personality

Although people change with time personality characteristics remain

fairly stable

Context like cultural & social factors also influences behaviour

Character

Refers to aspects of personality involving persons values & their ability to

behave according to these values

Implies person has been evaluated

Personality is only a description

Character refers to a persons moral attributes & values

This is largely influenced by education & experience in the social

environment

Temperament

Refers more specifically to peoples emotions and the way they express &
deal with them

Can be defined as persons relatively consistent and distinctive

emotional character, moods and reaction style

Refers to inherited, biological aspects of the person

Way temperament manifests can be changed through learning &

socialization

People are born with potential for certain temperament

The way the temperament is expressed in behaviour depends on the

interaction of the individual with the environment

Temperament is regarded as having 4 main dimensions or

characteristics:

a) General activity level = ranging from very high to extreme passivity

b) Emotionality = ranging from being easily upset or agitated to being very
calm
c)

Sociability = ranging from being very outgoing to being very shy or aloof

d) Impulsivity = ranging from having great deal of self-control to lacking of

Trait

Are stable qualities that mostly remain consistent in various and changing
situations

Things like friendly or aggressive refers to traits

Traits are mostly concluded form behaviour

Type

Refers to people who have several traits in common

Different theorist tried to categorize personality into types

Jung proposed you get people that is introverted or extroverted

But in some situations we can be either extroverted or introverted

Thus type do not offer complete explanation of personality

Self-concept

Self-concept consist of all your ideas, perceptions and feelings of she you
are

We build our self-concept from our daily experiences & revise them in the
light of new experiences

When is self-concept is established it shapes the way we see things and

can affect our adjustment to life

Especially true when self-concept is unrealistic or untrue

Self-esteem

Refers to the way we evaluate ourselves

When you have high self-esteem you are usually confident, proud and self
respecting

Self-esteem rises when we experience success and are praised by others

Some people have unrealistic high self-esteem and seem to be arrogant and put
others off

A Z of Psychology
Personality theories (p.191-204)
1. Personality theories

Personality theory = system of concepts, assumptions, ideas and principles proposed to

explain personality

We will look at 5 different theoretical approaches:

1.1 Trait theories

Trait theories are more concerned with describing of people in terms of

traits rather than explaining the origins of traits

We will discuss 2 of the main ones

1.1.1

Allports trait theory

Allport felt the best way to understand peoples behaviour is to look at things they will
strive to attain
He said the most NB traits are motivational traits related

to our values

Example: someone who value money more than his family

will except a promotion that would mean more money but spending a lot of time away form
home
They way traits are organised or related to each other is

NB to all trait theories

Allport believed there are cardinal, central & secondary

traits

Cardinal traits = traits that are so NB to individual that

they dominate the persons life

Central traits = these are NB traits ht influence & organise

most of our behaviour (like desire for power)

Secondary traits = more specific & less NB as description

of a persons behaviour

Example p. 192

1.1.2

Cattells source traits

Cattell wanted to know how traits were linked

He began to study surface traits = visible aspects of personality

By his studies he realised that surface traits often appear in groups or clusters

Some appeared together so often it seemed theory represented a more basic trait or

underlying personally characteristic = source traits

1.1.2.1

Five-factor Model of personality

According to the five-factor model personality can be understood in terms of 5 innate,
universal dimensions

These dimensions are stable over time and have NB

consequences over the life span

5 Traits are a reduction of Cattells 16 source trait s or

personality factors

They big 5 are:

Factor

Name

Description

Factor 1

Extroversion

How introverted or

Agreeableness

extroverted a person is
How friendly, nurturing and

Factor 2

caring a person is in
comparison to cold, spiteful &
self-centred
Factor 3

Conscientiousness

How self-disciplined,
responsible and achieving
opposed to irresponsible,
careless and undependable a

Factor 4

Neuroticism

person is
How negative or having
upsetting emotions as opposed
to being calm, even tempered

Factor 5

Openness to experiences

and comfortable
How intelligent, imaginative
and open to new ideas opposed
to being conventional and
lacking of creativity &
curiosity

Five-factor model do not address issue of human nature

directly but seem to indicate the core of human nature is represented by the 5 factors
described
Basic dimensions underlie all human behaviour across

cultures & different age groups

How people vary on these dimensions accounts for individual

differences

1.2 Psycho-analytic approach

Emerged because of discontent with examining personality traits as a way to

understand behaviour
Psychodynamic theory try to look under the surface to examine what makes

us behave in a certain way

Most famous psychodynamic approaches came form Sigmund Freud

By talking to his patients (he was a medical dr.) he concluded ill health
resulted form conflict about sexuality & aggression
Central theme of his theory is that behaviour is outcome of wishes, desires

and feelings that we are unaware off (unconscious thought)

Freud says we have 3 types of primitive unconscious instincts:

1)

sexual instincts = influences experiences and behaviours that

generate pleasure

2)

ego instincts = influence experience and behaviour associated with

preservation of the self

3)

hostility instincts = influence aggressive experience and behaviour

He believed instincts are innate

They generate tension and energy that causes us to behave in a way to

release the tension
2 principles that regulates this instinctual energy:

b)

Pleasure principle = directs energy in direction of immediate gratification of needs,

wishes & desires

c)

Reality principle = enables person to delay the immediate gratification of needs so

that greater pleasure may be experienced later

Psychoanalytic approach sees personality as dynamic system directed by 3

mental structures: id, ego, superego

Mental structure

Description

Example

Id

Refers to innate biological

Uncontrollable desires for

impulses and urges

food or sex or to hurt someone

Impulses are unconscious,

irrational & self-serving
They demand immediate
gratification
Refers to executive part of

Ego

the self that regulates the

expressions of the ids
instinctual energy
Ego is in touch with reality and
can foresee the consequences
of behaviour
Part of system that thinks,
plans and solves problems
Has conscious control of the
Superego

self
Refers to our conscience
Is like a judge or censor
If someone do not adhere to
societies standards for
acceptable behaviour the
superego lets the person
experience feelings of guilt
and anxiety

These systems regulate how instinctual energy is expressed

Freud says most behaviour involves activity of all 3 systems
The ego acts as the mediator between the id and superego
Ego makes compromises to satisfy the unconscious id impulses in an appropriate way

1.2.1

Personality structure

Id is made up of innate, biological instincts that works on the basis of the pleasure
principle

Pleasure principle = looks for expression of pleasure-seeking urges

Id provides energy for the personality

Energy is called libido the latter underlies efforts to survive as well as sexual desires &
pleasure seeking

Freud also describes a death instinct (thanatos) = produces aggressive and destructive
urges

In terms of the psychoanalytic view most id energies is aimed at discharging tensions

related to sex and aggression

Ego is often described as executive because it directs the energies supplied by id

Ego directs power by linking desires of the id to external reality

Ego is guided by the reality principle = delays action until it is practical or appropriate

Ego is the conscious control of the personality

Superego is the judge or censor

Part of superego is regarded as you conscious

If your behaviour is not appropriate you feel guilty

Other part if superego is the ego ideal = reflection of behaviour that has been approved
or rewarded

This is the source of our goals and aspirations

If we attain them we feel pride

1.2.2

Development of Personality

Freud says the core of a persons personality is formed before the age of 6 in a series of
psychosexual stages

Each stage a different part of the body becomes the primary area capable for producing
pleasure

Example: oral stage most of childs pleasure comes form stimulation of the mouth

Freud believed that many personality traits can be traced to unresolved conflicts or
emotional issues related to the particular stages

Unresolved oral needs includes nail biting, smoking and overeating

1.3 The behaviourist approach

This approach to personality emphasis that personality is more or less a

collection of learned behaviours

According to this theory personality is acquired through operant and

classical conditioning, through observation, reinforcement, extinction and stimulus
discrimination

Because they believe personality is acquired through learning they reject

personality traits

They are more interested in situational determinants (external causes) of

behaviour

They prefer to replace trait with prior learning

Social learning theory explains behaviour in terms of concepts like

psychological situation, expectancy and reinforcement value
Psychological situation refers to a persons particular interpretation or

understanding of a situation (example p. 196)

Expectancy refers to your anticipation that whatever you do will lead to

reinforcement
Reinforcement values = means people attach different values to various

activities or rewards
Self-reinforcement = refers to praising or rewarding yourself for having

made a particular response

1.3.2

Behaviourist view of development

Agrees with Freud that the first 6 years o your life are crucial for personality
development

They see childhood as time of active drives, powerful rewards and punishments as well as
frustrations

Social reinforcement based on praise, attention and approval is also NB

These forces are believed to shape the core of personality through learning

According to the social learning theory the processes identification and imitation is NB
for personality development

Identification = refers to a persons emotional attachment to someone they admire

Example if a child identifies with say the mother and she says nice girls dont climb trees
the mother serves as a model to shape her daughters personality

This leads to imitation = desire to act like an admired person

Behaviourists says male or female traits are result of childrens imitation of the same-sex
parent with whom they identify

1.4 The humanist approach

Humanism focuses on human experiences, problems, potential and ideals

Theoretical orientation focuses on unique qualities in humans, particular their

freedom and potential for growth

They rejected the trait theory for being to rigid the psychoanalytic theory
for being too pessimistic & the behaviourist theory for being too mechanical

Core of humanism is the positive image of what it means to be human

They see people as creative beings with freedom of choice

They also see people as conscious and rational beings who can control their
innate impulses

They say people must be understood and studied as holistic beings

This means the subjective experience of the individual and his/ own world is
more NB than objective reality
Humanists look for ways to encourage us to develop our potential

1.4.1

Carl Rogerss person-centred approach

Rogers said we can only fully understand a persons behaviour by looking at the internal
frame of reference of the person

Because of his emphasis on the persons subjective point of view his approach was called
person-cantered

He developed a term called fully functioning person = this described someone who lives in
harmony with his deepest feelings & impulses

He believed a person is more likely to become fully functional if the person receives a
great deal of love and acceptance form others

Main aspects of his theory is the concept of self = flexible changing perception of
personal identity

Self is mad e up of experiences that fit our own perceptions of ourselves and excludes
experiences that do not fit with our perception of ourselves

Today this is generally known as self-concept

Much of our behaviour is an attempt to keep a balance between our self-concept and our
actions

According to Rogers if we have experience that match our self-concept they are admitted
to awareness and contribute to gradual changes in the self

Because it is subjective it may not always be consistent with experience

We will distort experiences to suit a positive self-concept

Sometimes there is a gap between our self-concept and reality and experiences do not fit
the self-concept (is called incongruent)Rogers also though it was NB to have a ideal self =
image of the person you would like to be

The bigger the gap between the actual self and the ideal self the more anxiety we will
experience

To be able to develop our potential we have to accept info about ourselves as honest as
possible & be realistic about what we can become

Research showed people with close match between actual and ideal self are socially
confident and resourceful

1.4.2

Maslow and self-actualisation

Maslow referred to the process of fully developing personal potential as self-actualisation

A self-actualiser is a person who is living creatively and fully using their potential

Self-actualisation requires hard work & patience

Maslow says human behaviour is motivated by needs

Thus basic needs must first be met before you can progress to meet less basic needs

If needs are not met the person may regress to a lower level

At the top is the need for self-actualisation = need to fulfil ones potential

Self-actualising people are healthy personalities who are open and spontaneous, have clear
perception of reality, are independent, sensitive to the needs of others etc.

1.4.3

Develop your potential

To develop your potential and live a more creative life you can consider the following:
a)

Be willing to change

b)

Take responsibility

c)

Examine your motives try to make each decision for growth not to reduce
anxiety

d)

Experience honesty and directly dont distort info to fit the way you see things

e)

Make use of positive experiences

f)

Be prepared to be different accept your uniqueness

g)

Get involved give attention to problems outside yourself

h)

Assess your progress

1.5 The biological approach

Up to 20th century it was believed that particular regions of the brain

controlled psychological functions

Intellectual and personality functions were assessed by looking at the size

and shape of the skull

Although we cant believe that specific regions in the brain is responsible for
personality we cant ignore the biological underpinnings of behaviour

Some theorists believe heredity shapes personality

This is based on the idea that we have inborn behavioural tendencies that
differ from person to person

Studies of newborns supported this notion

Some babies are more placid others are more emotionally reactive

Temperament can influence how the infant responds to others and how
others respond to them

Inherited differences in temperament also contributes to the development

of specific personality traits (like intro and extroversion)

Considerable attention has been given to assessment of genetic aspects of

personality The closer the genertic relationship between 2 people the more they will be
alike in terms of personality

Read studies about adopted children p. 201

1.4.6 The African perspective

Most of the theories discussed were developed in Europe or America

At present no specific theory was develop to describe personality according

to the African perspective
In pas t psychological knowledge was based on the Western view of the

individual as independent and autonomous

Recent cross-cultural approaches focused on the way people define

themselves in terms of their relationships to others & social groups

This implies a fundamental difference in the way people view themselves

African and Asian perspective is based on collectivist view

They regard people as interdependent means peoples behaviour is guided by

consideration fo the well-being of others ad the community

The African worldview implies people are not separate from the cosmos

It includes the spiritual world, nature and living things and the communities
they live in
African perspective on personality is based on the NB of the community and

the collective forces that shape behaviour African perspective attributes behaviour to
external agents (p. 202)
Specific characteristics according to the individualist and collectivist

viewpoints can be seen as follows:

Collectivism
First the community then the individual (I am

Individualism

because we are)
1. High regard for the group elevate NB of

1. High regard for individual elevates the NB of

group above the individual

2. Dependence on people
3. Strong group pressure
4. Individual initiative not appreciated god

individual above the group

2. Individual independence
3.Opinion of the group is not that NB
4. Individual initiative high regarded personal

relations are priority

achievement more NB than attention to

5. Co-operation
6. Duties towards the community are

community
5. Competition
6. Rights of individual emphasised

emphasised
7. Values such as friendliness, helpfulness,

7. Values such as formality, independence and

patience and brotherhood NB

self-sufficiency is NB

When looking at the African perspective we must not generalise