International Trade Law

This page intentionally left blank
European Union Law for

International Business
An introduction
Written specifically for exporters and those without legal training, European Union
Law for International Business is an introduction to the essential business laws of
the European Union (EU). It is a practical guide to the regulatory and procedural
issues of which exporters and businesses need to be aware.
While providing a general overview of how the EU operates as a governing body,
the book specifically addresses the key matters that exporters will face during their
business transactions. Topics covered include:
r
r
r
r
r
r
direct export transactions to the EU

exporting via an agent or distributor
customs laws and procedures
franchising
resolving international business disputes
how to establish a permanent business presence within the EU.
For each of these transaction types the book uses case studies to illustrate how they
can be applied to real-world business dealings.
This book is an essential resource for anyone involved in international business
with customers in the EU.
Bernard Bishop is Senior Lecturer in the Department of International Business
and Asian Studies at Griffith Business School, Griffith University. He is co-author
of Australian Export: A Guide to Law and Practice (CUP, 2006).
European Union Law

for International
Business
An introduction
Bernard Bishop
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,

So Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521881449
Bernard Bishop 2009
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the
provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2009
ISBN-13
978-0-511-69089-1
eBook (NetLibrary)
ISBN-13
978-0-521-88144-9
Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian
Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the
pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or
communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided
that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a
remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For
details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact:
Copyright Agency Limited
Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street
Sydney NSW 2000
Telephone: (02) 9394 7600
Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601
E-mail: [email protected]
Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given
in this work are correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press
does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.
For
My parents
Leo and Donna Bishop
Contents
List of figures and tables

List of case studies
page xi
xii
Preface
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
xiii
xvii
xix
Chapter 1: EU institutions and law making

Introduction
1
1
EU institutions and their role in law making

Types of EU laws affecting the international businessperson
4
10
Chapter 2: Contracts for the sale of goods to an EU buyer

Introduction
21
21
The identity of the parties

Description of the goods
22
23
Time and place for delivery

Transport arrangements for the goods
Inspection of the goods
Price and method of payment
26
27
30
32
Retention of title in the goods by the seller until paid

Respective obligations of the parties if unforeseen events make
performance impossible
32
vii
33
viii
CONTENTS
The law that will apply to the contract

The type of dispute resolution mechanism that will be used
Chapter 3: Transport of goods to an EU buyer
Introduction
EU transport systems
International conventions governing sea transport of goods
to the EU
33
34
35
35
36
43
International conventions governing air transport of goods

to the EU
47
International conventions governing road transport of goods

within the EU
49
International conventions governing rail transport of goods

within the EU
International conventions governing transport of goods within
the EU by inland waterway
Insurance
Chapter 4: Customs law and procedure within the EU
53
56
60
62
Introduction
EU customs entry procedure
EU-wide restrictions on the entry of goods
62
63
68
Individual country restrictions on the import of goods

Anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard measures
76
83
Preferential arrangements
86
Chapter 5: Payment and risk management in

international sales
Pre-payment
Letters of credit
Payment against documents (documentary collection)
91
91
91
97
Open account
100
Foreign exchange risk
105
CONTENTS
Chapter 6: Sales to the EU using an EU representative

Introduction
Why appoint a representative for the EU market?
Selecting an agent or distributor
Appointing an agent
Agency agreements and competition law
Distribution agreements
EU competition law and distribution agreements
108
108
109
111
115
129
131
133
Chapter 7: Entering the EU market via franchising

arrangements
Introduction
142
142
Types of franchise arrangements

Matters for consideration prior to entering into a franchise
agreement
The franchise agreement
Operation of the franchise by the franchisee
144
150
164
168
Chapter 8: Establishing a permanent presence in the EU
173
Introduction
Right of establishment
Legal and procedural issues arising in the formation
173
176
of a private company
Branch
179
184
Public company
Mergers and acquisitions
188
191
The European Company
193
A private European company?

Licences and permits
196
199
State aid to industry
202
Chapter 9: Resolving a dispute with an EU firm
208
Introduction
208
Litigation against parties from EU member states
209
ix
CONTENTS
Matters to consider in an international arbitration

Mediation of international commercial disputes
Index
216
223
229
Figures and tables
FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Flow chart of decision-making process for the mediation
directive
page 20
Figure 4.1 Flow chart of import procedure (UK)
64
Figure 5.1 Flow chart for simple letter of credit procedure
93
Figure 5.2 Flow chart for documentary collection procedure
98
Figure 7.1 Flow chart of patent application procedure in the EPO
156
TA B L E S
Table 2.1
Place of delivery, passing of risk and transport costs under

the ICC Incoterms
28
Ranking of EU ports by gross weight of goods handled and

by volume of container cargo handled
37
Table 5.1
Top 10 discrepancies leading to rejection of letters of credit
96
Table 5.2
Highest and lowest exchange rates for the euro during the
period 1 October 2007 to 31 December 2007 for selected
currencies
106
Table 7.1
Franchising in various European countries
144
Table 8.1
State aid and eligible firms
204
Table 3.1
xi
Case studies
The process involved in making a directive the mediation

directive
page 18
Transport of goods to the EU using a freight forwarder
41
Exporting beef to the EU regulatory considerations
70
An example of CE marking recreational craft
74
Credit risk insurance
101
Using a distributor to sell into the EU market
112
Franchising into the EU market
147
Establishing a private company in Estonia
181
Establishing a branch in Sweden
186
Business licences in Luxembourg
200
Investment incentives in Germany
206
An arbitral institution
217
A mediation institution
224
xii
Preface
HIS BOOK IS written for small and medium exporters, their

advisers, students and others with an interest in engaging in international
business transactions with a firm in a member country of the European
Union (EU). It seeks to provide an introduction to some of the more
significant EU-wide laws and procedures of which business firms outside
of the EU need to be aware before embarking upon their business venture.
It is impossible to canvass all of the relevant laws and procedures because,
not only is the volume of EU legislation extensive, but also much business
activity still remains regulated at the individual EU member state level.
Thus, the book is introductory and contains references to other sources,
including internet sites that the reader can use to obtain more information
on the particular legal issue being discussed.
In each chapter of the book an attempt has been made to place the legal
issues in an international business context. The aim is to provide readers
with information not only on relevant EU laws but also on how those laws
might apply in an international business transaction. There are case studies
in each chapter to provide examples of this. While every effort has been
made to ensure that the information provided is up to date and accurate,
readers should always obtain legal advice from locally qualified lawyers
with regard to any particular transaction that they may be contemplating.
This is stressed throughout the book along with the reasons for it.
The book commences in Chapter 1 with an introduction to the EU
itself, its institutions, their role in law making and how those laws are
made. To highlight the various methods by which EU laws are made, this
introductory chapter concludes with a case study that shows the process
that was involved in enacting the Mediation Directive.
xiii
xiv
P R E FA C E
Chapters 25 of the book deal with matters that need to be considered

in an export of goods to an EU member country. Thus, the basics of the
initial contract of sale, transport of the goods including within the EU,
EU customs requirements, and payment mechanisms are discussed. The
transport chapter contains a case study showing the steps taken by a freight
forwarder in arranging a consignment to an EU destination. This chapter
also provides information about internal transport alternatives within the
EU and the relative significance of each. The customs chapter sets out the
steps that are involved in dealing with customs formalities in the EU and
contains two case studies that show the very detailed requirements that the
EU has for goods that are exported to it. The payments chapter not only
details the well-known mechanisms for payment in international business
transactions and their frequency of use by importers but also seeks to point
out ways in which the risk of non-payment can be minimised. There is a
case study of a worldwide company that engages in credit risk insurance to
show how this can be used by exporters to guard against credit risk.
Chapters 6 and 7 deal with exporting to the EU via an agent or distributor or via franchising. In the case of agents and distributors, all of the
material introduced in Chapters 25 will also be relevant because exporters
of goods via intermediaries will necessarily involve customs clearances,
transport arrangements, payment mechanisms and contracts of sale. The
chapter on agents and distributors includes a discussion of the EU commercial agents directive and its influence on contracts with agents as well as
EU competition laws and how they affect distribution agreements. There
is a case study that shows how an exporter has made use of an EU distribution company to get goods onto supermarket shelves. The franchising
chapter not only canvasses the various regulatory requirements that some
countries within the EU have regarding franchising agreements but also
sets out the basics of registering intellectual property rights within the EU.
There is some information about the growth of franchising within the EU
as well as a case study on a successful franchise operation there.
Chapter 8 canvasses the issues that an outside business person needs to
consider if establishing a separate business presence within an EU country.
Many exporters of goods and service providers find that to best service the
burgeoning EU market, a permanent presence of some kind is eventually
required. Five alternatives are canvassed. These are a private limited liability
company, a branch, a public company, a European public company and
acquisition of an existing company. The chapter describes law at the EU
level that affects the establishment of each of these various forms. Case
studies are used to show the procedures required to set up a private company
P R E FA C E
and a branch using individual countries procedures as examples. The

chapter also contains information on licensing requirements for businesses
and incentives that might be available to those establishing new businesses.
Chapter 9 concludes the book by examining the alternatives for resolving
disputes should they arise in the course of doing business with an EU firm.
The alternatives of litigation, arbitration and mediation are considered
along with the main issues that arise in a European context. Two case studies
are provided one of an arbitral institution and one of an institution that
is well known for its work in mediation.
xv
Acknowledgements
WOULD FIRST like to acknowledge the support of the following businesses who agreed to have their firm profiled as a case study and
then provided the necessary information for the compilation of that case
study: Bartercard, Ozkleen, Atradius and a.hartrodt. Other businesses and
organisations also provided assistance. In particular I would like to thank
the Queensland Government Department of State Development (Brisbane
and London offices); Austrade (Brisbane and London offices); Australian
Business (London); Advance (London); Minter Ellison (London office);
the Excess Baggage Company (London); and the European Australian
Business Council (Sydney). I would also like to thank the very helpful staff
at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies library (University of London)
and the Queen Mary University of London Intellectual Property Archive
for their assistance with my enquiries and use of their library facilities.
xvii
Abbreviations
AQIS
CHIEF
CIM Rules
CISG
CMNI Convention
CMR Convention
COTIF Convention
CPC
EC
ECB
ECC
ECJ
EC Treaty
EPC
EPO
EU
EU Treaty
FIATA
GSP
ICC
IPR
ISO
Australian Quarantine Inspection Service

Customs Handling of Import and Export Freight
Uniform Rules Concerning the Contract of International
Carriage of Goods by Rail
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the
International Sale of Goods
Budapest Convention on the Contract for the Carriage of
Goods by Inland Waterway
Convention on the Contract for the International
Carriage of Goods by Road
Convention on International Carriage of Goods by Rail
Customs Procedure Code
European Community
European Central Bank
European Commercial Cases
European Court of Justice
Treaty establishing the European Community
European Patent Convention
European Patents Office
European Union
Treaty on European Union
Federation Internationale des Associations Transitaires et
Assimiles (International Federation of Freight Forwarders)
Generalized System of Preferences
International Chamber of Commerce
intellectual property rights
International Organization for Standardization
xix
xx
A B B R E V I AT I O N S
MRA
NAFTA
OHIM
PCT
SDR
SE
SPE
TURN
UKHL
UNCITRAL
UNCTAD
WCO
WTO
mutual recognition agreement

North American Free Trade Association
Office for the Harmonization of International Marks
Patent Cooperation Treaty
Special Drawing Rights
Societas Europaea (European Company)
Societas Privata Europaea (European Private Company)
Traders Unique Reference Number
United Kingdom House of Lords
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
World Customs Organization
World Trade Organization
EU institutions and law making
INTRODUCTION
THE EU HAS its origins in the European Coal and Steel com-
munity formed by France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the

Netherlands by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. This treaty transferred the
power over the coal and steel industries of those states signing it to a
central authority. The objectives of the treaty are important because they
signalled what were to become central aims of the EU. The primary objective was to have the coal and steel industry controlled centrally rather than
at the individual nation state level for industry efficiency. Underlying this,
however, was the view that such central control would contribute to peace
within Europe by preventing any of the major powers from rearming and
thereby avoiding the devastation that occurred in the previous decade in
World War Two.
The formal beginnings of the EU occurred in 1957 when the same six
nations to the Treaty of Paris signed the Treaty of Rome and created the
European Economic Community, now the European Community (EC).1
This treaty laid the foundations for the major institutions of the EU
that exist today the Council of Ministers, the European Parliament, the
European Commission and the European Court of Justice. In addition,
the EC Treaty moved beyond the aim of central regulation of a single
industry to a much broader role of integration of the economies of the
member countries. The treaty has been amended several times since 1957,
most notably by the Single European Act of 1986; the Maastricht Treaty of
1992 that created an additional treaty to the original EC Treaty entitled the
1
The resulting treaty is officially entitled the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,
Rome, 25 March 1957. It was later renamed the EC Treaty, when the EEC became the EC.
E U R O P E A N U N I O N L AW F O R I N T E R N AT I O N A L B U S I N E S S
Treaty on European Union (EU Treaty)2 and laid the groundwork for the
introduction for a common European currency; the Treaty of Amsterdam
in 1997 that reformed many of the institutional arrangements of the EU;
the Treaty of Nice in 2000 that was necessary in view of the impending
enlargement of EU membership; and finally the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007
that, if ratified by all member states, will streamline administrative and
governance arrangements within the EU.
The embryonic EU took some time to persuade other European nations
to join. However, since the early 1970s there has been a gradual expansion so
that today, most European nations are either members, or if not members,
have largely integrated their economies with the EU bloc. Great Britain,
Denmark and Ireland joined in 1973 followed by Greece in 1981; Spain and
Portugal in 1986; Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1995; Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Malta
and Cyprus in 2004; and finally Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, bringing
total membership to 27 countries.
The increase in membership has been accompanied by a gradual increase
in the areas of responsibility that have been transferred to central authorities
by the member states. From the point of view of a businessperson from
a country not part of the EU, the issues that are of most significance are
those relating to freedom of movement of goods; freedom of movement of
capital; freedom of establishment; and freedom of movement of persons.
All of these central freedoms have the objective of creating a truly single
market within the EU area. Thus, freedom of movement of goods aims to
have no barriers when goods are moved across national boundaries within
the EU. Freedom of movement of capital likewise refers to the absence
of boundaries between members for the movement of capital. Freedom of
establishment, accompanied by the freedom to provide services to citizens
in another member state, aims to have minimal restrictions on any person
anywhere in the EU establishing a business or providing a service in any
part of the EU. Freedom of movement of persons is significant because a
firm needs to have the flexibility to move managers between countries to
oversee the operations of the firm in those countries. Of course, freedom of
movement of persons also has importance in that workers should be free to
move within Europe to take advantage of work opportunities in other states.
However, as will become apparent throughout this book, the attainment
of the single market objective and the four freedoms is a work in progress.
While the EU has the aim of freedom of movement of goods, this only
2
Treaty on European Union, Maastricht, 7 February 1992.
E U I N S T I T U T I O N S A N D L AW M A K I N G
applies to internal movement of goods. Businesspersons from outside of

the EU must still negotiate initial customs barriers and regulations that
apply to the type of good they are exporting to an EU member country.
In addition, some barriers remain to the internal movement of goods.
Chapter 3 discuses the various regulations that apply for internal transport
of goods within the EU and details some of the difficulties in having
a truly integrated transport system within the EU area. Some of these
difficulties can be traced to the underlying legal conventions relating to the
international transport of goods. Chapter 4 deals with customs procedures
and formalities within the EU and makes it clear that while many goods
are free to move, individual countries still have room to lay down their
own conditions for the entry of some goods into their territories in some
circumstances.
Similarly, the freedom to establish a business presence is confined to
persons and entities from within the EU. However, as will be made clear,
most European countries have extended the freedom to establish a new
business to persons or firms from outside of the EU as well. Chapter 8
discusses the establishment of a business in an EU member country and
notes that regulation over business establishment is still split between
central European institutions and individual nation states, thereby making
it necessary for the businessperson wanting to establish a business within
an EU member country to take account not only of central EU regulations
but also those of the member states where the business is to be set up.
Freedom of movement of persons is not dealt with in detail in this book.
The reason here is that an external businessperson may face very different
barriers in having a manager from their home country run a business within
the EU to those that apply to managers moving between countries within
the EU. This is because the EC Treaty specifically provides for freedom for
persons to take up offers of employment in any member state subject to
any legitimate limitations of the host state on public policy, public health
or public security grounds.3 On the other hand, the outsider cannot take
advantage of this freedom and accordingly more restrictions might apply
to outsiders when attempting to obtain a visa and work permit.
Likewise freedom of movement of capital within the EU is not considered in any detail. Article 56 of the EC Treaty abolishes all restrictions
on capital movements between member states and between member states
and third countries. However, Article 57 of the EC Treaty allows for some
restrictions to remain. These exist primarily in real estate investment, the
3
EC Treaty Article 39(3)(a).
financial services sector and the admission of securities to capital markets.

However, for the outside businessperson who seeks to establish and operate
a business in an EU member country, the associated capital flows between
their home state and the EU member state will pose few problems provided that any requirements for establishment and operation of the business
are met.
It is not only the attainment of the four freedoms and the single market
that are a work in progress. The EU itself is evolving both in terms of
its membership and its institutional arrangements. As at the end of 2008,
both Turkey and Croatia are applicants for membership. In addition, free
trade agreements between the EU and third countries have the effect of
expanding the EU market beyond the current 27 member states. The
EU has extensive free trade agreements with Switzerland and with Norway,
Iceland and Liechtenstein. These are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
The way in which laws are made by the EU is also the subject of evolution. Thus, while this chapter details the roles of the various institutions of
the EU and how law is made at the EU level, these processes will no doubt
be subject to change over the coming decades. However, an understanding
of EU institutions, their role in law making, the types of laws that exist
and how the laws themselves are actually made is important for any person
wishing to do business with a firm in any of the EU member countries.
Each of these matters is now considered in turn.
EU INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR ROLE
IN LAW MAKING
There are five main institutions involved in law making at the EU level.
These are the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the
European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court
of Justice. In addition, there are two consultative bodies the Economic
and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions. Many treaty
articles require that these bodies be consulted before legislation is made.
The role of each of these institutions will now be discussed with particular
reference to law making as opposed to other supervisory and political
functions that they may exercise.
THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL
The European Council consists of the heads of government of each of the
member states. It is chaired by the head of state of one of the member states.
The position rotates among the member states every six months. While
the European Council does not have a direct role in the EUs legislative
process, it nonetheless exercises a significant role in EU law making by
taking the lead role in treaty revisions and major changes in EU policy. As
noted earlier, the two basic treaties of the EU are the Treaty Establishing the
European Community that dates from 1957 and the Treaty on European
Union that dates from 1992. Both of these are discussed in more detail
below.
The European Council discuses major treaty changes at summit meetings. Because of the important role of both the European Commission and
the European Parliament in developing legislation based on the EC Treaty,
the heads of both the European Commission and the European Parliament
frequently also attend summit meetings. Changes to the treaty discussed at
a summit meeting are typically followed up by an intergovernmental committee that works on the detail of the changes and then finally the adoption
of the changes by a further summit meeting. Because the EC Treaty is no
more than an agreement between sovereign states, each member state must
then adopt the treaty as the law of their own state. Each state has its own
processes for doing this. Most changes to the EC Treaty have been able to
have been adopted in most states by parliamentary processes alone without
the need for a referendum.
There is some evidence that when states are obliged by their own constitutions to put treaty changes to a referendum in their own state, it is
difficult to convince the public to support those changes. The most recent
attempts to change the treaties in 2004 and again in 2007 are a case in point.
Over the 20022004 period an ambitious attempt was made to upgrade
the treaties into what was termed a constitution for the EU. Voters in both
France and Germany rejected this in referendums that were held in 2004.
Following this, the original proposal for a constitution was abandoned and
changes were made to make the revisions to the treaties more acceptable to
the public. Thus, rather than a Constitution of Europe, the existing two
treaties were retained but with significant amendments. The Council of
Europe endorsed these changes at Lisbon in December 2007 with a view
to having the revised treaties in force by the end of 2008 in time for the
elections for the European Parliament in 2009.
The Lisbon Treaty4 provides for both an increase in the power of EU
institutions and at the same time an increase in the checks and balances
4
Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European
Community, Lisbon, 13 December 2007 (Lisbon Treaty).
mechanisms that member states have over the exercise of that power. In
terms of increases in the power of EU institutions, the Lisbon Treaty creates
an office of President of the European Union elected by the European
Council for a two-and-a-half-year term renewable once and a new High
Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who will represent
the EU in an extended range of international matters that can be dealt
with at the EU level rather than at the level of the individual nation state.
However, individual nation states are given increased power to monitor
EU actions; the individual rights and freedoms of citizens are enhanced; the
division of legislative powers between the EU and member states is clarified
and, for the first time, member states have the option of withdrawing from
the EU.
As of the end of 2008, the Lisbon Treaty has been ratified by all member
states except Germany, Czech Republic, Poland, and Ireland, whose constitution required a referendum to be held. That referendum was defeated
in June 2008 and accordingly Ireland cannot yet ratify the Lisbon Treaty.
The ratification process is well underway in the other three states. Because
all nation states must ratify it for it to come into effect, it does not yet have
the force of law. The European Council has taken a lead role in attempting
to resolve this impasse.
The European Council exercises important functions other than revisions to the main treaties. These include the discussion of major differences
between member states on key issues and the overall future direction of
the EC.
THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

The Council of the European Union5 consists of one representative from
each member state who is authorised to bind the member state. Accordingly the representative is usually a government minister. The composition
of the Council is fluid depending upon the issue under discussion. Thus,
for example, if immigration issues are under consideration the Council will consist of the immigration ministers from each of the member
states. Because of this fluidity, the Council is supported by a committee
of permanent representatives from each member state. While the ministers who formally make up the Council take the decisions, the permanent
5
When the term the Council is used, it refers to the Council of the European Union and not the
European Council.
representatives play an important role in arriving at an agreed position to

facilitate Council decision making.
The Council plays an important role in EU law making because it is
the body that has the final say in whether legislative proposals will become
EU law. The exact role that the Council will play in approving laws and
the process by which the Council makes a decision depends upon the
type of legislation involved. The reason here is that the EC Treaty sets out
different methods for making laws depending upon which article of the
treaty the law is based upon and what type of law is proposed. A more
detailed explanation of the Councils role in law making is provided in the
next section which discusses the types of laws and how they are made.
Council meetings are chaired by the representative from the state that
currently holds the EU presidency.
T H E E U R O P E A N PA R L I A M E N T
The European Parliament6 consists of 732 directly elected members, with
a set number being allocated to each state depending upon the states
population.7 However, the electoral distribution system seeks not to disadvantage smaller states by giving smaller states more representatives than
would apply if a strict one vote, one value system was applied uniformly
across the EU.
The citizens of each state vote to elect their European Parliament representatives. However, the European parliamentarians tend to divide themselves into informal political groupings rather than according to their state
of origin. Even though these informal political groupings are not yet political parties, the Parliament could be characterised as a truly supranational
body rather than member state representatives who are simply there to
represent the interests of their own constituents as applies in many other
international organisations. Of course, it would be naive to suggest that
national interests do not have any bearing on decisions. Otherwise, European parliamentarians would have very short terms. Suffice it to say that on
many issues pan-European interests are considered by the parliamentarians
to be equally as important as national interests.
The role that the Parliament plays in legislation depends again on the
provision of the EC Treaty upon which that legislation is based. The
6
7
When the term the Parliament is used hereafter, it refers to the European Parliament.
This number will rise to 751 if the Lisbon Treaty is adopted.
different roles that the Parliament plays in enacting legislation are detailed
later in this chapter when the various types of EU legislation are discussed.
THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION
The European Commission consists of up to 27 Commissioners one
from each member state. Commissioners must take an independent role in
furthering the goals of the EU. While they are nominated by each member
state and approved by the European Parliament, they must take an oath
swearing that they will not be influenced by representations from any
member state. Each commissioner has overall responsibility for one or more
areas of the EUs work transport, energy, etc. Each of these areas is headed
by a Director-General who is a full-time EU bureaucrat and who answers
to the relevant commissioner for that area. Each directorate is supported by
a number of full-time staff. In total, the European Commission has some
18,000 staff, most of whom are located in its headquarters in Brussels.
While this seems large it is nowhere near as large as the bureaucracies in
many of the member states.
The Commission is headed by a President appointed for a set term by
the Council of the European Union after consultation with the European
Parliament. The President has an important role in that they not only
take overall responsibility for the work of the Commission but also attend
meetings of the European Council and represent the EU in international
negotiations. As noted, if the Lisbon Treaty is approved there will be a new
High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security who will also be a
Vice-President of the Commission.
In terms of law making, the most significant role of the Commission is
to draft laws that it then refers on to the Council of the European Union
and the European Parliament for the relevant law making processes to take
place. The Commission does not act alone is deciding what issues require
legislative action. It is common for the Council, and increasingly the Parliament, to refer matters to the Commission for investigation for proposed
legislative action. An example of a reference from the Parliament is the
proposed European private company directive discussed in Chapter 8. In
some areas, the Commission also enjoys delegated power from the Council
to enact law. Examples here include the enactment of regulations relating to the customs tariff discussed in Chapter 4 and the block exemption
regulation on vertical restraints discussed in Chapter 6.
The Commission also exercises considerable supervisory functions. First
it is able to take member states to the European Court of Justice (ECJ) if a
member state is not following EU law. Examples of this include the references by the European Commission to the ECJ of a number of countries
that have failed to recover monies from the beneficiaries of state aid given
by the state in contravention of the conditions allowed for the provision of
state aid. This is discussed further in Chapter 8. Second, the Commission
has overall responsibly for competition policy and can take direct legal
action in the ECJ against firms that are in breach of the EUs competition
laws. EU competition laws are discussed in more detail in Chapters 68.
On the other hand, the Commission is also subject to oversight by
the European Parliament. The Parliament can request the Commission to
reply orally or in writing to questions put to it. As a measure of last resort,
the Parliament can also by a two-thirds majority require the Commission
to resign. While this power has never been used it provides a safeguard
in the unlikely event that the Commission acts totally contrary to law and
the interests of the EU.
C O N S U LTAT I V E B O D I E S
The European Economic and Social Committee has been in existence
since the commencement of the EC. It represents the various social and
community interests throughout the EU. The Committee of the Regions
came into being with the Treaty on European Union in 1992. Its role is
to represent the interests of the various local governments in the member
states. The Lisbon Treaty fixes the numbers at no more than 350 for each
committee. Membership of both committees is decided by the Council
after names are put forward by the member states.
Many treaty articles require that an opinion be provided by either or
both of these committees at the commencement of the legislative process.
The opinions are provided to either the Council or the Parliament. Consequently one finds in the preamble to many regulations and directives
a statement that indicates that the legislation is being made having had
regard to the opinion rendered by either or both of these committees.
T H E E U R O P E A N C O U RT O F J U S T I C E
The ECJ consists of one judge appointed by each member state for a threeyear term that is renewable once. As is the case with Commissioners, judges
must act independently of their home state when making decisions. The
pressure that might be brought to bear on individual judges is reduced by
10
the fact that the ECJ always delivers just one judgement as a whole rather
than the individual judgement of each judge.
The process of the ECJ differs from the process used in common law
countries such as the UK, the USA and Australia. Most of the submissions
to the ECJ are written submissions by the parties that the ECJ itself
communicates to all parties. This is followed by short oral argument at a
hearing. The ECJ is assisted by an Advocate-General who also delivers an
opinion on the case to the judges in addition to the various arguments put
forward by the parties.
The primary role of the ECJ is to interpret treaty provisions. It does
so not only in cases that are brought directly by the Commission against
member states or pursuant to competition laws but also in cases where the
courts of member states have referred a question to the ECJ for an opinion.
An example of the latter is examined in Chapter 6 concerning choice of
law in agency agreements. The ECJ can also hear cases brought directly by
individuals or institutions seeking to question the validity of community
legislation.
The ECJ is relieved of some of its workload by a court of first instance
that is able to hear a limited range of matters. The court of first instance is
appointed in a similar manner to the ECJ itself. Any decisions of the court
of first instance can be appealed to the ECJ.
TYPES OF EU LAWS AFFECTING THE
I N T E R N AT I O N A L B U S I N E S S P E R S O N
The EU is able to act on behalf of all its member sates in implementing
some international treaties. However, the bilateral and multilateral treaties
that individual states themselves have entered into with third states often
have more significance for the international businessperson. An overview of
these will be provided below. From an internal point of view, there are five
major types of EU legislation. These are the treaties themselves, regulations,
directives, decisions and recommendations or opinions. In addition, the
ECJ plays an important role not only in the legislative process but also in
ensuring that legislation complies with the various treaty provisions and
general principles of law.
I N T E R N AT I O N A L A G R E E M E N T S
A businessperson from a state outside of the EU doing business with a firm
in an EU member state needs to be aware of the various treaties that have
been entered into by that persons home state with the relevant EU country
and that might affect the business transaction being entered into. There are
a significant number of both bilateral and multilateral treaties that came
into existence either before the EU was created or before it had the power
to negotiate international agreements on behalf of its member states. Even
now, the EUs power in that regard is limited. Thus, one finds that many
international agreements that affect such matters as, for example, the sale
of goods, transport of goods, taking evidence abroad for court proceedings,
enforcing judgements and arbitral awards have been entered into by the
individual member states of the EU as individual sovereign nations rather
than by the EU itself acting on their behalf.
Perhaps the single most important series of international agreements
where the EU negotiates on behalf of the individual nation states are those
administered by the World Trade Organisation (WTO). These include the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and the General Agreement for
Trade in Services. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade requires
members to set tariff rates for goods imported into their territories and
to notify the WTO of those rates. The General Agreement on Trade in
Services requires members to specify the range of services and the modes
by which services can be exported to them. The most-favoured nation and
non-discrimination principles of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade require member states to extend the same rates of duty to all other
members. However, this agreement also allows groups of countries to form
trade agreements that give lower rates of duty to goods traded between
themselves than to goods coming from countries outside of the group.
Those provisions allow the EU to exist as a customs union and to conclude
various free trade agreements with individual member states outside of the
EU. There are also certain mandatory criteria for the valuation of goods
for customs duty and criteria for the imposition of anti-dumping and
countervailing duties. All of these issues are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 4.
T H E T R E AT I E S
There are two treaties that provide the foundations of the EU and the
exercise of its functions. The first of these is the original Treaty Establishing
the European Community, or EC Treaty. It has been in force since 1957
but has undergone several major amendments as described earlier. It is
this treaty that sets out the various areas in which the EU institutions are
empowered to make laws. Each article sets out how a law based on that
11
12
article is to be made. Consequently, it is the provisions of this treaty that

will be referred to most often in the following chapters of this book. The
treaty itself runs to some 300 articles divided into various parts and subparts. It will be renamed as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union if and when the Lisbon Treaty has been ratified by all member states.
The more recent of the two treaties is the Treaty on the European Union,
or EU Treaty. This treaty was originally entered into in 1992 in Maastricht
by the then members of the EU. Those countries joining since then have
acceded to it.
The EU Treaty sets out the institutions that form part of the EU, the
broad objectives of the EU and how the EU institutions and member states
coexist as separate legal bodies. The main institutions of the EU that are
involved in law making have been discussed above but, in addition, the
EU Treaty also creates two other significant institutions the European
Central Bank (ECB) and the Court of Auditors. The ECB coordinates
monetary policy throughout the EU in conjunction with the central banks
of the member states. The adoption of the EUs common currency (the
euro) by an increasing number of member states has resulted in the ECB
playing a vital role in EUs financial system.
The objectives of the EU are first and foremost to promote the wellbeing
of EU citizens, including the provision of an area of freedom, peace and
security where there is social justice, absence of discrimination and respect
for cultural diversity. However, for the external businessperson, perhaps
the most relevant objective of the EU is to achieve a single market. This
objective lays the foundation for many of the detailed provisions in the EC
Treaty for laws relating to common barriers to entry of goods into the EU,
freedom of movement of goods within the EU, freedom of movement of
capital and persons, and freedom to establish a business presence or provide
services.
The EU Treaty provides that in some areas, such as those to do with
barriers to entry, the EU will have exclusive power. In other areas power is
shared between the EU and member states the achievement of a single
market is a case in point. In those areas where the EU Treaty provides
for shared competence, law making by EU institutions is subject to the
principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.8 Subsidiarity means that the
EU should not make laws centrally when the matter under consideration
can be better dealt with at the individual state level. The philosophy behind
8
EU Treaty, Article 7.
this principle is that law should be made at the level of government closest
to the citizens that those laws will affect. Proportionality means that any
law made by the EU has to be both appropriate and necessary to achieve its
objectives. Understandably these two principles leave plenty of room for
challenge to EU laws in the ECJ by individuals and member states. Finally,
if the EU Treaty does not provide for either exclusive power or shared power
then competency to legislate remains with the member states. Taxation is
a good example.
There are two other aspects of the EU Treaty that need comment. The
first of these is that the treaty provides for the possibility of enhanced
cooperation between some member states in areas where some member
states are able to agree on common measures which others cannot accept.
An example here is the Schengen Agreement on freedom for movement for
persons within the EU area without restriction, first introduced in 1985.
Most of the continental European member states have accepted this but
the UK and others have decided to maintain their own immigration laws.
The second aspect that requires comment is that the member states can
cooperate together to achieve a common foreign policy position. This is
a contentious area and attempts to strengthen the role of EU institutions
in formulating common foreign policy have met with resistance from
those who see it as undermining the sovereignty of the individual member
states.
Many commentators on the EU Treaty describe it as having three pillars.
The first relates to economic objectives such as the achievement of the
single market. The second relates to relations with the outside world in the
form of a common foreign and security policy, and the third to enhanced
cooperation between member states.
R E G U L AT I O N S
EU institutions are given power to enact regulations by Article 249 of
the EC Treaty. Regulations are used to bring about uniformity of the law
throughout the EU. Thus, in most cases, regulations have direct effect
in all member states and override any existing member states laws that
may contradict them. Direct effect is a term that has been subject to
much discussion and interpretation but in simple terms it means that both
member states and individuals in the EU are bound by the regulation and
it can be enforced in national courts as well as before the ECJ. In exercising
its supervisory role over the process of regulation enactment, the ECJ has
13
14
continued to refine the criteria that a regulation must meet if it is to have

direct effect.9
The process of making regulations in the EU differs from that in most
individual countries. Many readers will be familiar with processes for
enacting legislation that involves the initial drafting and tabling of the
legislation in a lower house of Parliament; the passing of that legislation;
the forwarding of the legislation to an upper house of Parliament; its passage through that house; and finally the assent being given to the legislation
by the head of state (president, governor-general or monarch). Most often
this procedure is used regardless of the type of legislation that is being proposed other than where power is given to agencies of the state to develop
implementing regulations which are then also approved by the executive
branch of government.
The process for enacting legislation by EU institutions differs in that
each treaty article specifies the institutions that are to be involved in enacting the legislation and the role that each is to play. In terms of both regulations and directives (discussed below), this means that there are several
ways that these types of legislation can be enacted. Successive amendments
to the EC Treaty have attempted to standardise the legislative process so
that most legislative action will follow the same procedure. If the Lisbon
Treaty is adopted then the ordinary procedure for passing legislation will
be the co-decision procedure. It will apply to almost all treaty provisions.
In those few treaty provisions where legislation is made other than through
the ordinary procedure, it is to be made by one of the special procedures.
In the expectation that the Lisbon Treaty will be adopted, the following
discussion describes the ordinary legislative procedure in some detail and
then the special procedures.
The ordinary legislative procedure under the Lisbon Treaty will be
the co-decision procedure. It already applies to the enactment of many
regulations and directives under the EC Treaty. Regulations and directives
almost always result from an initial proposal by the EU Commission,
sometimes at the suggestion of either the Council or the Parliament. In
the co-decision procedure, the draft legislation is first forwarded to both
the Parliament and the Council by the Commission. The Parliament then
provides an opinion on the legislation to the Council. That opinion might
contain amendments to the Commission proposal. At this point the fate
of the legislation can take one of four paths.
9
For an in-depth discussion see D. Chalmers, C. Hadjiemmanuil, G. Monti and A.Tomkins, European
Union Law, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 36590.
First, if the Council approves the Parliaments opinion then the legislation is adopted and is signed by both the Presidents of the Parliament and
the Council and becomes EU law.
Second, if the Council proposes amendments to the opinion of the
Parliament then it must do so by adopting a common position. In most
instances the Council adopts a common position by qualified majority
voting.10 However, as seen in the case study at the end of this chapter,
the Council goes through a number of stages when adopting a common position on the Parliaments amendments. The legislation with the
amendments is then sent back to the Parliament via the Commission. If
the Parliament rejects the amendments by absolute majority the legislative
proposal fails. If it takes no action within three months or alternatively
approves the amendments, then the legislation is deemed to have been
adopted in accordance with the wording of the Council.
Third, if the Parliament passes by majority further amendments to
the Councils amended legislation, then the legislation is returned to the
Commission for an opinion on whether the Parliaments amendments
should be accepted. If the Commissions view is that the Parliaments
amendments should be accepted and the Council agrees, then it can adopt
the legislation by qualified majority. If the Commissions view is that the
Parliaments amendments should not be accepted then the Council can
only adopt the legislation by acting unanimously.
The fourth course is where the Council still cannot approve the amendments made by the Parliament. In that case a conciliation committee of
both the Council and the Parliament is convened to seek agreement on a
joint text. For the proposed joint text to become law it must be adopted
by a majority of the Parliament and by a qualified majority of the Council.
If this does not occur then the legislation fails.
The case study below outlines the process involved in enacting the
mediation directive.11 It will be seen that there is much preparatory
work preceding a Commission proposal and that there can be a long
lead time between the idea for legislation and it actually coming into
effect.
10
11
Qualified majority voting under the Lisbon Treaty will require 55% of the member states to approve
the legislation, accounting for 65% of the EUs population. If these majorities are not achieved,
then at least four states must be involved in the blocking action. Otherwise the relevant majorities
will have been deemed to have been achieved. This latter provision is to protect smaller states from
having two or three of the larger states only having the ability to block legislation because of their
large populations.
Directive 2008/52/EC [2008] OJ L136/3.
15
16
There are a limited number of special procedures that apply under

various treaty articles (as amended by the Lisbon process).12 The special
procedures involve the Council and the Parliament working together in
ways different to that specified by the ordinary legislative procedure. The
Lisbon Treaty attempts to confine these special procedures to a minimum.
They apply in situations including the following:
r The Council can adopt a legislative proposal by unanimous vote after
seeking the consent of the Parliament (e.g. measures to combat discrimination).
r The Council can adopt a legislative proposal by unanimous vote
after consulting with the Parliament (e.g. measures concerning social
security, identity cards and passports; judicial cooperation in civil
matters).
r The Council can adopt a legislative proposal by qualified majority
after obtaining the consent of the Parliament. There is only one article
that deals with this (measures to implement the use of the EUs own
resources).
r The Council can adopt a legislative proposal by qualified majority
after consulting with the Parliament. There are only three articles
that provide for this (measures to facilitate diplomatic protection, specific programs implementing the research framework, outermost region
initiatives).
The Parliament has the right to pass some legislation on its own initiative
after consulting or obtaining the consent of either the Council or the
Commission or both. This only applies to the statute for the members of
the Parliament; the provision concerning the Parliament exercising its right
of enquiry; and the statute for the European Ombudsman.
While most regulations are made by the Parliament and the Council
acting together in one of the above ways, the Commission may sometimes enact regulations on its own. Most frequently this arises if a piece
of legislation enacted by the Council and the Parliament under one of the
procedures described above has delegated power to the Commission to
enact implementing regulations. Examples include the power of the Commission to promulgate regulations relating to the customs tariff and block
12
For the full list of treaty articles where special legislative processes apply, see European Parliament, Committee on Constitutional Affairs, Report on the Treaty of Lisbon, 20 January 2008,
<http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A6-2008-0013&
language=EN>.
exemption regulations from EU competition laws. These will be referred

to in greater detail in Chapters 4 and 6 respectively.
DIRECTIVES
Directives are most common in areas of legislation in which both the
EU and the individual member states share competence to enact laws.
Directives differ from regulations in that they rarely have direct effect
because they require each member state to implement them by enacting
laws at the nation state level. Thus, they are only binding on citizens and
firms when implemented by each individual member state. Frequently the
manner and form in which the directive is implemented by each member
state is left up to that member state but each member state must implement
it in such a way that the aim of the directive is achieved.
The reasons for allowing member states to choose the manner and
form of implementation are that directives seek to harmonise laws across
member states rather than impose an overriding unifying law. It is often
the case that member states already have significant and longstanding
laws in place in the area where directives seek to achieve harmonisation.
Company law is a good example here, as is commercial law. Most states
had company and commercial laws in place long before the EU came into
existence. Directives in these areas are often implemented by individual
member states incorporating the provisions required by the directive into
their existing company or commercial laws.
Most directives provide a fairly lengthy time frame by which member
states must bring their legislation into line with the directive. An example
here is the recent directive on mediation which gives states until 2011 to
implement it.
DECISIONS
Decisions are made by the Commission where it is empowered to do so by
the treaties, regulations or directives. Examples include decisions to recover
state aid from a member state that has given assistance to firms that go
beyond what is permitted under the regulations for state aid, and decisions
to require a member state to remove measures that impede freedom to
establish a business presence in its state by firms from other member states.
These are discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Decisions have direct
effect in that they are binding on those to whom they are addressed and
legal action may be taken to enforce them.
17
18
O P I N I O N S , R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S
AND GUIDELINES
Frequently the Commission will issue guidelines or opinions to provide
detailed advice as to how it will exercise its powers in supervising the
implementation of various pieces of legislation. Opinions, recommendations and guidelines are not law as such but are used by the ECJ and by
national courts as a guide to interpreting laws. Important guidelines issued
by the Commission for the purposes of this book include the guidelines on
the block exemption for agreements involving vertical restraints and the
guidelines on state aid. These are discussed in Chapters 6 and 8 respectively.
Case study
The process involved in making a directive the mediation
directive
The idea for a mediation directive originated with the European Council
in 1999 when it called for alternative extra-judicial proceedings to be
made available by the member states to improve access to justice in the
EC. The Commission presented a green paper in 2002 that set out the
existing situation regarding alternative dispute resolution mechanisms
in Europe along with recommendations for legislation at the EU level.
Widespread consultations with the member states and other interested
parties followed. The consultations supported improving alternative dispute resolution procedures.
The result was that the Commission developed a proposal for a mediation directive in 2004. In its explanatory memorandum, the Commission
noted that mediation held considerable potential for improving access to
justice but that the outcomes of mediation proceedings should be able
to be enforced if it is be effective. The Commission also drew attention to
the need to ensure that the quality of mediation was of a high standard
in all member states. The Commission was of the view that Article 65
of the EC Treaty that includes civil procedure rules provided sufficient
competence for legislation at the EU level. Article 65 provides for the
use of the co-decision procedure. The Commission considered that harmonised standards throughout the EU in relation to mediation would
improve the functioning of the internal market. It was of the view that
such harmonisation could not be adequately dealt with at the member
state level and that the proposed directive did not go beyond what was
reasonably necessary to bring about this harmonisation. Accordingly the
directive complied with the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.
The proposed directive was transmitted to the Council and the Parliament at the end of 2004 and an opinion was sought from the Economic
and Social Committee. Following some discussion at the Council, it took
some time for the proposed directive to reach the top of the European
Parliaments agenda. At the first reading of the proposed directive by
the European Parliament, a number of amendments were proposed,
including one that related to the extent to which voluntary agreements
between parties to mediate should be enforceable and one that courtdirected mediation should be covered in the directive.
The directive with amendments was then sent to the Council. The
relevant Ministers who comprised the Council were the Ministers of
Justice and Home Affairs for the various states. The Council did not
accept all of the amendments of the European Parliament and in particular was concerned about the range of voluntary agreements to mediate
that would exist if the Parliaments amendments were accepted as they
stood. Accordingly, the Councils final common position required that
the directive could only apply to mediation agreements where the relevant law of the applicable state permitted that the matter could be the
subject of mediation. The Council was also concerned about the Commissions original proposal that the directive should extend to all disputes
between citizens rather than only those disputes with a cross-border element. The Council and the Parliament were of the view that the relevant
legislative power required a cross-border element to justify legislation at
the EU level. Consequently, the Council confined the application of the
directive to cross-border disputes, although it defined these as widely as
possible to take the Commissions views into account.
The Council referred its common position back to the Commission
which accepted the Councils arguments and forwarded the directive as
amended by the Council to the Parliament. The Parliament accepted the
directive as amended. It was finally signed into law on 21 May 2008.
The following flow chart shows the various steps which took place
from the time of the Commissions original proposal. It shows that creating law at the EU level can be a lengthy matter. From the time of the
original idea in 1999, it took more than eight years to finally have a
directive on the matter. In addition, member states are given until 2011
to implement it.
19
20
22 October 2004
Commission adopts a proposal for a
mediation directive
22 October 2004
Proposal transmitted to Council and
Parliament
16 November 2004
Proposal transmitted by Council to
Economic and Social Committee
(EESC) for comment
9 June 2005
Opinion of EESC transmitted to
Council
29 March 2007
Parliament approves proposed
directive with amendments
8 November 2007
Council adopts political agreement for
common position on proposed
directive
28 February 2008
Council adopts common position on
directive
7 March 2008
Council adopts declaration of its
common position and Commission
transmits this to Parliament
23 April 2008
Parliament approves Councils common
position without further amendment
21 May 2008
Directive signed by Parliament and
Council
Figure 1.1 Flow chart of decision-making process for the mediation directive
Source: Adapted from European Commission, PreLex, Monitoring of the decision
making process between institutions, <http://ec.europa.eu/prelex/detail dossier real.
cfm?CL=en&Dosld=191867>.
Contracts for the sale of goods

to an EU buyer
INTRODUCTION
THERE ARE SEVERAL key matters that need to be agreed upon
by a buyer and a seller in an international sale of goods transaction. It

will be seen that each of the issues discussed below will frequently involve
obligations on the part of both parties. The important areas for agreement
could be listed as follows:
r the identity of the parties
r the description of the goods
r time and place for delivery of the goods
r transport arrangements for the goods
r inspection of the goods by the buyer
r the price and how the price is to be paid
r the passing of title in the goods from seller to buyer
r the respective obligations of the parties if unforeseen events make performance impossible
r the law that will apply to the contract
r the type of dispute resolution mechanism that will be used.
Firms that have been engaged in international business transactions for
many years will most likely have developed a standard form of international
contract of sale that is forwarded to a potential buyer. The terms and conditions are likely to contain much more than the basic terms and conditions
listed above. For example, there may be detailed provisions to provide for
delay in delivery, such as requiring the seller to pay damages for each day
delivery of the goods is delayed. In addition, there might be a provision
that the buyer will pay interest for every day in which they are late with
payment after the due date if payment is made after the goods are received.
21
22
Frequently, terms and conditions will be developed in line with what is

standard in the industry of the seller. This is particularly important for
the sale of goods to a European buyer given the industry standards that
goods sold on the EU market must meet. The buyer might then accept
the terms of the offer or suggest some amendments whereupon the parties
will have to negotiate and arrive at an agreed set of terms. In either case,
most experienced international businesspersons will say that it is as well to
have the final set of terms and conditions signed by both parties to prevent
confusion later about what exactly has been agreed.
On the other hand, many smaller firms and those new to export might
overlook the matter of a written and signed contract entirely and simply
agree on the fundamentals of what is being sold, when it is to be delivered,
the price and when it will be paid.
This chapter seeks to outline what might be considered key areas that
should be agreed, the obligations of each party in relation to them and an
explanation of why they are important. Some of the areas of agreement
are discussed in much more detail in the following chapters on transport,
customs, payment, and dispute resolution. Where this is the case, the reader
will be referred to the appropriate later chapter.
T H E I D E N T I T Y O F T H E PA R T I E S
The bulk of international sale of goods transactions occur between companies or corporations because, in most countries, the company or corporation has become the dominant form of business organisation. The
primary reason for this is that the company provides limited liability for
its owners or shareholders. This means that the shareholders only have
liability to the extent of the value of their shareholdings for the companys
business transactions. The company has to meet all obligations validly
entered into by the company from company assets. Likewise, profits made
from company activities belong to the company until distributed to the
shareholders of the company. This principle of the corporation as an entity
separate and distinct from its owners has been almost universally accepted
in company laws across the world. Where differences tend to have crept
in is in the area of balancing the interests of shareholders of the company
against those of outsiders who may have suffered as a result of dealing with
the company rather than with its owners as individuals. Frequently, the
means of addressing this issue is to impose personal liability on directors
and managers if they have breached what the law regards as their duties as
company officers. It is in this area of striking a balance between the interests
CONTRACTS FOR THE SALE OF GOODS TO AN EU BUYER
of owner/managers and outsiders that company laws have undergone most

development and perhaps most divergence in recent decades.
In international sales transactions it is important for both buyer and
seller to know that the person they are dealing with is empowered to act
on behalf of the company. Most countries have laws requiring companies
to disclose who is authorised to represent the company. The EU is no
exception and as long ago as 1968 required companies to disclose this
information and set down procedures as to how this was to be made
available to the public pursuant to the disclosure directive.1 This directive
is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Its importance in this context is
that firms from outside of the EU can be confident that they are able to
check whether the person signing a contract on the companys behalf is
actually authorised to do so.
DESCRIPTION OF THE GOODS

Most export contracts will describe the goods being sold in some detail.
In cases where specifications of the goods are involved and lengthy, this
will be accomplished by annexing the detailed description of the goods
in a schedule to the contract. This is a common occurrence in the case
of contracts with EU buyers because, for many classes of goods, there are
detailed EU-wide standards that the goods must meet to be sold in the EU
and, in the interests of certainty, a buyer might insist that they be included
in the contract of sale.
The description of the goods has important legal implications for both
buyer and seller if it is found that the goods supplied do not conform
to that description. The precise implications will depend on what law it
is that governs the contract between them. In the case of sales to buyers
in most EU countries, the relevant law will be the Convention on the
International Sale of Goods of 1980 (CISG).2 This convention arose out
of negotiations between countries to formulate a standard international
sale of goods law so that sellers and buyers would face the same sets of legal
requirements regardless of the countries from which the goods were being
exported or the country where the buyer was located. The CISG has been
widely adopted, with some 72 countries around the world having adopted
it as their own law for the international sale of goods.
1
2
Directive 68/151/EEC [1968] OJ L065/8.

United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, 11 April 1980.
23
24
All member countries of the EU have adopted the CISG, other than the
UK, Ireland, Malta and Portugal. Three of these countries have a British
legal tradition and while there are differences between it and the CISG,
those differences are not great for the most part. The CISG will apply if
the parties specify it to be the law of the contract. It will also apply if the
parties both have their place of business in different signatory states.3 It
might also apply even if only one of the parties is from a signatory state if
the law of the contract chosen by the parties is that of a signatory state.4
The CISG does not apply to a range of transactions that are considered
not to be sales of goods. These include sales of shares, sales of services,
consumer sales and sales of ships and aircraft.5 It will also not apply if the
parties specifically exclude it as the governing law of their international
sales transaction. It also does not apply to international sales transactions
if both parties are from the Scandinavian states because these states had an
international sales law that predated the CISG that they wished to continue
to apply to transactions between parties in Scandinavia.
The CISG sets out the exporters obligations to provide goods in conformity with the contract in Article 35. This article requires the seller to
provide goods that are of the quantity, quality and description as agreed in
the contract and to package the goods appropriately. It goes further and
states that goods will not conform to the description if they are not fit for
the purpose for which such goods are ordinarily used or for any specific
purpose made known by the buyer to the seller. They will also not conform
if they do not meet the qualities of a sample of such goods or if they are
not packaged in a manner usual for such goods or, if no manner is usual,
then in a manner to adequately protect and preserve the goods. The seller
can only escape liability for non-conformity if the buyer knew or could
not have been unaware of the non-conformity at the time of delivery.6
Failure to provide goods that conform to the contract description provides the purchaser with a range of legal remedies, including avoidance of
the contract for non-conformity that amounts to a fundamental breach of
the contract;7 a right to demand substitute goods if the non-conformity
amounts to a fundamental breach;8 or a requirement for repair of the
3
4
5
6
7
8
CISG, Article 1(1)(a).

CISG, Article 1(1)(b).
CISG, Articles 2 and 3.
CISG, Article 35(3).
CISG, Article 49(1)(a).
CISG, Article 46.
goods9 or a reduction in price10 for lesser breaches. Damages are also

available in addition to these remedies.11
Despite the seemingly clear language of Article 35, there are numerous
cases based on this article.12 A cursory examination of the cases shows that
at least half have been decided by European courts and considerably more
than half have involved firms from EU member countries as parties. A
detailed discussion of the issues raised in the cases is beyond the scope of
this book. However, the cases raise two particularly important issues that an
exporter of goods to an EU buyer needs to consider. These are the standards
that the goods must meet in order to satisfy the fitness for purpose test in
Article 35, and secondly the packaging requirements for the goods. As will
be noted in Chapter 4, the EU has specific standards for many classes of
goods in order for them to be able to be sold in the EU marketplace. There
are also very specific labelling requirements for most goods.
The case law suggests that goods will be fit for the purpose for which
goods are ordinarily used even if the goods do not meet the standards
in the buyers country but do satisfy standards in the sellers country.13
However, this will only be the case where the buyer has not made the
seller aware of the required standards or if there are special circumstances
through which the seller should have become aware of those standards.
Special circumstances might include the seller having some presence or
representative in the buyers country or if there has been a longstanding
relationship between the seller and the buyer. For these reasons it is likely
that buyers from the EU will be quite specific in their contracts about the
standards that the goods must meet.
The case law suggests that goods will not meet packaging requirements
if the packaging does not comply with the labelling requirements of the
country of the buyer and the seller knew that the goods were to be sold
there.14 Thus exporters to the EU run the risk of having no recourse under
the CISG if their goods do not meet either EU labelling requirements or
9
10
11
12
13
14

CISG, Articles 50 and 51.
CISG, Article 45(1)(b).
See the discussion of the cases on Article 35 in UNCITRAL Digest of Case Law on the United
Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods (UNCITRAL Digest), <http://www.
cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/text/digest-art-35.html>.
New Zealand Mussels Case [1996] 3 European Current Law: Monthly Digest (Euro CL) No. 84
[72-3].
Caiato Roger v Societe Francaise de Factoring, Case 48992, Cour dAppel de Grenoble, Chambre
Commercial, 13 September 1995.
25
26
the labelling requirements of the EU country where the goods are to be

sold.
T I M E A N D P L A C E F O R D E L I V E RY
It is usual for international sale of goods contracts to provide for both a
time and place for delivery. As will be seen below, the time and place fixed
by the contract for delivery have important legal consequences for both
buyer and seller.
Article 33 of the CISG provides that the seller must deliver on the date
fixed for delivery or, if none, then within a reasonable time. The buyer
is also obligated to accept delivery at the time and place nominated.15
Failure to deliver on time by the seller will amount to a fundamental
breach entitling avoidance of the contract if delivery on time is expressed
to be fundamental to the contract. Failure by the buyer to accept delivery
may also constitute a fundamental breach.16 The CISG permits a buyer
to give additional time to the seller for delivery and, if they do so, not to
pursue any remedy for breach of contract during that period.17 However,
the CISG allows the seller to cure any defects in delivery if the goods are
delivered before the delivery date and this does not cause any unreasonable
inconvenience or expense to the buyer.18
The place where the seller has to deliver the goods is often covered by
the parties selection of what is known as an incoterm. A standard set of
incoterms was first developed by the International Chamber of Commerce
(ICC) in 1936 to promote certainty with regard to the obligations of each
party to an international sales transaction regarding delivery of goods. It
has been revised regularly to keep abreast of changes in international trade
practice. There are currently 13 ICC Incoterms divided into E, F, C
and D terms. The place where the seller has to deliver the goods will
depend on which incoterm is chosen.
The following table shows the obligations that the incoterms impose on
the exporter regarding delivery of the goods. The table shows not only who
is responsible for which stages of the transport but also, most importantly,
when risk in the goods passes from the exporter to the buyer and which
party bears the transport costs and costs of customs clearance. Risk passes
at the point of delivery.
15
16
17
18
CISG, Article 53.

CISG, Article 64.
CISG, Article 47.
CISG, Article 37.
The table reflects the division of costs and responsibilities from the point
of view of the exporter. These costs and responsibilities are least for the E
terms and increase for the F, C and D terms respectively. However, it
is readily apparent that transport costs and obligations not mentioned as
being the responsibility of the exporter are the responsibility of the buyer.
For example, it is noted that only certain of the incoterms require the
exporter to take out insurance after the point at which transfer of risk has
occurred. Other than in those cases, it is the exporter who bears the risk
up until the point of delivery and the buyer bears it from that point on.
Consequently each party should arrange insurance to cover themselves to
accord with the point of transfer of risk.
Freight to Europe and transport within Europe can consume a sizeable
proportion of the exporters potential profits if they do not take these costs
into account when negotiating with a buyer as to the appropriate incoterm
and the pricing of their goods. For example, if an exporter agrees to the
term Delivered Duty Paid they will face significant transport costs. On the
other hand, if they negotiate an Exworks delivery term then the buyer will
face those costs. It is for these reasons that it is more usual when exporting
to Europe for buyers and sellers to negotiate one of the intermediate terms
either an F or a C term. As indicated above, there is a range of F and C
terms to cater for either port to port shipment or multimodal transport.
Exporters need to ensure that they use the most appropriate term of the
type of transport arrangement to be used. However, it needs to be added
that Europe is a very competitive market and in order to secure a customer
it may be necessary for an exporter to agree to assume most of the transport
costs and obligations.
TRANSPORT ARRANGEMENTS FOR
THE GOODS
While the incoterm chosen by the parties will determine who has to
arrange transport, many standard form contracts also require the parties
to nominate a carrier. This helps resolve any uncertainty about the matter
and allows the party responsible for transport to make use of longstanding
arrangements that they may have with a particular carrier. Chapter 3
discusses transport of goods and the various international legal conventions
that apply in the case of sea, air, road, rail and inland waterway carriage.
In cases where a seller has agreed to deliver the goods door-to-door using
Delivered Duty Paid incoterms, transport to a buyer in Europe may
involve a combination of types of carriage. In these situations, it is quite
27
When the goods are placed at the

disposal of the buyer at the place
named by the exporter
When the goods are delivered to the
place named by the buyer (usually
the carriers place of business)
When the goods are placed alongside
the ship at the port nominated by
the buyer
When the goods cross the ships rail at
the port nominated by the buyer
carrier arranged by the seller to take
the goods to the named place of
destination
Exworks (EXW)

carrier arranged by the seller to take
the goods to the named place of
destination
When the goods cross the ships rail

at the port of shipment arranged
by the seller
Carriage and Insurance Paid To

(named place of destination)
(CIP)
Cost and Freight (named port

of destination) (CFR)
Free on Board (named port of

shipment) (FoB)
Carriage Paid To (named place
of destination) (CPT)
Free Alongside Ship (named

port of shipment) (FAS)
Free Carrier (named place)

(FCA)
Passing of risk and delivery
Incoterm
Transport to the port; customs clearance for export; port

and loading charges
Transport to the port of export; customs clearance for export;
port and loading charges; freight; unloading and transport
in country of destination (only if included in contract of
carriage); customs clearance for import (only if included
in contract of carriage)
Transport to the port of export; port and loading charges;
freight; insurance; customs clearance for export; unloading
and transport in country of destination (only if included in
contract of carriag); customs clearance for import (only if
included in contract of carriage)
freight; and unloading at port of import (if agreed); customs
clearance for export
Transport to the port of shipment and up to point of the goods

being alongside ship; customs clearance for export
Transport to the place of the carrier as nominated by the buyer;

customs clearance for export
Transport costs borne by exporter
Table 2.1 Place of delivery, passing of risk and transport costs under the ICC Incoterms
When the goods arrive on board the

vessel at the port of destination
ready for unloading
When the goods are placed on the
wharf in the buyers country
When the goods arrive at the named

place of destination not unloaded
Delivered Ex Ship (named port

of destination) (DES)
Delivered Duty Unpaid

(named place of destination)
(DDU)
Delivered Duty Paid (named
place of destination) (DDP)
Delivered at Frontier (named

place)
When the goods are placed at the

disposal of the buyer at the named
place on the arriving transport at
the frontier not unloaded
When the goods arrive at the named

place of destination not unloaded
When the goods cross the ships rail at

the port of shipment arranged by
the seller
Cost Insurance and Freight

(named port of destination)
(CIF)
Delivered Ex Quay (named

port of destination) (DEQ)
Passing of risk and delivery
Incoterm

port and loading charges; freight; insurance; unloading at the
port of import
port of import; freight to the named place of destination
port of import; freight to the named place of destination;
customs clearance for import; import duty
All transport and customs costs to the named inland border

freight; insurance; customs clearance for export; unloading
and transport in country of destination (only if included in
contract of carriage); customs clearance for import (only if
included in contract of carriage)
port and loading charges; freight; insurance
Transport costs borne by exporter
30
common for a seller to contract out the entire freight arrangements to one
of the major freight forwarding companies which will arrange all of the
transport.
INSPECTION OF THE GOODS
It is usual to include provisions in international sale of goods contracts to
nominate the arrangements for inspection of the goods. This needs to be
framed with the relevant inspection obligations contained in the CISG in
mind. However, the parties can override these provisions by making some
other agreement concerning inspection. If so, it needs to take into account
what remedies the parties will have if there is a failure to inspect the goods.
Many standard contracts provide when and where the goods are to be
inspected but do not override the remedies for failure to inspect contained
in the CISG. For that reason, the following discusses the remedies that the
CISG provides if the contract does not deal with the matter.
The CISG provides that where goods have been transported to a buyer,
the buyer is required to inspect the goods upon arrival at the place of
destination.19 If a seller has redirected the goods in accordance with their
rights under the various transport conventions discussed in Chapter 3,
then the appropriate place for inspection will be the arrival of the goods at
the redirected destination. If non-conformity is discovered then the buyer
must give notice of it to the seller. If the buyer does not give notice of
non-conformity then they may lose any rights to claim against the seller
for this.20 Exporters of goods to the EU therefore need to know what rights
a buyer may have against them as well as what a buyer must do to exercise
those rights.
Article 38(1) of the CISG requires the buyer to conduct an examination of the goods within as short a period as is practicable in all the
circumstances. Two issues have dominated decisions on the interpretation
of this provision.21 The first concerns the time within which the buyer
must inspect the goods. The second is the type of examination that must
be carried out.
The decided cases give little clear guidance as to the time frame within
which an inspection should be carried out. Some have been quite specific as
to the time frame within which the examination should occur and equally
19
20
21

See the discussion of the cases on Article 38 in UNCITRAL Digest, <http://www.cisg.law.pace.
edu/cisg/text/digest-art-38.html>.
specific about how long after arrival is considered to have been too long for
an inspection to take place. Others have adopted a more flexible standard as
to when an examination should take place. Considerations as to what is an
appropriate time frame have included the type of goods, the efforts needed
for an examination, whether there has been a pre-shipment inspection or
even whether there have been defects in prior deliveries. Further problems
have arisen regarding defects that are not discoverable for some time until
after the delivery has taken place. Here some courts have suggested that
the buyer should be constantly monitoring the goods so as to identify any
latent defects. Other cases suggest that it is only when such defects become
apparent that the buyer should then become alert to possible problems and
then undertake a through examination.22
The second issue concerns the type of examination that should occur.
While the cases tend to suggest that the examination should be in accordance with what is reasonable in the circumstances, this has still left considerable room for argument about the significance of such matters as the
type of goods, the method of packaging, the circumstances of the buyer, the
costs required to carry out the examination, and the need for spot checking
or sampling in determining the reasonableness of the examination.
Article 39 requires the buyer to give notice of non-conformity. There
is no requirement as to the form of the notice but it must be given to the
seller. Even a verbal notice may be sufficient as long as it has been shown
by the buyer to have been communicated to the appropriate person in the
sellers organisation. The notice must be specific as to the extent and nature
of the defect and the goods to which it applies to enable the seller to take
action to check the information.23 The notice must also be given within a
reasonable time. There are a large number of decisions about what amounts
to a reasonable time, leading to the conclusion that much depends on the
circumstances of every particular case. In any event the maximum period
for giving notice is set at two years unless the seller has given a guarantee
to the buyer that extends beyond this period.24
The considerable diversity within reported decisions about the time for
examination of the goods, the type of examination required, and the time
for and content of notice that must be given if the examination reveals
any non-conformity leads one to the view that exporters wanting more
certainty regarding potential claims by customers would do well to insert
22
23
24
Ibid.
See the discussion of the cases on Article 39 in UNCITRAL Digest, <http://www.cisg.law.pace.
edu/cisg/text/digest-art-39.html>.
31
32
more specific provisions into their international sales agreements relating

to these matters. Article 6 of the CISG allows parties to derogate from
the provision of the convention and accordingly does not preclude more
specific requirements regarding inspection and notice.
P R I C E A N D M E T H O D O F PAY M E N T
The price for the goods and the method by which that price will be paid
are essential for any contract for the international sale of goods. While
Article 55 of the CISG provides that the validity of the contract will not
be affected if the price is not stated but there is a means of ascertaining the
price, common sense suggests that to avoid any confusion the price should
be stated along with the currency in which the price is to be paid.
Chapter 5 outlines the four major ways in which the buyer pays the
seller in an international sales contract. In order of least to most risk for the
exporter these are payment in advance, payment by letter of credit, payment
against documents and payment on open account. The procedures involved
in each of these methods of payment along with strategies to minimise the
risk associated with each are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.
The failure of the buyer to pay in accordance with the agreed method
and at the agreed time will amount to a fundamental breach of contract
for which the seller is entitled to avoid the contract and sue for damages.25
RETENTION OF TITLE IN THE GOODS
B Y T H E S E L L E R U N T I L PA I D
In order to cater for the possibility that the buyer either rejects the goods
or does not pay, it is common practice to see a clause in international sale
of goods contracts that states that title in the goods does not pass from
the seller to the buyer until the seller is paid. In addition, if the buyer
should become bankrupt the retention of title clause has the effect that
the seller can recover the goods rather than having to take their place in
the queue of other creditors. However, it needs to be noted that where the
goods have been on-sold by the buyer to a purchaser without notice of the
sellers right to title, then the seller may be placed in a position of contesting
the rights to the goods with that buyer. In some legal systems the court may
come to the conclusion that the rights of a buyer without notice supersede
those of the seller.
25
CISG, Article 64.
R E S P E C T I V E O B L I G AT I O N S O F T H E
PA R T I E S I F U N F O R E S E E N E V E N T S
MAKE PERFORMANCE IMPOSSIBLE
The CISG provides that if an impediment arises beyond one of the parties
control that prevents their performance of the contract then the party is
excused from performance during the period for which the impediment
exists. The party must give notice of the impediment to the other party
and must then resume performance once the impediment has passed.26
If the failure to perform is due to an impediment that prevents a third
party (e.g. a transport operator) from performing obligations on which the
performance of the main contract depends, then the party seeking to rely
on the impediment preventing the third party from performing must show
that it was beyond the control of the third party.
Many international sales contracts prefer to be more specific about both
the list of circumstances that are to be regarded as an impediment to
performance and the rights of the parties should one of those events arise.
This is because one or both of the parties will inevitably lose out as a result
of the impediment. For example, if extreme weather conditions delay the
delivery of goods to be exported, the buyer has customers waiting for those
goods and the seller is relying on payment after their arrival, then both
parties will suffer losses. However, it is readily apparent that the range of
circumstances that might impede performance as well as the position of
the parties at the time such circumstances arise is infinitely variable. Thus,
no matter how carefully such a clause is drafted, it may well do no more
to resolve the situation than the generally worded provision of the CISG.
T H E L A W T H AT W I L L A P P LY
TO THE CONTRACT
As noted above, the CISG will automatically govern international contracts
for the sale of goods if the parties to the contract have their place of business
in different states, both states are signatories to the convention and the
subject matter of the contract is goods as defined in the CISG. If the
CISG applies, it will be the body of law that a court uses in filling in gaps
that the parties might have left in determining their precise obligations,
whether parties have complied with those obligations, and the remedies
available to the party not in default.
26
CISG, Article 79.
33
34
However, it is advisable to specifically state that the CISG will apply

if that is the parties intention. The reasoning here is that not all states
are signatories to the convention and not all states are bound by all of
its provisions. This is because the convention allows states to opt out of
certain parts of it. Thus for certainty it is best to state that the CISG will
be the governing law of the contract.
The CISG allows parties the freedom to contract out of its provisions
by specifying that certain provisions of the convention will not apply to
their agreement or by excluding the CISG completely and having some
other law govern their entire contract.
If the parties fail to choose which law governs the contract, then in
the event that a dispute arises, a court must decide what law it should
use to determine the substantive rights of the parties. Each country has
developed its own set of criteria (conflict of law rules) that a court must
use to decide the governing law of the contract in the absence of a choice
between the parties. A common approach is to use the law that has the
closest connection with the contract. Inserting a choice of law clause in the
agreement can avoid the substantial cost and delay associated with later
argument over which law a court should use to determine the parties rights
and obligations under the agreement.
THE TYPE OF DISPUTE RESOLUTION
M E C H A N I S M T H AT W I L L B E U S E D
Chapter 9 discusses the three major methods for the resolution of disputes
in international business transactions along with the advantages and disadvantages of using each in a transaction with a party from one of the member
states of the EU. The three main dispute resolution methods discussed are
litigation, arbitration and mediation. If the parties do not choose a method
for the resolution of disputes that may arise, then they must either agree
at the time of the dispute to use a particular method of dispute resolution
or alternatively take court action. As will be seen in Chapter 9, there are
significant disadvantages in simply relying on litigation for the resolution
of international business disputes. Accordingly to avoid these difficulties
it is best to choose the method of dispute resolution at the time that the
contract is entered even though, at that time, the parties might be reluctant
to even consider that a dispute might arise between them.
Transport of goods to an
EU buyer
INTRODUCTION
TRANSPORT OF GOODS to a customer in an EU country will
typically involve a road or rail leg in the country of the exporter; a sea or
air leg to deliver the goods to a port or airport in the EU; and then either
road, rail or inland waterway transport, or some combination of these, to
deliver the goods to the customers place of business. Each of these legs
of transport is likely to be covered by a different legal regime. The reason
for this is that over the years different international conventions have been
entered into for sea transport, air transport, road transport, rail transport
and transport by inland waterway. This means that the extent of liability of
the carrier for loss or damage to the goods often depends on the leg of the
journey where the loss or damage occurred and the relevant international
convention applicable to that leg as well as the terms and conditions of
carriage set out in the transport document issued by the carrier.
This chapter begins with an introduction to transport arrangements for
goods to and within the EU to provide readers with some understanding
of the significance of each form of transport as well as some insight into
how each form of transport is likely to develop in coming years. The
chapter then reviews the major international conventions governing sea
transport, air transport, road transport and rail transport within the EU.
The emphasis in this chapter is on the international legs of the transport
chain. The law governing the road or rail portion of the transport within
the exporters country will vary depending on the country in which the
exporter is located and the relevant domestic transport law for internal
transport.
35
36
EU TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Sea transport is the main method by which goods reach the EU market,
with 90% of goods by volume exported to and from EU countries arriving
by ship.1 Statistics published by the European Sea Port Organization show
that 42% of sea cargo consists of liquid bulk (predominantly fuels), 25%
consists of dry bulk (minerals, grains and so on), 15% of container cargo
and 11% of roll-on roll-off cargo (e.g. cars).2
The more established ports of continental Europe and the Mediterranean are the main ports of entry for goods destined for the EU market.
The following table shows the ranking of the top 15 ports in terms of
gross weight of goods handled and the top 20 ports in terms of volume of
container cargo handled. It can be seen that the older ports of Rotterdam,
Antwerp, Hamburg, Le Havre, Bremen, Genoa, London and Marseilles
figure prominently in both sets of rankings. However, the table also suggests
that some ports may be more specialised in terms of handling containertype cargo. For example, the Spanish ports of Barcelona and Valencia are in
the top 10 ports for container cargo but do not even figure in the rankings
for gross weight of goods handled. The same applies to Felixstowe and
Southampton in the UK.
The arrival of goods at their European port of destination is not the end
of the transport chain. Goods must then be transported to the customer.
The predominant and fastest-growing form of inland transport within the
EU is road transport. Road freight accounts for 44% of freight movement within the EU. Over the 10-year period of 19952004, road freight
increased by 35% in the EU the fastest-growing of all means of internal
transport.3 Road transport is expected to grow by a further 55% between
2006 and 2020.4 Further, 85% of all goods carried by road within the EU
(by weight) travel less than 150 kilometres. Only 12% travel distances
over 1000 kilometres.5 It therefore seems likely that most exports to the
1
2
3
4
5
European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, Keep Europe Moving: Sustainable Mobility for Our Continent, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, 2006, p. 11.
European Seaports Organization, Yearly Figures, 2004, <http://www.espo.be/downloads/archive/
178cc6b7-b559-4d94-ae4e-01533a554e98.pdf>, p. 43.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, Keep Europe Moving,
op. cit., p. 34.
Ibid., p. 35.
Proceedings of Mid Term Review of the White Paper on European Transport Policy, a conference held in Brussels, 1 December 2005, p. 6, available from <http://ec.europa.eu/transport/
strategies/2001_white_paper_en.htm>.
T R A N S P O RT O F G O O D S T O A N E U B U Y E R
Table 3.1 Ranking of EU ports by gross weight of goods handled and by volume of
container cargo handled
Ranking
Gross weight of goods handled
Container cargo
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Rotterdam (Netherlands)
Antwerp (Belgium)
Hamburg (Germany)
Marseilles (France)
Bergen (Norway)
Le Havre (France)
Grimsby and Immingham (UK)
Genoa (Italy)
Tees and Harlepool (UK)
London (UK)
Algeciras (Spain)
Amsterdam (Netherlands)
Trieste (Italy)
Dunkerque (France)
BremenBremerhaven (Germany)
Rotterdam (Netherlands)
Hamburg (Germany)
Antwerp (Brussels)
Bremen (Germany)
Gioia Tairo (Italy)
Felixstowe (UK)
Le Havre (France)
Valencia (Spain)
Barcelona (Spain)
Piraeus (Greece)
Genoa (Italy)
Southampton (UK)
Las Palma (Spain)
Algeciras (Spain)
London (UK)
Marseilles (France)
La Spezia (Italy)
Goteborg (Sweden)
Medway (UK)
Liverpool (UK)
Source: European Seaports Organization, Yearly Figures, 2004, <http://www.

espo.be/downloads/archive/178cc6b7-b5594d94-ae4e-01533a554e98.pdf>,
pp. 401.
EU will be directed to the port closest to their final destination and accordingly may not need to cross country boundaries during the final transport
phase. This is of significance for the legal liability of carriers, as will be
pointed out below.
Because of congestion and growing concerns about the effects of vehicle
pollution on global warming, the European Commission has been attempting for some years to diversify the means of internal transport. There has
been a considerable degree of success with promoting short sea shipping
through ideas such as the motorways of the sea project which aims to
promote major sea routes in the Baltic, east and west Mediterranean and
the Spain to North West Europe route. Short sea shipping accounted for
39% of EU internal transport in 2004, showing a 31% growth rate over
37
38
the 19952004 decade.6 Short sea shipping is predicted to overtake road

transport as the main means of internal transport by 2014.7 However,
bottlenecks continue because of the varying efficiency of European ports
and the necessity to comply with internationally mandated procedures
each time a ship travels from one port within Europe to another. Attempts
are now being made to simplify the procedural difficulties for shipping
between European ports. There are also plans to further increase the use
of inland waterways for freight transport. In 2004, only 3% of freight
was carried in this manner and this is not projected to increase over the
20002020 period.8
Rail is less significant in terms of internal freight movement. It comprises only 10% of internal freight movements and showed a growth rate
of only 15% over the 19952004 decade.9 There are major projects underway to attempt to coordinate European railways so that more goods can
be transported by this means. However the task of upgrading facilities and
coordinating railways is not an easy one. At present there is an attempt
to promote certain rail corridors within Europe to make the rail transport of goods more efficient. However, bottlenecks arise because of the
lack of interoperability between different national systems. For example,
the length and weight of freight trains that tracks can accommodate vary
between countries. It is difficult to resolve these and other problems when
there is weak coordination of infrastructure between different national rail
authorities. For this reason a new European Railway Agency was established in 2004 to make recommendations to the Commission on improving interoperability. That this is a long-term task is recognised by the
projections that rail freight will only grow by 13% between 2006 and
2020 and its actual contribution as a percentage of overall movement of
goods within the EU will fall from around 11% in 2000 to around 8% by
2020.10
As noted above, freight arriving in European ports arrives either in
bulk, in containers or as roll-on roll-off freight. The following discussion
highlights the key legal issues that arise for these various classes of freight.
It assumes that it is the exporter who is responsible for the transport
6
7
8
9
10
European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, Keep Europe Moving,
op. cit., p. 34.
Ibid., p. 35.
Ibid., pp. 345.
Ibid., p. 34.
Ibid., pp. 345.
arrangement. However, it needs to be borne in mind that the incoterm used

by the parties determines which of them makes the transport arrangements
as well as splitting the cost and risk associated with the transport between
them.
Exporters shipping bulk freight (grains, fuel, minerals) tend to do so by
making direct arrangements with the shipping company. They may also
make separate arrangements with rail or road carriers to have the goods
delivered to the port for loading assuming that they do not have their
own transport system. The contractual arrangements with the shipping
company can be either to use one of the ships of the shipping company
or alternatively to charter a vessel for the transport of the goods. If the
goods are shipped by one of the major shipping companies using their
ships, then the shipping company will issue the exporter with an ocean
bill of lading that sets out the terms and conditions of shipment. In the
case of charter operations there will also be a contract of charter. The
bill of lading for charter operations frequently is very short and simply
incorporates the conditions of the charter contract. The bill of lading
is issued subject to the law of the place of shipment. Since most countries have adopted what is known as the Hague-Visby Rules11 into their
law, then the bill of lading must be consistent with these rules.12 The
bill of lading and the Hague-Visby Rules are discussed in more detail
below.
Exporters who use container shipping have a range of transport options.
If the exporter is large and owns its own land transport then it will likely
make arrangements directly with the shipping company and deliver the
goods to the shipping companys container terminal. As with the shipment
of bulk items the shipping company will issue the exporter with a bill of
lading.
11
12
The Hague-Visby Rules The Bill of Lading Convention 1924 (Hague Rules) as amended by the
Brussels Protocol 1968.
Most EU member countries have adopted the Hague-Visby Rules. However, some of the landlocked
EU countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria and Romania) have adopted the more
recent Hamburg Rules (Hamburg Rules United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods
by Sea, 1978) that tend to be more onerous on shipping companies. Most of the EUs major
trading partners have also adopted the Hague-Visby Rules. The major exceptions are the USA
which continues to use the Hague Rules, the earlier version of the Hague-Visby Rules, and China
which has adopted its own rules that are a combination of the Hague-Visby and Hamburg Rules.
Some countries have also made their own amendments to the Hague-Visby Rules. Australia, for
example, has made an amendment to impose liability for delay on carrying companies in very
limited circumstances.
39
40
However, with carrying companies becoming more globalised and diversified in terms of the type of transport that they can arrange, increasing
numbers of exporters are choosing the door-to-door option for container
shipping, with costs and risks being split between exporter and importer
depending on the incoterm that has been chosen. Global firms such as
TNT, DHL, UPS and FEDEX are increasing their position of dominance
in the international transport of goods. These and other international
carriers own their own ships, aircraft, and road transport vehicles. If an
exporter utilises the services of one of these types of companies then it
is likely that the carrying company will collect the container from the
exporters premises, transport it to the port, have it loaded onto the ship,
unloaded at the port of destination and then transport it through to the
customers place of business.
While the major international carriers who own their own forms of
transport are coming to dominate international carriage of goods, there
are other options for the exporter when arranging door-to-door transport.
First, the exporter might engage a shipping company as principal carrier and that company will subcontract out the land carriage portion to
another company. Second, the exporter might engage a non-vessel owning carrier that will subcontract out the shipping portion but may own
its own land transport. Third, the exporter might engage a freight forwarder that will assume primary responsibility for all parts of the carriage
but will subcontract out each of the stages of the journey to different
carriers.
Thus, there is frequently just one contract of carriage that the exporter
enters into to cover all stages of the journey. The document that is issued
to the exporter is most commonly called a combined transport bill of
lading, or a forwarders bill of lading if issued by a freight forwarder. However, the extent of liability of the carrier for loss or damage to the goods
will depend on which leg of the journey the loss or damage occurred.
This is because each leg of the journey will be subject to a separate legal
regime. The transport from the exporters premises to the port will be
governed by the relevant laws in the country of the exporter concerning
the land transport of goods; the sea portion will be most likely governed
by the Hague-Visby Rules and the land portion in the country of destination will be governed by the land transport laws in that country.
Additional complications arise in the case of shipments that arrive at a
port in one country in Europe but are then transported by road or by rail
to another country in Europe. In this situation, the carriers liability will
be determined by the law governing the land portion of the transport in
Europe.
Case study
Transport of goods to the EU using a freight forwarder
A major international freight forwarding company, a.hartrodt was
founded in 1887 in Hamburg, Germany. It has now grown to 170 offices
worldwide, with partnerships in more than 80 countries. Its business
encompasses the entire range of transport- and logistics-related services,
including sea and air freight, door-to-door service, supply chain management, customs clearances and transport insurance. It makes use of the
latest developments in e-commerce to manage shipments and enable
customers to track their shipments.
The company has provided the following information and advice to
those wishing to use their services for a shipment of containerised goods
for a door-to-door shipment to a destination within the EU. The process begins with a customer contacting the company for a quotation.
If accepted, the customer will then be required to provide details of
the shipment on a forwarding instruction, including the consignor, consignee, description of the goods, weight, the relevant incoterms and
payment conditions. Many exporters to the EU use the most appropriate C incoterm because this tends to save both the seller and the
buyer costs. The companys office in the sellers country is often able
to obtain for the seller the best rates for transport within and from
the country while the companys office in the buyers country is in the
best position to obtain the best rates for transport within the county of
destination.
The company will then make a booking with a suitable shipping line
and arrange for a container to be delivered to the customer. Most shipping lines have their own containers. Larger exporters can use their own
containers but these must have been certified as acceptable by the relevant shipping line and have the relevant ISO13 plates on them. Not
only does this provide assurance to the shipping line that neither the
container nor its contents are going to damage other cargo, but it facilitates the sale of the container in the overseas country once it has been
unpacked. This is often a cheaper option rather than bearing the cost of
sending it home empty. In most locations the company uses independent
contractors to collect the container from the shipping lines depot and
13
ISO, or International Organization for Standardization, is the international organisation that sets
standards for many industrial products. Manufacturers whose products meet the standards are able
to make this known to potential producers, thereby facilitating sales.
41
42
deliver it to the customer. Most customers request that the container be

delivered with a truck that has a side lifter attachment to enable the
container to be lowered to the ground. The company recommends that
once delivered, and during the packing process, containers are stored in
a secure area at the customers place of business. It is not uncommon for
partly packed containers to disappear from the customers premises if
not adequately secured.
The customer needs to give at least two days notice to the company
to arrange for collection of the container to allow for delivery to the
port. Prior to collection of the container, the company will have made
arrangements for the customer to obtain an export declaration number required by Australian Customs for the export of the goods from
Australia and also will have sent a pre-receival advice to the port authorities to notify them of the containers impending arrival.14 The company
advises that customers need to take care with the accuracy of their statements regarding the weight of the container because domestic transport
regulations specify maximum weights which can be transported by various types of truck. There may also be a problem with loading of the
container on the ship if the container is overweight.
Once the container arrives at the port area, it will be loaded onto the
ship. However, customers need to be aware that it is common practice in
the shipping industry for shipping lines to overbook. This means that it
is possible that a customers container might not make the first voyage
out of the port by the shipping line. Customers need to be aware of this
possibility when entering into contracts with overseas buyers. If time is to
be of the essence, customers should advise the company accordingly and
guaranteed shipment on a set day can occur if a higher rate of freight is
paid.
Once the goods are shipped, the company receives its own bill of
lading from the shipping line. It, in turn, issues a forwarders bill of
lading to the customer to enable the customer to either transmit it to
the overseas buyer via the banking system or directly depending on the
means of payment used. The bill of lading issued by the company to the
customer is known as a forwarders bill of lading or express bill of lading
that is issued for the transport of the goods from the customers premises
through to the premises of the buyer in a door-to-door shipment. The
company will have received its own separate transport documents from
the various carriers that it subcontracts. This will include the land carrier
14
Australian procedure is used as an example here but customs authorities of all exporting countries
are likely to have similar procedures for clearing of goods for export.
in the country of export, the sea carrier and the land or other transport
carrier in the country of the buyer.
In a door-to-door transaction, the company will arrange with its overseas office in the country of the port of entry of the ship to handle the
clearance of the goods through customs authorities in the EU. The company advises that customs clearance is best done at the port of entry
even if the final destination is in a different EU country to the port of
entry. Thus, if the container arrives in Rotterdam in the Netherlands,
clearance should occur there even if the final destination is in Germany.
The overseas office of the company will arrange for the transport of
the goods from the port of entry to the final destination and obtain
their own transport document (consignment note, delivery docket). The
overseas office will use the most convenient means of internal EU transport bearing in mind the port at which the goods arrive and the time
frame within which the goods are required. While inland waterway is
often the most economic, it is not always available. In addition, time
constraints generally mean that road transport is used. Rail tends to be
more expensive and time consuming than road.
After arrival of the goods and unpacking, the container will need to
be returned by the buyer to the nearest depot of the shipping line as
advised by the shipping line.
Having outlined some of the general characteristics of transport systems

to and within the EU, we now turn to the relevant legal regimes. The
following discussion deals with each of the major international conventions
that govern international sea transport, international air transport and then
transport of goods by road, rail and inland waterway within the EU.
I N T E R N AT I O N A L C O N V E N T I O N S
GOVERNING SEA TRANSPORT OF
GOODS TO THE EU
The bill of lading is the standard document evidencing a contract for the
sea carriage of goods. An examination of standard form bills of lading
reveals that many of their provisions either reflect or expand upon the
provisions in the Hague-Visby Rules. The following discussion therefore
draws attention to some of the more important provisions of the HagueVisby Rules and notes how those provisions are expanded in standard form
bills of lading.
The Hague-Visby Rules apply to any carriage of goods by sea. Most
ocean bills of lading specifically state that they are issued pursuant to the
43
44
Hague-Visby Rules (or Hague or Hamburg Rules for those countries where
the Hague-Visby Rules do not apply). Combined transport and forwarders
bills of lading frequently state that the Hague-Visby Rules apply to that
part of the carriage that occurs by sea.
Goods do not include live animals or cargo that is stated as being carried
on deck. Standard ocean and combined transport bills of lading reflect
this with a term stating that cargo that the shipper expressly agrees to be
carried on deck is the risk of the shipper. However, where the carrier (and
not the shipper) decides to carry the cargo above deck, the carriage will
still be subject to the provisions of the Hague-Visby Rules. Most standard
bills of lading contain a term that gives the carrier the right to carry cargo
on deck or below deck as it wishes.
Article 3 of the Hague-Visby Rules sets out the primary responsibilities
of the carrier. They are to make the ship seaworthy, properly man staff and
equip the ship, and make all parts of the ship fit and safe for the carriage
of the goods. This article also requires the carrier to issue the shipper with
a bill of lading that allows the goods to be identified as belonging to the
shipper and that shows the number of packages or containers, their weight
and the condition that they were in at the time of receipt. The bill of lading
is prima facie evidence of the receipt by the carrier of the goods and their
conditions at the time of receipt. In the hands of a third-party consignee,
the bill of lading becomes conclusive evidence of the carriers receipt of the
goods as described in the bill. On the other hand, the rules provide that the
shipper guarantees the accuracy of the information provided to the carrier
about the goods. This is particularly important in the case of container
shipments because carriers cannot be expected to open every container to
check the accuracy of the information that the shipper has provided about
what is contained in it. Article 3 concludes by requiring the person who is
entitled to delivery of the goods in the country of arrival to immediately
give notice in writing to the carrier about any loss or damage to the goods.
If the loss or damage is not immediately apparent, the recipient has three
days to give the notice.15
The standard bills of lading expand upon many of the provisions of
Article 3. It is common to find provisions that the shipper not only guarantees the accuracy of the information provided to the carrier but also
agrees to indemnify the carrier for any loss the carrier suffers a result of the
15
It should be noted that the standard International Federation of Freight Forwarders bill of lading
sometimes used by freight forwarders extends the period of notice from three to six days.
goods being misdescribed. This is often supplemented by a provision containing detailed obligations on the shipper to comply with all regulations
related to carriage of dangerous goods. A clause is often inserted to allow
the carrier the right to inspect the contents of containers. Further, not
only is the shipper to be responsible for packing the container, but it has
to satisfy itself that the container is suitable for the carriage of the type of
goods and has no right to expect that refrigerated containers will be capable
of freezing down cargo to the required temperature for transport. Some
bills of lading also require advice by the shipper if containers fall within
the category of heavy lift containers so that appropriate arrangements can
be made by the carrier for loading.
Most bills of lading not only repeat the time limit for notification of
claims but also expressly limit the time for bringing any action against the
carrier and also where that action can be brought.
Article 4 of the Hague-Visby Rules is perhaps the most important in
terms of limiting the liability of the carrier. It states that the carrier will
not be liable for any loss or damage other than that caused by the failure of
the carrier to make the ship seaworthy in accordance with its obligations
in Article 3. Article 4(2) goes much further and sets out a list of events
for which a carrier will not be held responsible. These include loss or
damage due to fire, perils of the sea, act of God, act of war, quarantine
restrictions, act or omission of the shipper or their agent, strikes, riots
and civil disturbances, insufficiency of packaging, and latent defects in
the goods not discoverable by due diligence or any other cause that is
not the actual fault of the carrier. Article 4(4) permits the carrier to make
any deviation to attempt to save life or property or any other reasonable
deviation. If the carrier is liable, Article 4(5) limits the carriers liabilities to
666.67 units of account16 per package or 2 units of account per kilogram,
whichever is the higher. However, the carrier will not be entitled to the
limitation as to amount of liability if the damage is proved to result from
the carriers intentional or reckless acts. The carrier and the shipper have
the option of agreeing to a higher amount of liability.
Some standard bills of lading repeat the events set out in the HagueVisby Rules. Others simply rely on what is contained in the Hague-Visby
Rules by stating that the bill of lading is issued subject to those rules. It
is quite common for bills of lading to repeat and expand upon the rights
16
One unit of account is the amount of the shippers currency that is equivalent to 1 SDR. SDR
(Special Drawing Rights) is the means used by the International Monetary Fund to give a standard
value to each of the worlds different currencies. For example, as at the end of February 2009,
1 SDR was equivalent to 2.3 Australian dollars and 1.16 euros.
45
46
of the carrier to take any actions that they deem necessary in relation
to the goods in the event that a hindrance to their performance of the
carriage arises. Bills of lading also state that the carrier can take any route
or make any deviation to the route for the carriage of the goods. In terms
of liability as to amount, some bills of lading specifically state that the
carrier will not be liable for any consequential loss arising from the loss or
damage to the goods. Others such as the standard FIATA bill of lading17
limits consequential loss to twice the amount otherwise provided for by
the Hague-Visby Rules. Some also make provisions as to how goods are to
be valued for the purposes of assessing loss, particularly in circumstances
where a higher amount of potential liability has been agreed between the
carrier and the shipper.
Article 4 bis of the rules provides for the carriers exemption from
liability to extend to the carriers servants and agents unless the act of
the servant or agent causing the damage was either intentional or reckless.
Despite these relatively clear provisions, most bills of lading contain a clause
along essentially the same lines as Article 4 bis. It is appropriate in this
context to note that when carriers contract as principals with the shipper
to arrange the various legs of transport, the carrier itself is primarily liable.
In the case of the standard FIATA bill of lading, the forwarder is liable
to the shipper as principal and must recover any loss from the carrier
concerned. However, some combined transport bills of lading issued by
non-vessel owning carriers expressly provide that the carrier only acts as
agent for the shipper in respect of arranging the carriage of the goods. In
this case the shipper would have to pursue the carrier responsible for the
leg of transport where the damage occurred. Because it is often difficult
for a shipper to establish this, such bills of lading often contain a provision
that states that if it cannot be determined where the damage occurred,
then it is presumed to have occurred during the sea transport leg of the
journey.
Other provisions of the Hague-Visby Rules that need to be mentioned
include a right of a carrier to surrender their rights or immunities under
the rules if so agreed with a shipper and provided that this is specifically
provided for in the bill of lading. Given the bargaining power of carriers vis-a-vis shippers, this provision would seem to have little practical
application for the vast majority of exporters. Further, in the case of shipments that are not ordinary commercial shipments made in the ordinary
17
The FIATA bill of lading was developed by the International Association of Freight Forwarders
(FIATA in French) and is the recommended form for a house bill of lading that freight forwarders
issue to shippers.
course of trade, the rules permit carriers to enter into any agreement that
they wish concerning liability for carriage of the goods. Again, because of
the exclusion of ordinary commercial shipments, this provision is not of
significant practical application for most exporters. As noted earlier, the
Hague-Visby Rules are not applicable to charter party agreements. However, if bills of lading are issued pursuant to charter party agreements, then
the Hague-Visby Rules will apply.
The foregoing discussion has emphasised the point that bills of lading
tend to reflect and expand upon the provisions of the Hague-Visby Rules.
However, standard bills of lading also contain some additional matters.
These additional matters relate primarily to freight charges. They are not
precluded by the rules and have some significant practical application
for shippers. For example, it is common for bills of lading to refer to
the carriers tariff rates and require payment in accordance with these.
Freight is expressed to be earned when the goods are received by the
carrying company. Further, bills of lading contain a provision giving carriers
a lien over the goods if freight is not paid. A provision is also often
included to allow the carrier to store goods at the shippers expense if the
person responsible for accepting delivery does not collect the goods upon
arrival.
GOVERNING AIR TRANSPORT OF
GOODS TO THE EU
While the overwhelming method for transport of goods to EU countries
from outside countries is by sea, air freight plays an important role in
transporting high-value items, and parts and equipment required in a very
short time frame. The regulatory regime for international air transport has
undergone a significant change since 1999. Prior to that time, there was
a confusing array of international conventions that could have governed
the international transport of goods by air. These included the Warsaw
Convention of 1929, the amended Warsaw Convention, the Guadalajara
Convention of 1961 and the Montreal Protocol No. 4 of 1976. The confusion resulted largely from the adoption of a lowest common denominator
approach. For example, if the sender of the goods was from a country
that had adopted the Warsaw Convention and the receiver of the goods
was in a country that had acceded to the amended Warsaw Convention,
then the governing international regime would be the original Warsaw
Convention.
47
48
The Montreal Convention of 199918 has been a major step forward

in reducing the confusion. This convention superseded all of the other
conventions for those countries that have acceded to it. All member states
of the EU adopted this convention in 2001. Most of its major trading
partners, including the USA, Japan, Korea, China and Australia, have also
acceded to it. As at the time of writing some 83 countries worldwide
have ratified it and brought it into effect. However, as with the previous
regime, a lowest common denominator approach remains and accordingly
air transport between countries that have not acceded to the Montreal
Convention and the EU will be governed by the relevant convention
adopted by that other country. Because most of the EUs trading partners
have adopted the Montreal Convention, this discussion of the regulatory
regime for international air transport will confine itself to a review of some
of the more significant provisions of the Montreal Convention as it relates
to the transport of goods.
As noted, the convention applies to the air transport of goods between
two member states regardless of whether there is a stop in a non-member
state. It also applies where the air transport is carried out by successive
carriers if the parties have agreed that it is a single operation.19 The primary
document of carriage is the air waybill, although a provision exists to allow
consignors and carriers to agree on some other form of document to
evidence the contract for the carriage of the goods.20 The requirements of
the air waybill are set out in Articles 5 and 7 of the Montreal Convention.
The convention conforms with the practice of most other conventions
relating to the international carriage of goods in that it imposes obligations
on the consignor for the accuracy of the information contained in the
document of carriage21 and to provide any necessary documents to meet
customs requirements.22 The consignor has the right to give instructions
regarding the disposal of the consignment23 and, if no instructions are
received to the contrary, the named consignee has the right to require the
goods to be delivered to it.24
Article 11 contains important provisions regarding the evidentiary value
of statements in the air waybill. The effect of Article 11 appears to be that
statements relating to the weight, dimensions, packing and number of
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air, Montreal,
28 May 1999.
Montreal Convention, Article 1.
Montreal Convention, Article 4(2).
packages are prima facie evidence of the facts as stated. However, more
specific statements relating to the quantity, volume and condition of the
cargo will not be evidence as against the carrier unless these matters have
been checked by the carrier in the presence of the consignor and this is
stated in the air waybill. Statements as to the apparent condition of the
cargo in the air waybill will be evidence of such apparent condition. This
is a significant matter because of the limited number of defences that the
carrier has in the case of loss or damage to the goods or delay in their
delivery.
Article 18 of the Montreal Convention provides that the carrier is liable
for any loss or damage to the goods during the carriage by air. The period
of carriage by air includes not only the actual time that the goods are in the
aircraft but is extended to cover any period during which the carrier is in
charge of the goods. However, it only includes any land transport outside
of an airport if that land transport was for the purpose of loading, delivery
or transshipment of the goods.25 The carrier is exempted from liability
for loss or damage if it was due to inherent defects, insufficient packaging,
acts of war or an act of a public authority relating to the entry or exit of
the goods in the country of departure or arrival as the case may be. The
carrier is also liable for damages for delay unless it can prove that it took
all measures that could reasonably be required to avoid the delay or that it
was impossible for it to take such measures.26
Unless the carrier caused the loss or damage intentionally or recklessly,
the limit of liability is set out in the convention at 17 SDRs per kilogram.27
Complaints about loss or damage to the goods must be made in writing
forthwith after discovery of the damage but in any event within 14 days
after receipt of the cargo.28 Any action against the carrier must be brought
within two years.29
GOVERNING ROAD TRANSPORT
OF GOODS WITHIN THE EU
The Hague-Visby Rules or applicable air transport convention apply to
the portion of the carriage that occurs by sea or air in getting the goods
to the relevant EU country. Other international conventions will apply in
25
26
27
28
29

49
50
determining liability of the carrier for the land portion of the transport. In
the case of export to European countries, three other conventions require
discussion. These are the CMR Convention30 for international road transport, the CIM Rules31 for rail transport and the CMNI Convention32
for transport by inland waterway.
The CMR Convention was originally agreed to by a number of European countries in 1956 to facilitate trade in goods between members of
the fledgling European Economic Community. At present there are 47
countries that have ratified the convention including all EU member states
having land boundaries with other EU member states. Other than in the
very limited range of circumstances set out in its Article 1, the CMR Convention applies to all carriage of goods by road when the place of taking
over the goods and the place of delivery are in two different states of which
at least one is a member of the convention.
Exporters who have agreed to deliver goods to a customer in an EU
country different to the country in which the port of arrival is located will
frequently utilise the services of a freight forwarder or non-vessel owing
carrier to handle all aspects of the carriage. The freight forwarder or nonvessel owning carrier will likely subcontract out the EU road portion of the
carriage to one of the main road transport companies operating throughout
the EU, unless one of the major global companies are used who own their
own land transport within the EU. The CMR Convention will govern the
contract between the forwarder and the road transport company.
The primary document evidencing the contract for the road transport of
the goods is the consignment note. Article 6 of the CMR Convention sets
out the matters that a consignment note must contain. A standard format
for the consignment note has been devised by the International Road
Transport Union and is revised from time to time.33 These are similar
to the particulars required to be set out in a bill of lading. Consignment
notes are issued in triplicate. One is provided to the sender or the senders
agent who arranges for the goods to be loaded onto the road transport, one
to the consignee on delivery of the goods and a further copy is retained
30
31
32
33
Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR in French),
Geneva, 19 May 1956, as amended by Protocol to the CMR, Geneva, 5 July 1978.
The Uniform Rules Concerning the Contract of International Carriage of Goods by Rail (CIM
in French) are contained in Appendix B to the Convention Concerning International Carriage of
Goods by Rail (COTIF in French), Bern, 9 May 1980.
Budapest Convention on the Contract for the Carriage of Goods by Inland Waterway (CMNI in
French), Budapest, 3 October 2000.
The standard consignment note can be found at <http://www.iru.org/index/en media press
pr/code.900/lang.en>.
by the road carrier. The sender of the goods bears responsibility for the
accuracy of all information contained in the consignment note and will be
liable for any loss or damage that the road carrier sustains if the information
provided is inaccurate34 or for defective packaging of the goods unless
the carrier is aware of this and notes it at the time of taking over the
goods.35 On the other hand, the road carrier is responsible for checking
the apparent condition of the goods and, if in packages, the number and
their identifying marks. The road carrier must specify in the consignment
note any reservation that the carrier has in relation to the condition of the
goods36 and if this is not done then the goods shall be presumed to be in
good condition when handed over.37
There are a number of provisions that provide for problems that the
carrier may have with delivery of the goods to the consignee. If it becomes
impossible for the carrier to deliver the goods the carrier must ask the
sender of the goods for instructions.38 The sender has the right to ask the
carrier to stop the goods in transit, change the place of delivery or deliver
to a person other than the named consignee.39 If the consignee refuses
to accept the goods then the sender may dispose of them.40 Because an
exporter or a freight forwarder acting on their behalf will want to ensure
that they follow the various procedures for breach of contract as set out in
the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of
Goods (CISG), it may be necessary to store the goods. However, even if
a consignee has refused the goods they can still require delivery to them
provided that the carrier has received no instructions from the sender.41
Thus the sender bears considerable responsibility in keeping the carrier
advised of any changed arrangements. The CMR Convention provides
that the carriage is concluded once the carrier unloads the goods and places
them for the account of the person entitled to dispose of them.42 This may
be the consignee or other person nominated by the sender if the sender has
elected to change the consignee. However, the carrier is also given the right
to sell the goods if no instructions can be obtained from the sender in time
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
CMR Convention, Article 7.

51
52
and they are perishable or other circumstances require such immediate

action.43
The CMR Convention provides that the carrier is liable for loss or
damage to the goods as well as for delay in delivery other than where
this was caused by the claimant.44 While this is not made specific in the
convention, it envisages that the claimant would ordinarily be the consignee
or other person entitled to delivery. The liability of the carrier extends to
actions of the carriers servants and agents and any other person who the
carrier makes use of for the carriage of the goods.45 There is a list of special
circumstances in which the carrier will not be liable for loss or damage.
These include defective packaging, handling, loading or stowage by the
sender, the inherent nature of the goods rendering them susceptible to
deterioration or insufficiency and inadequacy of identification markings
on the goods.46 However, the burden of proving that the loss, damage or
delay was due to one of these circumstances rests with the carrier.47 Delay
in delivery occurs if the carrier does not deliver within the stated time or,
where no time frame has been agreed, is outside of the time it would be
reasonable to allow a carrier to deliver the goods.
If the goods are lost or damaged then the amount of the carriers liability
is limited to the value of the goods (as defined in Article 23) but in no
case shall the liability exceed 8.33 units of account per kilogram.48 If a
claim is made against the carrier for damages due to a delay in delivery, the
carriers liability is limited to the cost of the carriage.49 As in the case of the
Hague-Visby Rules, carriers and senders are entitled to agree on a higher
value of the goods but in that case the rules specifically state that the carrier
can impose a surcharge.50 If a higher value is agreed then it will be that
value that determines compensation for loss or damage. The convention
contains provisions regarding apportionment of liability if there are two or
more successive carriers.51
Unless a consignee advises the carrier immediately upon delivery of
the goods of apparent loss or damage, then the goods will be deemed to
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

Units of account are defined in terms of SDRs as is the case under the Hague-Visby Rules.
CMR Convention, Article 23(5).
CMR Convention, Articles 3440.
have been delivered in the condition as set out in the consignment note.52
Where the loss or damage is not apparent the consignee must advise the
carrier within seven days in writing.53 There is a one-year time limit for
the bringing of any court action.54
GOVERNING RAIL TRANSPORT
OF GOODS WITHIN THE EU
While carriage of goods by rail accounts for a much lesser proportion of the
internal carriage of goods within the EU, transport planning authorities
hope to increase the use of rail over the coming years. The establishment
of the European Railway Agency in 2004 is evidence of a move in this
direction. The original Convention on International Carriage of Goods by
Rail (COTIF in French) was also amended and modernised in 1999 in
an attempt to achieve greater uniformity with other conventions related to
international transport most particularly the CMR Convention discussed
above. The Uniform Rules for the International Carriage of Goods by Rail
(CIM Rules) are set out in Appendix B to the COTIF Convention. Almost
all EU member states brought the newer convention and rules into force
as from 1 July 2006.
Although the CIM Rules are intended to follow the CMR Convention
as closely as possible, there remain some significant differences due in part
to the physical differences between the two modes of transport and also
possibly due to a desire to make the CIM Rules slightly more favourable
to the sender of goods. This could be due to the desire on the part of EU
transport authorities to promote rail transport. The following deals with the
major areas where the CIM Rules diverge from the CMR Convention. They
do so in four main areas. First, there are different provisions concerning
the examination of the goods and the consequences that follow from
that. Second, there are differences in relation to modifying the contract
of carriage. Third, the amount and extent of liability of carriers is both
more flexible and more generous to senders of goods than under the CMR
Convention. Finally, the manner in which claims are made also differs from
the convention.
The CIM Rules apply to all international rail carriage of goods where
the taking over of the goods occurs in a member state and the delivery
52
53
54

53
54
of the goods also occurs in a member state.55 However, in addition, the

rules can apply if either the place of taking over the goods or the place of
delivery of the goods is in a member state and the parties agree that the
rules should apply. Further, if there is a single contract for the transport
of the goods and if road or inland waterway transport is used internally
in a member state to supplement the main international carriage of goods
by rail, the rules will also apply. The CIM Rules will also apply to all sea
and transport carriage by inland waterway if the sea or inland waterway
transport supplements the main carriage by rail and if it occurs on routes
that are listed by the member states.56
As is the case with the CMR Rules, the main document of carriage is
the consignment note. There are provisions for an electronic consignment
note to be issued. The information to be contained in the consignment
note is similar to that required for road carriage and the responsibilities of
the sender for the accuracy of the information and packaging of the goods
is also similar to the provisions in the CMR Convention.
The first major area of difference between the CIM Rules and the CMR
Convention concerns the examination of the goods. The carrier has the
right to examine the goods at any time to ensure that they are in accordance
with what has been set out in the consignment note. However, because
goods are often loaded by the sender of the goods, the rules give the sender
the right at their expense to require the carrier to examine the goods to
verify that they are as stated in the consignment note.57 If the carrier has
loaded the goods then the consignment note is evidence of their condition
as shown on the consignment note, or if no indication is shown as to their
condition then the consignment note is evidence of their apparently good
condition when taken over.58 If the consignor has loaded the goods then
the consignment note will only be evidence of the sound condition of the
goods if this is stated on it. If there is no notation of the soundness of
the goods and the consignor has loaded the goods, then the consignment
note will not be evidence of the apparently sound condition of the goods
unless the carrier has examined them and made a notation of the findings
on the note.59 The responsibility for loading the goods has to be agreed
between the parties, but in the absence of agreement the carrier is to
have responsibility for loading and unloading. However, for full wagon
55
56
57
58
59
CIM Rules, Article 1(1).

loads (presumably including containers) the responsibility rests with the

consignor and unloading with the consignee.
The second main area of difference to the CMR Rules is the rights as
between consignor and consignee to modify the contract of carriage. While
the consignor has the right to request the carrier to discontinue carriage
of the goods, delay their delivery, or to deliver to a different person or place,
the consignee is also given rights to modify the contract of carriage from
the time when the consignment note is drawn up unless the consignor indicates otherwise in the consignment note. The explanatory memorandum
regarding the new rules introduced by the 1999 modernisation suggests
that this may lead to a race between the consignor and the consignee to
make amendments. For that reason and because of the possible difficulties
that could arise in relation to the contact of sale between an exporter and
a buyer, it would seem to be desirable for consignors to insert a provision
that the consignee cannot request modifications.
The third area of major difference between the two sets of rules relates
to the extent and amount of liability. The amount of liability of the carrier
for loss or damage is limited to 17 units of account per kilogram unless
the parties have agreed to a higher value. This limitation as to amount
will also not apply if the loss or damage was due to the wilful or reckless
actions of the carrier. There are also provisions concerning the extent of
liability for wastage for goods which are, by their nature, subject to this
when in transit.60 The method for valuing the goods to determine the
exact amount of loss is almost identical to that provided in the CMR
Convention. The CIM Rules contain quite specific provisions regarding
damage caused by delay. The rules specify that the consignor and the
carrier shall agree to the transit period. If this has not been agreed and
in the absence of some specified exceptional circumstances, the maximum
carriage time is 24 hours for the each 400 kilometres of carriage.61 The
time can be extended by the carrier if rail transport is combined with road,
sea or inland waterway transport or if there is a change in gauge of the rail
tracks. These maximum time periods tend to suggest that rail carriage of
goods may well be a slower option than road transport. This is no doubt
one of the issues that the European Railway Agency will be addressing in
order to increase the competitiveness of rail. If the carrier is liable for delay,
the amount of liability is limited to four times the charge for the carriage.62
60
61
62
CIM Rules, Article 31.

55
56
The final major area of difference concerns the manner in which claims
are made and who is entitled to make a claim against the carrier. As is the
case with the CMR Rules, the carrier is also responsible for the actions of
their servants and agents.63 The rules are much more specific than the CMR
Rules as to who is entitled to make a claim against the carrier. The CIM
Rules have the effect that in the case of loss or damage the person entitled to
bring an action is the person who has possession of the consignment note.
Thus the consignor is only entitled to make a claim against the carrier until
the consignee has taken possession of the consignment note, accepted the
goods or modified the contract of carriage as described above.64 In order
to make a claim for partial loss or damage to the goods, the person entitled
must request the carrier to draw up a report without delay setting out the
nature of the loss or damage, the condition of the goods and the extent of
loss or damage and can refuse to accept delivery until the examination to
establish loss or damage has been carried out.65 If the person entitled to
delivery disputes the report, they have the right to call in an independent
expert.66 The report must be requested by the person entitled to make a
claim either immediately upon discovery of the loss or damage if such is
apparent or, if not apparent, within seven days of accepting the goods. A
claim must be made in writing and will not be able to be made unless
the person bringing it produces the consignment note and has had the
report referred to above carried out. In the case of damages for delay the
person entitled needs to assert their rights within 60 days. The time limit
for bringing a court action is one year.
GOVERNING TRANSPORT OF GOODS
W I T H I N T H E E U B Y I N L A N D W AT E R W AY
There is a further convention that needs to be mentioned in connection
with internal transport of goods within the EU. This is the Budapest Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Inland Waterway (CMNI) of 2000.
The CMNI Convention applies to all inland water transport where the
place of loading of the goods and place of delivery of the goods is in two
different states and at least one is a party to the convention. It also applies to
any contract for the carriage of goods that includes a portion of sea shipment
63
64
65
66

of goods provided that the portion of sea shipment is less than the portion of inland water transport and provided that a maritime bill of lading
has not been issued in relation to the voyage.67 At the time of writing
the European signatories to the CMNI Convention include the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, Czech Republic, Switzerland, Bulgaria and
Romania. These countries contain the major cross-border inland shipping
routes through central Europe. Notable absences from the list of signatory
countries are France and Belgium.
The CMNI Convention has much in common with both the CIM
Rules and CMR Convention. Accordingly there is a considerable degree
of uniformity introduced between the three conventions concerning the
requirement of the carrier to deliver the goods within the time period
stated;68 the obligations of the sender concerning dangerous goods;69 the
matters of which they need to advise the carrier;70 what must be included
in the transport document;71 the requirement on the part of the carrier to
note on the transport document any reservations concerning the condition
of the goods;72 and the rights of the holder of the transport document to
instruct the carrier regarding disposal of the goods until the consignee has
the consignment note.73
There are a number of features specific to the CMNI Convention
requiring special mention here. First, the convention states that unless
it is otherwise agreed, the taking over and delivery of the goods shall
take place on board the vessel. This means that the person responsible for
arranging this means of transport has to arrange for the cost and risks of
loading and unloading the goods.74 Second, the transport document that
is to be issued may either be a consignment note or a bill of lading. A
bill of lading will only be issued if this was agreed before the goods were
loaded. Where a bill of lading is issued then it alone shall determine the
relations between the carrier and the consignee75 but the conditions of
the contract shall continue to govern the relations between the carrier and
the consignor.76 Third, if the goods being transported are in a container
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
CMNI Convention, Article 1.

CMNI Convention, Articles 79.
CMNI Convention, Articles 14 and 15.
CMNI Convention, Article 3(2).
57
58
and if the container has not been damaged nor the seals broken by the
carrier or their agents, then there is a presumption that any damage to the
goods did not occur during that part of the carriage.77 Fourth, if there
is loss, damage or delay the carrier is presumed to be liable unless it can
show it took all the precautions of a diligent carrier.78 However, there is
a list of special exoneration from liability including loss caused by acts
of the shipper, nature of the goods, defective packaging, and inadequacy
of markings on the goods or salvage operations. The maximum amount of
liability of the carrier is specified at the same rate as in the Hague-Visby
Rules 666 units of account per package or two units of account per
kilogram79 but with the important change that where a container is lost,
that amount will be replaced by 1500 units of account for the container
alone and 25 000 units of account for its contents. Liability for delay only
is limited to the amount of the freight. The convention also provides for
time limits for giving notice and bringing actions.80
It has been noted earlier that if a freight forwarder is engaged to handle all
of the transport arrangements from the exporters premises to the importer,
then it will usually be the case that the freight forwarder will engage the
various subcontractors, be they short sea carriers, road transport companies, rail companies or inland waterway transporters. Thus, under most
multimodal transport documents, the freight forwarder will be responsible
for compensating the party responsible for engaging the forwarder and
the forwarder will then have to pursue the carrier that damaged the goods.
The foregoing discussion reveals a number of implications for both forwarders and those engaging them. First, the forwarder will only compensate
the party engaging them to the extent to which the subcontractor is liable
under the relevant legal regime applying to that portion of the carriage of
the goods. As has been seen, both the circumstances where the carrier is
liable and the extent of their liability are slightly different under each of
the conventions discussed above. Second, forwarders themselves may have
considerable difficulty in determining the leg of the transport where any
loss or damage occurred. They need to be aware of the implications of the
place of taking over the goods for each leg and the place of delivery as
well as the obligations for notifying any loss or damage. It has also been
noted above that, in some contracts of carriage, there is a condition that
the carrier only contracts as agent for the person arranging the carriage.
77
78
79
80

CMNI Convention, Articles 2324.
This means that the person entering into the contract with the carrier
will themselves have to determine where the damage occurred and then
pursue that carrier to the extent of liability possible under the relevant
convention.
The complexities of dealing with different carriers and legal regimes for
each portion of the carriage of goods have resulted in attempts to negotiate an overarching international convention on carriage by multimodal
transport. It is understandable that EU authorities would be supportive
of such efforts because a standard international convention might facilitate the attempts to shift the burden of internal transport within the EU
away from road transport and towards other means such as rail and inland
waterway. On the other hand, the logistical as well as legal difficulties of
door-to-door transport tend to work very much in favour of utilising just
two means of transport sea and road. Further, attempts to shift a greater
percentage of inland transport away from road towards rail and inland
waterway may be being hindered because of the growing global interconnectedness of sea and road companies as opposed to integration between
sea and the other means of transport. In addition, studies have shown
that the percentage of loss or damage is very small in relation to overall
quantities of goods transported. One study showed that more than 75%
of shippers suffered losses of less than 0.1% of cargo in intra-EU transport
and less than 5% of shippers had losses of more than 1%.81 Further, a position paper by the European organisation representing freight forwarders
argued that a single liability regime to cover all forms of EU transport
may not only create confusion because of its lack of universality but would
also likely lead to an increase in insurance costs because of the greater
limits of liability that a new convention might impose.82 For all of these
reasons then, there is little support for a new international multimodal
convention for transport of goods and it seems that for the foreseeable
future, exporters and importers will have to live with multiple liability
regimes.
81
82
See European Commission, The Economic Impact of Carrier Liability on Intermodal Freight Transport,
Executive Summary of a study by IM Technologies Limited, 22 January 2001, London, <http://ec.
europa.eu/transport/ontermodality/highlights/doc/executive-summary.doc>, which reported survey results that showed more than 80% of US shippers sending to the EU reported a loss of less
than 0.1%.
CLECAT, position paper presented to the Joint ECMT/UMECE Working Party/Group on
Intermodal Transport and Logistics, 5 September 2006, Brussels, <http://www.unece.org/trans/
wp24/wp24-inf-docs/documents/id06-06e.pdf>.
59
60
INSURANCE
Obligations to insure the goods during transport are determined by the
incoterms. For most of the incoterms, the seller needs to arrange insurance
up to the point of transfer of risk and the buyer thereafter. Only where
the seller has accepted insurance obligations beyond the point of transfer
of risk (such as with the CIF and CIP incoterms) need the seller insure
beyond the point of risk transfer. Many exporters take out what is known
as open cover insurance policies to cover their insurance obligations for
export transactions over a set period of time.
Most insurance policies for the international transport of goods use
standard terms known as the Institute Cargo Clauses.83 There are three
common versions of the Institute Cargo Clauses. These are Institute Cargo
Clauses A or all risks, Institute Cargo Clauses B and Institute Cargo
Clauses C. Institute Cargo Clauses C provide the least amount of cover.
The A clauses provide the most cover and the B clauses are an intermediate
position. All three versions exclude a number of events from insurance
cover. A brief summary of the risks covered by each category follows before
listing the exclusions that apply to all three.
Institute Cargo Clauses A cover all risks other than the excluded risks.
Institute Cargo Clauses B only covers loss or damage due to the following
specified causes. These are loss or damage due to fire or explosion; stranding
or overturning of the vessel or land transport; collisions; discharge at a port
due to distress; general average sacrifice; washing overboard; entry of sea,
lake or river water into the ship or a container; loss of goods overboard;
and loss or damage due to being dropped while loading onto or off the
vessel or craft. Institute Cargo Clauses C cover the same risks as B clauses
other than loss or damage due to entry of sea, lake or river water; loss of
goods overboard; and damage while loading or unloading.
All three categories exclude loss or damage arising from a wide range of
events. These are circumstances attributable to the wilful misconduct of
the assured; ordinary leakage, ordinary loss of weight, volume or ordinary
wear and tear; insufficient packaging; inherent vice of the goods; delay;
insolvency or financial default of the owners or masters of the vessel;
deliberate damage by the wrongful act of any person; loss or damage from
weapons of war including nuclear weapons; unseaworthiness or unfitness
of the vessel when this was known by the insured; war, civil unrest or hostile
83
Although the use of the Institute Cargo Clauses is widespread, there are other standard sets of
clauses that insurers may use. These include the UNCTAD model clauses on marine hull and cargo
insurance.
acts by a belligerent power; capture or seizure or detainment of the vessel

other than through piracy; strikes, riots or civil commotions; and acts of
terrorism. If additional cover is required for some of these risks then it can
be taken out. For example, there are standard Institute Cargo Clauses that
cover war and also strikes. The cover for these additional items will require
the addition of these clauses to the insurance contract with the insurer and
will result in additional premiums being payable.
It should be noted that the foregoing may not be the only exclusions
from cover. Some standard insurance policies may also exclude certain
classes of goods from cover, such as bulk carriage of commodities, livestock,
precious metals or computer equipment. For shipments of these classes of
goods, variations to standard terms will be required. There is a range of
Institute Cargo Clauses that the parties can agree to for particular classes
of goods such as the Institute Frozen Food Clauses and the Institute Frozen
Meat Clauses. It is also reasonably common to exclude carriage from and to
countries where there is high risk. Again, special cover needs to be arranged
in these cases.
Institute Cargo Clauses A are the most common level of cover taken out
by the party (seller or buyer) who bears the risk of loss or damage to the
goods. The reason is that the party bearing the risk of loss or damage wishes
to cover themselves for the maximum range of risks. However, it needs to
be noted that the two incoterms that require a seller to take out insurance
(CIP and CIF) only specify that it needs to be on minimum terms in
other words, Institute Cargo Clauses C. Thus buyers who agree to these
two incoterms may wish to have a provision in their contract of sale that
requires a higher level of cover. This is because even though the seller has to
take out the insurance, it is the buyer who bears the risk of loss or damage
under these two incoterms.
61
Customs law and procedure

within the EU
INTRODUCTION
AN EXPORT OF GOODS to a country within the EU will involve
both a clearance of the goods for export from the country of the seller and
a clearance of the goods for entry into the EU either where the goods arrive
or in the country of the buyer. The incoterm chosen by the parties will
determine the responsibilities for export and import clearance.
Other than in the case of the incoterm Exworks, it is the responsibility
of the exporter to arrange export clearance in their own country following
the procedure that their particular country adopts for this. Due to ongoing work by the World Customs Organization (WCO), export clearance
systems are increasingly being harmonised so that firms with export operations in a number of countries are not confronted with entirely different
procedures for the export of goods. Nonetheless, this work continues and
variations are found from country to country.
Other than in the case of the incoterm Delivered Duty Paid, and
sometimes Carriage Paid to and Carriage and Insurance Paid to,1 the
responsibility for clearance of the goods for import rests with the buyer.
Thus in many export transactions a seller will not need to have detailed
working knowledge of the procedures for customs clearance in the importing country. However, a general knowledge of the procedures within the
EU is very useful for exporters. The EU is a very competitive marketplace
and to gain an advantage over their competitors exporters may find that
to sell to customers within the EU it is necessary to agree to terms that
require import clearance. In addition, exporters need to be familiar with
1
See Table 2.1 in Chapter 2.
62
C U S T O M S L AW A N D P R O C E D U R E W I T H I N T H E E U
some of the obstacles that their customers may face in meeting EU regulatory requirements for imports and, in particular, some of the requirements
that the production of the goods for export to the EU must meet. This
chapter therefore provides an outline of some of the basic procedures and
regulatory issues that arise when importing into the EU.
The very nature of a customs union is that once goods enter one country
that is a member of the union, then goods should be free to move within the
entire union area with little restriction. In the case of the EU this principle
is referred to as freedom of movement and the program that is in place to
bring this about is referred to as the single market. Attaining the single
market not only for freedom of movement of goods, but also persons and
capital, is a work in progress particularly as the EU continues to expand.
Prior to accession to the EU, each country had its own import regulations.
However, upon accession to the EU countries must agree to a common
procedure and common rates of duty for imported goods. Subject to some
exceptions that will be dealt with later, once goods enter one EU member
country then they are free to move to any other member country with no
requirement for customs clearance.
E U C U S T O M S E N T RY P R O C E D U R E
The following flow chart sets out a list of steps that an exporter should take
if the relevant incoterm requires them to arrange clearance of the goods into
an EU member country. The customs entry document and duty rates have
been standardised on an EU-wide basis and, accordingly, regardless of the
country to which the goods are being exported, the basic customs entry
document will be the same. Likewise, the steps that must be taken for
entry of goods to the EU will conform to the basic pattern presented in the
flow chart. However, there may be some slight variations of this procedure
depending on the EU member country and the type of goods. This is
discussed in more detail below. The procedure for the UK has been used as
an example here to illustrate the requirements for customs clearance that
will be found throughout the EU.2
Other than for those exporters who have a permanent business presence
within the EU, the first step taken by many exporters is to appoint a
customs agent to deal with all of the necessary paperwork and ensure that
all relevant EU regulations for import of the particular class of goods have
2
A detailed explanation of the procedure can be found in HM Revenue & Customs, Guide to Importing
and Exporting: Breaking Down the Barriers, January 2009, available from <http://customs.hmrc.
gov.uk/index.htm>.
63
64
Appoint an agent
Agent files import entry

declaration
Entry accepted
Payment of duty and

VAT
Presentation of documents
and entry acceptance
advice
Collection of goods
Figure 4.1 Flow chart of import procedure (UK)
been complied with. Even those exporters who have a permanent presence
may still find it less expensive to hire a customs agent to handle import
matters rather than bear the significant administrative costs of hiring staff
who have the broad range of knowledge needed for this task. In the UK, all
importers are required to have a unique 12-digit number (a Traders Unique
Reference Number or TURN) in order to import into the UK. The TURN
will be the traders VAT registration number plus a three digit suffix. An
exporter who wants to clear goods for EU entry but does not have a
permanent EU presence or a customs agent must apply for what is known
as a pseudo turn for the particular transaction. This is time consuming
and expensive and hence appointing an agent is the better option. In addition, agents will know the detailed requirements for various classes of
goods, including duty rates and the necessity for obtaining any special
licence or quota and what is needed to comply with both EU-wide and
particular country standards and technical requirements. While exporters
are authorised to appoint agents to lodge customs entries on their behalf, it

needs to be pointed out that the agent will make the declaration on behalf
of the exporter. The exporter is therefore responsible for the accuracy of
the information and should check declarations made on their behalf.
The second step in the flow chart above is for the agent to file the
import entry declaration. As noted, this document is standardised for all
EU countries and is referred to as the Single Administrative Document,
or C88. An extensive amount of information is required to complete
the C88.3 Some of the requirements are reasonably straightforward items,
including the details of the exporter, importer, lodging agent, port of
arrival, country or origin, description of the goods and invoice number.
However, some items require further discussion here. They are the customs
procedure code, the commodity code and the value of the goods.
The customs procedure code (CPC) is determined by the use to which
the imported goods will be put. Most exports will be intended for use
within the EU and therefore attract the relevant CPC. However, if goods
are intended to be re-exported or some exemption or reduction of duty is
applicable, a separate CPC will apply. The various circumstances in which
goods might be exported or attract reduced duty are discussed in a later
section.
The commodity code is the specific tariff code that applies to the goods
being imported. This code is uniform to all EU member countries and,
in addition, is largely standardised internationally through the work of the
WCO. The commodity code determines the appropriate rate of duty applicable to that class of good and, accordingly, having the correct commodity
code is significant. The European Commission publishes the common customs tariff and regularly updates this. The entire list of commodity codes
is reproduced in each countrys customs legislation. In the case of the UK
the 16 600 commodity codes are contained in Volume 2 of the Integrated
Tariff of the United Kingdom.4
The third issue requiring comment is that of valuation. Value of goods
imported will ordinarily be their transaction value calculated in accordance
with the CIF (cost, insurance and freight) price regardless of whether buyer
or seller actually pays the freight and insurance. If transaction value is not
appropriate then there is a defined hierarchy of other valuation methods
that must be used to determine the value of the goods. This hierarchy of
valuation methods is enshrined in the WTO agreements and is therefore
3
4
A useful website that goes through a step-by-step procedure for the completion of the 54 boxes on
the C88 is <http://www.ukimports.org/C88.html>.
At <http://www.uk-customs-tariff.com/Login.aspx?ReturnUrl=%2fDefault.aspx>.
65
66
binding upon all member countries including all EU countries. Detailed

discussion of each of the valuation methods can be found in the various
valuation publications available for purchase from the WCO.5
UK customs has two other procedures that might assist regular exporters.
First, if the agent obtains authorisation, they may be able to lodge a
simplified version of the C88 and gain accelerated release of the goods.
The agent is then able to lodge the full details after release of the goods
within a specified time frame set out by customs. Second, exporters who
regularly supply the same customer may be able to have their customer
lodge what is known as a general valuation statement, which sets out
the value of the goods that are supplied. This statement will remain valid
for three years as long as the details supplied do not change. This system
may help exporters who are regularly supplying distributors. These two
simplified procedures are available to importers in the UK. There may be
individual country variations on these procedures for other EU member
countries.
The third step in the flow chart above is that the agent will receive an
acceptance of the entry. In almost all cases this acceptance will be transmitted electronically to the agent because all agents will use the electronic
system for import entries. In the UK this system as known as the Customs
Handling of Import and Export Freight (CHIEF) system.
The fourth step is for the agent to pay the duty calculated in accordance
with the rate of duty applicable to the particular goods in question and
any value-added tax (VAT) that is payable. As noted, this is determined
from the commodity code. Most agents adopt what is known as a deferred
payments system. This allows the agent to pay the import duty monthly
rather than upon the release of the goods. In order for the agent to defer
payment on an exporters behalf, it is necessary to provide the customs
authority with financial security from a bank or other financial institution
up to a certain amount and an authority to deduct funds. That amount
cannot be exceeded for any given month.
The next step is the presentation of the import documents to customs
at the port of arrival of the goods to collect the goods. In the case of
multimodal transport, it is useful to use a firm that not only handles the
transport but also has authorisation to deal with customs matters.
The earlier discussion of transport of goods within the EU noted that
most goods are cleared through customs at the EU port of arrival either by
an agent of the exporter or an agent of the buyer. However, the possibility
5
See WCO bookshop website, <http://publications.wcoomd.org/index.php?language=en>.
exists to defer clearance through customs until the goods reach the customs
point closest to the buyers location. This system is known as community
transit. In the case of goods being exported to the EU from a third country,
the system allows the exporter or their agent to allow goods to move within
the community subject to final clearance at the port of destination.
A brief summary of the procedure is as follows. The person requesting
permission for the transit of goods normally lodges electronically a form
T1 with the customs authority in the country where the port of arrival of
the goods from overseas is situated. The customs authority in this country
then provides the person lodging the form with a Transit Accompanying
Document, which must accompany the goods. The goods usually must
remain sealed within their containers at all times during transit. The person lodging the form also has to provide a guarantee for payment of the
duties should something go wrong and the goods go missing. The customs
authority in the EU country where the goods first land transmit the information lodged by the person requesting a transit authority to the customs
authority within the country of the buyer. Once the customs authority in
the country of the buyer has cleared the goods, it authorises the release
of the guarantee that has been provided by the person requesting the
transit authority. For regular traders or their agents a simplified form of
transit authority can be obtained. Detailed information regarding transit
procedures can be found on Europa, the European Commissions website.6
The T1 procedure is the most common form of transit procedure for
exporters outside of the EU whose goods arrive at a port in a country
different to the final port of destination. However, other arrangements for
transit of goods from countries close to the EU also exist. The Transit
International Routier Convention (TIR Convention) signed by some
55 countries allows goods from some North African and Asian countries to
move through internal EU borders without the need for customs clearances
until the goods arrive at the customs point in the country of destination.7
There is also a special procedure for goods that are imported into the EU
on a temporary basis. This might occur, for example, if goods are intended
for a trade show and are to be taken out of the EU by the exhibitor
immediately after the trade show or if samples of goods are sent to the
EU to show to prospective buyers. Two possibilities exist here. The first
is that an authorised agent within the EU can request what is known as a
temporary importation relief from duty. Customs will then authorise the
6
7
The Transit Manual is available at <http://ec.europa.eu/taxation customs/customs/procedural

aspects/transit/common community/transit manual en.pdf >.
Details of these procedures can also be found in the Transit Manual.
67
68
movement of the goods within the EU without payment of duty provided

that a suitable security deposit is paid or guarantee given. The guarantee
or deposit will be released provided the goods leave the EU within the
required time frame. The second alternative is to use the worldwide ATA
Carnet system. Essentially this allows an exporter attending a trade show,
for example, to obtain a voucher for the movement of goods within the
EU provided that the person requesting the Carnet pays a suitable security
deposit. There are also schemes for suspension of import duty on goods
that are being imported into the EU to be incorporated into exports.8
Many countries outside of the EU also have such schemes so that their
exports are not at a competitive disadvantage because of the duty imposed
on imported components.9
E U - W I D E R E S T R I C T I O N S O N T H E E N T RY
OF GOODS
This section deals with the common EU-wide restrictions that an exporter
is likely to confront regardless of the EU member country where the goods
arrive. It does so by first examining restrictions on agricultural goods and
then restrictions on manufactured goods. The next section deals with
additional restrictions that may exist at the individual country level.
A G R I C U LT U R A L P R O D U C T S
Many categories of both raw and processed agricultural goods will have a
tariff applied to them when entering the EU. As noted earlier, the specific
tariff rate for any product can be found in the common customs tariff. In
addition, the EU imposes above-quota tariffs on a large range of goods.
The tariff quota system is a WTO-authorised system that allows countries to charge a set rate of duty on goods up to a certain quantity of
those goods and then to impose a much higher rate of duty for imports
of those goods in excess of the specified quantity. Exporters need to check
the commodity code in the tariff schedule to ascertain if a tariff quota
applies to the goods they are intending to export. If so, the importer will
need to make a request for a share of the quota. This is usually done as
part of the import entry documentation and administered by the customs
authority in the country of import. However, because quotas are EU-wide
8
9
See <http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/customs/customs_duties/tariff_aspects/suspensions/index_en.htm>.
For further details of temporary relief from duty or claiming back duty paid in the UK see the
section on transit systems in HM Revenue & Customs Guide to Importing and Exporting, op. cit.
and a share is available in any EU member country, the European Commission monitors the allocation of quotas of each good on an EU-wide
basis. Quotas may apply either generally to worldwide imports of the particular good for which the quota exists or alternatively may apply for those
countries that have a preferential agreement with the EU for a quota of
goods at a preferential rate (see below for further discussion of preferential
arrangements).
In both of these cases, quotas are allocated on a first-come first-served
basis. Once the quota is used up, then any imports of those goods will be
charged the higher rate of duty. Importers can check how much of a given
quota remains for any particular good by referring to a website that exists
for this purpose.10 However, even if an importer ascertains that a share of
the quota is still available, there is no guarantee that at the time the import
documentation is lodged it will still be available and, accordingly, there
is the possibility of payment of the higher rate of duty. When the quota
is almost exhausted a system is in place to designate the quota allocation
as critical. If this is the case then importers may need to lodge a security
deposit to cover the additional duty if they fail to make the quota.
Imports of some agricultural goods are also subject to a licensing requirement. In 2008, the list of these was reduced significantly from some 500
products down to 65.11 Previously, the licensing system was a means of
enforcing quotas but, with the move to numerical quotas (first-come firstserved), licensing has been removed for all but the most sensitive agricultural products and some products which are imported under preferential
arrangements where the numerical quota system cannot be used. Sensitive
products that still require a licence include most cereals, sugar, olives, garlic,
apples and bananas.12
Most imported agricultural goods will need to have been certified by
competent authorities in the exporters country as meeting the relevant
EU food safety standard. This will often require exporting countries to
have satisfactory measures in place to monitor food production to ensure
that it is in conformity with these standards.13 The EU publishes a list
of countries that are permitted to export food of animal and plant origin
to it. In a work of this length it is impossible to list all of the numerous
10
11
12
13
See <http://ec.europa.eu/taxation customs/common/about/welcome/index en.htm>.

See Commission Takes Latest Step in CAP Simplification Process, Press Release, IP/08/922,
12 June 2008.
See Commission Regulation (EC) No. 514/2008 [2008] OJ L150/7.
See European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Guidance Document on Certain Key Questions Related to Import Requirements and the New Rules on Food Hygiene
and on Official Food Controls, 5 January 2006, <http://ec.europa.eu/food/international/trade/
interpretation_imports.pdf>.
69
70
regulations and directives that apply to the import of food to the EU.
There are detailed requirements for product labelling and packaging for
various classes of goods, provisions relating to veterinary checks and food
hygiene, directives on animal nutrition, health and welfare that need to be
complied with by producers in exporting countries as well as details of the
type of checks required for plant products. A useful source of information
is the food safety section of the Europa website.14 The EU has put in
place a European Food Safety Authority that has the overriding function
of ensuring that member countries utilise the most up-to-date scientific
information for determining food safety as well as a rapid alert system to
advise member countries of contaminated food. It needs to be noted that
because of the rigorous standards that must exist in the producing country,
EU buyers wanting to import from some food producing countries will
simply not be able to get a licence. The detailed procedures applying to
beef imports into the EU from Australia are set out in the case study below
to illustrate just how detailed the requirements can be for a single product.
Case study
Exporting beef to the EU regulatory considerations
To ensure food safety and quality standards the EU has a farm to fork
policy for the monitoring of every step of the food production and
distribution chain.15 The requirements imposed on beef producers and
processors, exporters and EU importers and retailers demonstrate how
EU regulation works in relation to this single product. The following
describes how EU regulatory requirements affect each step of the production chain in Australia and the final import and distribution for the
product in the EU.
Australian beef producers aiming to access the EU market must go
through an accreditation process (the European Union Cattle Accreditation Scheme) with the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS).16 The key issue for accreditation is that cattle destined for the
14
15
16
At <http://ec.europa.eu/scaplus/leg/en/s80000.htm>.
See European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, EU Import
Conditions for Fresh Meat and Meat Products, <http://ec.europa.eu/food/international/trade/im
cond meat en.pdf >.
Australian Government, Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, European Union Cattle
Accreditation Scheme: Questions Answered, last reviewed 5 October 2007, <http://www.daff.gov.
au/aqis/export/meat/elmer-3/eucas/questions-answered>.
EU market must be free of hormone growth promotants (HGPs). Accordingly, beef producers must have no HGP cattle on their property at any
time; they must only buy stock from other accredited producers; they
must only buy and sell through accredited sale yards; and all cattle that
are destined for the EU market must be identified by special tail tags
at all times. In addition, all stock must be registered with the National
Livestock Identification Scheme to ensure that they are able to be traced
from birth. Sale yards themselves are also subject to strict requirements
in that they must keep EU-identified stock separate from all other stock
that are sold in the sale yards. Beef producers can be audited at any time
and sale yards are audited annually to ensure that these requirements
are being implemented. Audits are usually carried out by AQIS.
Each time cattle are sold the owner must complete an EU Vendor
Declaration that requires the Property Identification Code number (PIC)
of the vendor; details of the cattle being sold; their destination; how
long the cattle have been owned by the vendor; whether the cattle have
been raised in accordance with an independently audited QA program;
whether the cattle have been treated with any chemicals or been fed on
by-product stock feeds (that might contain HGPs or chemicals) within a
certain time frame; and whether the cattle are still within a withholding
period following treatment with any veterinary drug or chemical. The
aim of the declaration places the onus on the vendor to verify that the
cattle will not contain any chemical residues or HGPs.
The EU approves individual countries as being eligible to export to it
based upon their ability to demonstrate the following: they have a system in place for ensuring that abattoirs and export establishments meet
EU health and hygiene standards; there are adequate monitoring systems in place to ensure any chemical residues in the meat do not breach
EU standards; the country has in place suitable measures for the control
of livestock disease including BSE (mad cow disease); and establishments
meet the required conditions for the humane slaughter of animals.17
Each country seeking accreditation must have a competent veterinary
authority which has power to monitor all parts of the production chain.
The Food and Veterinary Office of the EU will undertake a mission to any
country wishing to be accredited to assure themselves that the country
meets the requirements mentioned. In Australia, AQIS is the competent authority and is responsible for designating abattoirs and export
17
See European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, EU Import

Conditions for Fresh Meat and Meat Products, op. cit.
71
72
establishments as approved establishments in accordance with EU standards and, after a submission is made by AQIS, to the EU authorities
on behalf of the plant seeking approval. Only approved establishments
can export beef to the EU. AQIS is responsible for monitoring approved
establishments to ensure that they continue to comply with EU standards, as well as providing a veterinary inspection service for meat that
is to be exported.
Although beef is a fully harmonised product and, therefore, standards
are the same throughout the EU regardless of the country of import, beef
importers must still abide by set requirements. Importers must ensure
that beef imports arrive through a designated border inspection post
within the EU and that prior to the arrival of the consignment authorities are notified and import documentation is accompanied by the relevant veterinary and other certifications. Beef from Australia must be
accompanied by the standard AQIS health certificates. An AQIS inspector must be present for the loading of each container and an AQIS seal
is placed on the outside of the container. Despite harmonisation at the
EU level, there may still be some additional documentary and testing
requirements depending on the EU country that the beef is being sent
to. Border inspection posts will carry out documentary checks, identity
checks and physical checks as necessary.18 The importer is also responsible for ensuring that the beef comes from an approved country and an
approved establishment.
Importers must also apply for a share of the quota. Australia has a
quota of 7500 tons for high-quality beef and up to that limit beef will
attract an import duty rate of 20%. Beyond that limit, high quality beef
will attract a duty rate of 12.5% plus between 141.4 and 304.1 per
100 kilograms depending on the cut of beef. This will raise the overall
duty rate well beyond the 20% level that applies to in-quota beef. When
imported beef is sold it must meet EU labelling requirements. The basic
requirements are as follows. Each carton of beef must have the E in
the oval E label showing that it is eligible for the EU. In addition, there
must be two AQIS EU tamper evident seals on each carton for security
purposes. If the seals are broken the carton will not be accepted. The
standard Ausmeat labelling that applies to cartons of Australian beef is
also included. In addition, individual EU countries might have their own
specific labelling requirements such as dual language on the label.
18
See European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate, Guidance Document on
Certain Key Questions Related to Import Requirements and the New Rules on Food Hygiene and on
Official Food Controls, op. cit.
M A N U FA C T U R E D G O O D S
The EU also has numerous standards in place at the EU level in relation to
many categories of manufactured goods to ensure that products conform
to certain quality standards and to ensure that they are safe for consumers.
In order to ensure that goods conform to quality and safety requirements
throughout the EU, directives are issued that either set out standards for
particular goods or refer to specific industry standards for them. Becoming
familiar with these standards is a task for the specialist. For example,
there are over 100 directives in place that relate to the construction and
functioning of motor vehicles.19 This highlights the need for an exporter
to be aware of EU standards for the particular good to reduce the risk of it
simply not being able to be sold in the EU market.
Because of the logistical problems that would arise in testing all goods to
ascertain whether they meet the relevant standards, the EU has instituted
what is known as the CE marking system (or Conformite Europienne)
that applies to many manufactured goods.20 A listing of the categories
of goods which are eligible for CE marking can be found on the various
websites of organisations that specialise in providing CE marking advice to
exporters.21 As harmonisation proceeds at the EU level, the range of goods
eligible for CE marking has increased. If a particular product is required
to have a CE mark, then the manufacturer must demonstrate that the
product has complied with the relevant requirements that are contained in
the directives that relate to the product. The directives will frequently only
set out what the attributes of the product should be. In order for a product
to satisfy those attributes, the manufacturer needs to consult the detailed
standards for the product set by the relevant industry standards bodies
to see what must be done technically in the manufacture of the product
to ensure that it measures up to the attributes set out in the directive.
Once the manufacturer has complied with all of the relevant requirements
and has the necessary evidence to prove this, then the manufacturer can
issue what is known as an EC Declaration of Compliance and then apply
the CE mark to the goods. If the CE mark has been applied to goods
and they are subsequently found not to comply with the requirements
of the relevant directives, then those goods can be withdrawn from sale
within the entire EU market. The Commission currently has a legislative
19
20
21
See <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/4 7 4 en.htm>.

A useful guide for Australian exporters can be found at <http://www.innovation.gov.au/Section/
Industry/Pages/CEmarkingofAustralianproductsforexporttotheEuropeanUnion.aspx>.
See for example <http://www.ce-marking.org>.
73
74
proposal to increase market surveillance procedures to detect unsafe and

non-compliant goods.22
The directives and standards applicable to some classes of goods will
require the manufacturer to have their product tested or the process of
manufacture certified by an independent body as meeting the requirements. Many countries have in place what are known as mutual recognition
agreements (MRAs) to allow the testing and certification procedures to be
carried out in the country of export. However, the MRAs will only apply to
certain classes of goods. In Australia, for example, the MRA applies to automotive products, electrical safety, electromagnetic capabilities, telecommunications equipment, machinery safety, medical devices, pharmaceuticals
and pressure equipment.23 If the MRA does not apply to the manufactured
good intended for export and CE marking is required, then the exporter
will have to have a relevant European body carry out the procedures.
Case study
An example of CE marking recreational craft
A recreational craft manufacturer that wants to sell its product in the
EU must have a CE mark attached to each boat. This is because the
standards that recreational craft must meet have been harmonised
on an EU-wide basis by virtue of Directive 94/25/EC24 as amended by
Directive 2003/44/EC.25 The process for obtaining the CE mark is complex. Each part of the boat must be manufactured in accordance with
the relevant standard for that component of the boat. For example,
there are detailed standards in place for hull construction, stability
and buoyancy assessment and categorisation, electrical systems, steering mechanisms, fire protection and inboard diesel engines.26 There are
some 60 standards in all. Not all are applicable to every type of boat.
22
23
24
25
26
See New Internal Market Package for Goods, <http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/regulation/internal

market package/index en.htm>.
See European CommunityAustralia Mutual Recognition Agreement, <http://www.innovation.
gov.au/Section/Industry/Pages/EuropeanCommunityAustraliaMutualRecognitionAgreementFrequentlyAskedQuestions.aspx>.
[1994] OJ L164/15.
[2003] OJ L214/18.
European Commission, Commission Communication in the Framework of the Implementation
of the Directive 94/25/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Approximation of
the Laws, Regulations and Administrative Procedures of the Member States Relating to Recreational
Craft No. 2008/C 109/05 [2008] OJ C109/8.
Construction of the craft in accordance with the relevant standards

needs to be verified before the product can be marketed in the EU.
The relevant regulatory authorities within EU member states designate
certain organisations (mostly consultants) who can verify compliance
with the standards.27 These organisations are called notified bodies. To
meet the requirements of the verification body the craft manufacturer
must first of all present to the verifying authority all of the technical
documentation relating to the product. This technical documentation
includes the following:28
r a general description of the type of product
r conceptual design and manufacturing drawings, and schemes of components, sub-assemblies and circuits etc.
r descriptions and explanations necessary for the understanding of the
drawings
r a list of the standards that applied in the manufacture of the product
r results of design calculations made and examinations carried out
r test reports or calculations regarding stability and buoyancy of the
vessel
r exhaust emission test reports
r sound emission test reports.
The verifying body uses this technical information when assessing
whether the product meets the requirements of the directive. There are
a number of matters upon which a verifying body must satisfy itself.29
First of all, the manufacturer will provide the verifying body with a
sample of the product and the verifying body ensures that the sample
complies with the technical documentation provided, including all
standards. It does so by carrying out whatever examinations and tests
are necessary. The product is then given what is known as a type examination certificate to the manufacturer. This certificate contains the
details of the manufacturer, conclusions of the examination, conditions
for its validity and the necessary data for identification of the approved
type. The manufacturer must keep the type certificate as well as the
technical specifications for a period of at least 10 years. There must also
be a person in the EU who is responsible for placing the product on
27
28
29
A list of notified bodies can be found at <http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/maritime/

files/regulatory/notified_bodies_94_25_080410_en.pdf>.
See Application Guide to the Amended Recreational Craft Directive, 20 February 2008, <http://ec.
europa.eu/enterprise/maritime/maritime regulatory/doc/cc guide cons20feb2008.pdf >.
This summary has been prepared from the Application Guide to the Amended Recreational Craft
Directive.
75
76
the EU market. They must also have the technical specifications for the
product.
In order to ensure that every craft is eligible to have the CE mark
applied, it is necessary to have procedures in place to ensure that each
product will be the same as the sample for which the type certificate has
been issued. First, the manufacturer is required to satisfy the verifying
body that they have in place a suitable quality control system for the
production, inspection and testing of the product; final product testing is in place; and the system is fully documented. The verifying body
audits the quality control system before approving it and monitors it
afterwards. Second, the verifying body either examines every product
to ensure its compliance with the type or more commonly checks that
random samples of the products comply with type.
Provided that the verifying body is satisfied, the manufacturer themselves is then entitled to fill in a declaration of conformity of recreational
craft with the design, construction and noise emission requirements of
Directive 94/25/EC as amended. It is noted that it is the manufacturer
who takes sole responsibility for the accuracy of the Declaration of Compliance. The declaration requires the manufacturer to list all of the applicable standards that have been used in its manufacture. Products that
are subsequently found to have had the CE mark applied when the product does not need the requirements of the directive can be withdrawn
from sale in the EU.
Exporters of manufactured goods to an EU member country may also

be confronted with tariff quotas for some products. As with agricultural
products, exporters need to check the tariff schedule to ascertain if a quota
applies and, if so, the importer will need to make application for a share
of the quota. Some manufactured goods might also be subject to licensing
requirements (e.g. chemicals, ozone depleting substances, radio equipment)
either on an EU-wide basis if the legislation relating to that particular item
has been harmonised or, if not, then at the individual country level. Again,
specialist advice from an import agent can be obtained to clarify if particular
goods are subject to licensing.
I N D I V I D U A L C O U N T RY R E S T R I C T I O N S
ON THE IMPORT OF GOODS
It may seem baffling to the outside observer that individual countries can
impose restrictions on goods given that the EU is meant to be a single
market. The outside exporter would tend to assume that once a good
meets the standards for entry into one EU member country then it should
be able to be freely marketed in all other member states. If the EU has set
standards at the EU level (known as harmonisation) then there are very
limited circumstances for individual countries to set different standards.
Article 95 of the EC Treaty has the effect that once standards are set at the
EU level, then individual countries can only maintain existing contrary
standards provided that they justify these and cannot impose their own
new standards without going through a rigorous process. Thus if the class
of goods that an exporter is exporting to a particular EU country is subject
to harmonised EU standards, the exporter can be more confident that
those goods will have free movement within the EU and not be subject to
additional barriers at the individual country level.
However, the harmonisation process of quality and safety standards
at the EU level is a work in progress. The European Commission notes
that around one quarter of all goods traded internally within the EU
are not subject to harmonised rules.30 If there are no EU-wide directives
applicable to the particular agricultural product or manufactured good
being exported, then the exporter will need to ensure that the good meets
the quality and safety standards of the EU country in which it is intended
to be sold. Once it meets those standards then the well-recognised principle
of mutual recognition in the EU will mean that the product is most likely
to be able to be sold in all member states. The mutual recognition principle
means that if a product can be sold in one EU member state and meets
the standards applicable in that state for the product, other member states
must recognise those standards and not impose additional standards.
The mutual recognition principle has been given added impetus by
Regulations 764/2008 and 765/2008,31 which seek to eliminate technical
barriers to trade between member states by establishing product contact
points in each member state and conformity assessment bodies. If a product
has been approved by a conformity assessment body after obtaining the
relevant standards from the product contact point, then other member
states cannot impose additional requirements on that product for it to
be marketed in their own particular state. However, this regulation applies
primarily to technical standards, and while it goes a considerable distance in
stopping additional barriers being imposed by member states in relation to
technical matters, it does not eliminate all possibilities of states imposing
30
31
See New Internal Market Package for Goods, <http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/regulation/internal

market package/index en.htm>.
Regulation (EC) No. 764/2008 [2008] OJ L218/21; Regulation (EC) No. 765/2008 [2008]
OJ L218/30.
77
78
other barriers, as will be seen in the discussion below. The explanation

of why this is the case is complicated but needs to be understood by
those intending to export to the EU. The explanation deals first with
quantitative barriers that individual countries seek to impose and then with
pecuniary barriers such as taxes and charges that they might seek to levy on
imports.
Q U A N T I TAT I V E A N D O T H E R T E C H N I C A L
B A R R I E R S T O I M P O RT S O F G O O D S F R O M
O T H E R E U M E M B E R S TAT E S
Because of the principle of freedom of movement of goods that underlies
many provisions of subsequent versions of the EC Treaty and the ongoing
work of the Commission to bring about a single market, member countries
of the EU are limited in imposing restrictions on the entry of goods
into their own particular country once those goods have legally entered
another member country, even if there is no harmonisation at the EU level.
Article 28 sets out the general rule that member countries cannot impose
quantitative restrictions or measures having equivalent effect on goods
coming from another member state. Despite this general rule, Article 30
of the treaty does allow some restrictions but only for the purpose of
public morality, public policy, public security, protecting health and life of
humans, plants and animals, protection of cultural property, and protection
of industrial and commercial property.
Article 28 seems to have a plain meaning on first reading. However, a
problem arises from the wording or measures having equivalent effect and
what exactly these words are meant to cover. In 1970 the EC promulgated
a directive32 that divided such measures into two categories measures
that apply only to imports from other EU member states as opposed to
locally produced goods (distinctly applicable measures) and measures that
apply to both imports from other EU member states and locally produced
goods (indistinctly applicable measures).
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) has had an easier time identifying
distinctly applicable measures that amount to quantitative restrictions on
imports. Examples of such measures include phytosanitary inspections on
imported apples when locally produced apples did not require any similar
inspection,33 a requirement by the Irish government for importers to buy
32
33
Directive 70/50/EEC [1970] OJ Spec Ed 17.

Rewe-Zentralfinanz v Landwirtshaftskammer [1975] ECR 843.
a percentage of their oil supplies from Irelands sole oil refinery,34 and a
German ban on the advertising of foreign medicinal products.35
However, the same cannot be said for indistinctly applicable measures.
The famous Cassis de Dijon case36 was one of the first illustrations of this. In
that case, Germany refused to allow French cassis (blackcurrants) to be used
for the production of a particular alcoholic beverage because Germany had
a mandatory requirement for 25% alcohol content for the beverage and
French cassis did not have the characteristics to allow this to occur. The
Commission challenged the German exclusion of French cassis imports
on the grounds that it infringed what was, at the time, the predecessor of
Article 28. In a famous ruling the ECJ said that if the measures were necessary so that mandatory requirements could be met, then reason suggests
that the state should be able to impose them. However, the mandatory
measures must clearly be necessary and there should be no other means of
achieving the same end. In this case, the ECJ said that labelling could have
been used to indicate the differences in alcoholic content and it was not
therefore necessary to exclude the French cassis.
More recent examples of measures which have been held to amount to
indistinctly applicable measures that amount to quantitative restrictions
include an English requirement that certain products had to show the
place of origin,37 and an Irish requirement that water pipes sold to a public
authority had to meet the Irish standard for those pipes.38 In both cases
the measures applied to both locally produced goods and goods imported
from other EU member states. However, in the first case, showing the
place of origin (predominantly France) was held to be a measure that
would discriminate against imports because consumers would be more
likely to choose the product that originated in England. In the second
case, there were international standards equal to the Irish standards and
therefore requiring all products to meet the Irish standard resulted in a
favouring of local products and therefore discriminated against imports.
One area that has produced considerable debate concerns the difference
between measures that relate to the intrinsic nature, packaging or labelling
of the product on the one hand and pure selling arrangements for the
product on the other. In Keck,39 the court held that national measures
34
35
36
37
38
39
Campus Oil ltd v Minister for Oil and Energy [1984] ECR 2727.
Lucien Ortscheit GmbH v Eurim-pharm GmbH Case [1994] ECR I-5243.
Rewe-Zentralfinanz v Bundesmonopolverwaltung fur Branntwein [1979] ECR 649.
Commission v UK [1985] ECR 1202.
Commission v Ireland [1988] ECR 4929.
Keck and Mithouard [1993] ECR I-6097.
79
80
that relate purely to selling arrangements (such as advertising) and that

affect domestic and imported goods equally would not offend Article 28.
However, the courts apply this rule strictly. For example, it was held that
a ban on alcohol advertising in Sweden offended Article 28 because the
effect of the ban was that consumers would be more likely to buy what they
already knew (Swedish brands of alcohol) rather than imports. Accordingly,
the ban did not have the same effect on both locally produced goods and
imports.40 Likewise, a German ban on the sale of pharmaceutical products
by mail order or over the internet was held to be in breach of Article 28
because the ban would affect foreign pharmaceutical sellers more than
German pharmacies even though the ban applied to both equally.41
Thus while states still technically have open to them the possibility of
imposing additional barriers to imports from other member states, the ECJ
looks carefully to determine if there is any protectionist effect at all and, if
so, will strike the regulation down as offending Article 28. As noted above,
Regulations 764/2008 and 765/2008 should make the courts job easier in
relation to technical barriers. However, as seen in the case examples above,
not all barriers relate to product standards and technical specifications so
the jurisprudence on Article 28 is likely to continue to grow.
Article 30 of the EC Treaty provides a range of circumstances where
countries can impose restrictions on imports. It allows member states to
regulate imports on the grounds of public morality, public policy, public
security, protecting health and life of humans, plants and animals, protection of cultural property and protection of industrial and commercial property. Regulations 764/2008 and 765/2008 continue to allow these grounds
for restricting the entry of goods. However, these provisions are construed
narrowly by the ECJ in the interests of upholding the principles of freedom
of movement of goods, mutual recognition of standards throughout the
community and the promotion of the single market. Nonetheless, some
measures have been found to have been justified under Article 30 even
though they were found to be quantitative restrictions under Article 28.
Thus the ban on the advertising of foreign drugs in Germany was permitted under Article 30 because those drugs were not authorised in Germany
and therefore could pose a health risk.42 It was noted in this case that in
the absence of harmonising legislation at the EU level, countries were free
to impose their own health requirements. Similarly, the requirement of the
40
41
42
Konsumentombudsmannen (KO) v Gourmet International Products AB (GIP) [2001] ECR I-1795.

Deutscher Apothekerverband Case C-322/01 not reported judgement delivered 11 December
2003.
Lucien Ortscheit GmbH v Eurim-pharm GmbH Case [1994] ECR I-5243.
Irish government for a certain percentage of oil to be purchased locally was

held to be justified under Article 30 because Ireland needed to maintain its
only oil refinery for national security purposes.43 In addition, the ban on
mail-order pharmaceuticals was held to be justified in relation to prescription drugs (but not non-prescription drugs) because of a potential adverse
affect on the health of German citizens, even though it was an indistinctly
applicable measure that restricted imports. Examples of cases where the
court has refused to allow justification under Article 30 include a ban by
England on imported turkeys because of an alleged threat of Newcastle
disease. In this case the court found the risk to public health was small
and the ban related more to the loss of market share by English turkey
farmers.44 A French prohibition on the import of milk substitutes was also
struck down because milk substitutes were not considered to be a risk to
public health.45
Finally, rather than set standards that will apply throughout the EU in
relation to a particular matter, the Commission has, on occasion, only set
minimum standards. This may be because it has been impossible to achieve
agreement for the one universal standard and all that has been possible is
agreement on a minimum standard. In those cases, individual member
countries may set standards higher than the minimum. However, if the
measure introducing the minimum standard has specifically provided
that there is to be no impediment to market access as a result of the setting
of a minimum standard, then countries can only apply higher standards
to products within their own market and not to products coming from
another EU member. If the directive introducing the minimum standard
does not specifically mention market access, then countries may set higher
standards even in relation to goods coming from other member countries.
This, however, needs to be justified in accordance with the Article 30
exceptions mentioned above.
P E C U N I A RY B A R R I E R S
Movement of goods from one EU country to another might be deterred
because of taxes and charges that the importing country levies on those
goods. Because of the potential for such taxes and charges to be an impediment to the freedom of movement of goods, there are a number of provisions in the EU Treaty that control the ability of states to levy them.
43
44
45
Campus Oil ltd v Minister for Oil and Energy [1984] ECR 2727.
Commission v France [1988] ECR 793.
81
82
Article 25 prevents any country from levying customs duties or charges

having equivalent effect on imported products. Accordingly, a Belgian levy
on imported diamonds to fund social security benefits for workers in the
diamond industry contravened the then equivalent of Article 25.46 Even a
service provided to the importer may amount to a charge having equivalent
effect to a customs duty. Thus, a levy by Belgian customs authorities on
goods that were temporarily in storage waiting for customs clearance was
a charge having equivalent effect to a customs duty.47 However, if the
charge is for an inspection that a member state is required to undertake
under community law in the general interest of the community (such as
a veterinary check), then it will not offend Article 25, provided that the
charge does not exceed the actual costs of the inspection and the charge
promotes the free movement of goods by, for example, imposing uniform
inspection procedures that are less costly than if individual countries could
conduct whatever inspections they liked.48 Even in the case where charges
are levied on both domestically produced goods and imports of similar
goods, the charge will offend Article 25 if it applies to imports if different
criteria are used to impose the charge on imports.49
Article 90 of the treaty provides that no state can tax products of any
other state at a greater rate than the taxes that apply to their domestically
produced products. It has two limbs. Article 90(1) applies if the imported
product is similar to the domestically produced product. Thus, where
smaller breweries from outside Germany were not able to avail themselves
of the lower rate of beer tax applicable to domestic German brewers, the
German tax was held to be in breach of Article 90(1) and discriminatory.50
Article 90(2) applies where the products are not similar but where the lower
tax on the domestically produced product has the effect of discriminating
against the imported product. A lower tax on domestically produced beer
in the UK accompanied by a much higher tax on wine was held to be
discriminatory. The significant difference in tax rates between the two
products had the effect of protecting domestic beer producers from foreign
wine imports. The UK produced very little wine and the price difference
meant UK consumers were led to prefer beer.51 A similar result applied
46
47
48
49
50
51
Sociaal Fonds voor de Diamantarbeiders v SA Ch Brachfeld & Sons [1969] ECR 211.
Commission v Belgium [1983] ECR 1649.
Commission v Germany [1988] ECR 5427.
Marimex v Italian Finance Administration Case [1972] ECR 1309.
Bobie Getrankvertrieb v Hauptzollamt Aachen-Nord [1976] ECR 1079.
where bananas were taxed at a much higher rate in Italy than other fruit
that was produced domestically.52
The possibility of states having their own special restrictions on intraEU movement in the case of some categories of goods reinforces the
earlier suggestion that it is necessary for exporters to obtain advice from
a knowledgeable customs agent to advise on the requirements for any
particular category of good.
A N T I - D U M P I N G , C O U N T E R VA I L I N G
AND SAFEGUARD MEASURES
All member states of the EU are also members of the WTO and accordingly
are bound by the WTO agreements on the imposition of anti-dumping
duties, countervailing duties and safeguard measures. The agreements set
out the rules and procedures for the application of these different forms
of duty and are common to all WTO members. The EC Treaty gives
authority to EU institutions to impose these duties at a community-wide
level. The body that has responsibility for these matters at the EU level is
the Directorate-General for Trade.
Anti-dumping duties can be imposed on imports originating from a
country outside of the EU when the export price of those imported goods
is less than the normal selling price of those goods in the country of export.
Countervailing measures are imposed on goods where the production of
those goods has attracted a WTO illegal subsidy from the government in
the country of export of those goods. Safeguard measures are temporary
measures imposed where a surge of imports of particular goods threatens
that industry within the EU.
The EU releases a report each year that provides significant detail not
only about the numbers and types of measures that have been taken during
the year but also very useful summaries of the individual cases. The 2006
report notes that as at the end of that year, the EU had in force 134
anti-dumping measures, 12 anti-subsidy measures and only one safeguard
measure. Because of the predominance of anti-dumping measures, the
following discussion emphasises the process that the EU adopts in an
anti-dumping investigation, illustrating the various stages by reference to
actual cases. It should be noted that many of the steps involved in an
anti-dumping investigation also apply in the case of the other two types of
52
Commission v Italy [1987] ECR 4157.
83
84
measures. Additional detail on anti-subsidy and safeguard measures can be

found on the Europa website.53
The first step in an anti-dumping investigation is that producers who
represent a significant portion of the production of the type of goods within
the EU (usually 25% of the production within the EU) must file a complaint with the Commission about the dumping of competing goods from
a third country. An advisory committee consisting of a representative of
the Commission and a representative of each member state makes preliminary findings as to whether the complaint contains sufficient evidence to
warrant proceedings being taken to impose anti-dumping duties. If so, the
Commission then sets about an investigation to determine two matters.
The first of these is whether actual dumping has occurred and the second is
whether the dumping has resulted in an injury to domestic producers. The
investigation is conducted for the time period not less than the six-month
period prior to the initiation of proceedings. During the investigation the
Commission can request member states to supply information, interview
and request information from relevant parties, and even conduct investigations in the country of export provided that the government of the country
agrees.
During the period 20022006, 122 investigations were carried out
involving imports from 30 countries.54 The major countries from which the
alleged dumped products originated were China (36 investigations), Russia
(nine investigations), India (eight investigations), Taiwan and Malaysia
(seven each), and Korea (six investigations). The major sectors involved
were chemical and related industries (32 investigations), iron and steel
(22 investigations), and electronics (17 investigations). The observation
may be made that these are industries where European firms are finding
it difficult to withstand the winds of global competition and are keen to
ensure that such competition is fair.
One of the outcomes of an investigation is that no anti-dumping duties
will be imposed. This can occur not only because the Commission finds
that there is no dumping or injury as a result but also because it is considered
not in the interests of the community to impose duties. Of the 36 investigations initiated in 2006, 18 resulted in no anti-dumping duties being
imposed.55 Four of the cases where no duties were imposed concerned
53
54
55
At <http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/respectrules/anti subsidy/index en.htm>.

European Commission, 25th Annual Report from the Commission to the European Parliament on the
Communitys Anti-dumping, Anti-subsidy and Safeguard Activities 2006, 21 October 2007, Brussels,
<http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2007/august/tradoc 135643.pdf >, p. 23.
Ibid., p. 35.
the import of cathode ray tubes for colour TV sets from China, South
Korea, Malaysia and Thailand. Although the investigation found that the
dumping margins were between 020% for the Chinese imports, 10.5
14.5% for the Malaysian imports, 015% of the South Korean imports
and 4147% for the Thai imports, no duties were imposed because the
decline in the EU industry was primarily due to falling demand for cathode
ray tubes with the advent of plasma and flat screen televisions.56 Thus the
injury was not primarily due to the dumping. A further seven cases related
to the import of DVDs from China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, and CDs
from China, Hong Kong and Malaysia. In these cases, the investigation
found that the local producers had a very small share of the EU market
(only around 12%) and that the benefits of cheap imports for consumers,
importers, retailers and distributors outweighed the benefits to producers
of protection against anti-dumping.57
On the other hand, an investigation may result in anti-dumping duties
being imposed. This can occur in two stages. The Commission may impose
provisional duties if a provisional determination has been made that there
is dumping and injury. Provisional duties must be imposed within nine
months of the commencement of the investigation and last for no more
than six months during which time a decision is made as to whether to
impose definitive anti-dumping duties. Subject to the rights of review (see
below), these will last for five years and may be extended.
In 2006, anti-dumping duties were imposed on chamois leather from
China; footwear with leather uppers from China and Vietnam; lever arch
mechanisms from China; plastic sacks and bags from China and Thailand;
refrigerators from Korea; salmon from Norway; seamless steel pipes from
Croatia, Romania, Russia and Ukraine; and tartaric acid from China.58
Of these the footwear case has been described as the most significant.59
Several hundred thousand people are employed in footwear related industries in the EU. Conversely, many EU companies have moved offshore to
places like China and Vietnam to produce goods more cheaply to benefit
European consumers. Hence this case involved a careful balancing of interests between consumers, importers and offshore producers on the one
hand, and workers and domestic footwear producers on the other. The
investigation commenced in July 2005 and provisional duties were
imposed in April 2006. The final investigation found that there had been
56
57
58
59
Ibid., p. 40.
Ibid., p. 39.
Ibid., p. 26.
Ibid., pp. 315.
85
86
some 40 000 job losses in footwear industries in the EU in the past two
years and that a further 200 000 were at stake. An investigation of a number
of producers found that the dumped goods were the major factor causing
injury to domestic producers and, further, that consumers would be little
affected by the imposition of duties. Accordingly, despite some adverse
impacts on importers, anti-dumping duties in the order of 916% were
imposed on imports from China and 10% on imports from Vietnam.
An interesting side issue in the case concerned the request by several
Chinese producers for what is known as market economy status. Dumping
duties are ordinarily calculated on the difference between the export price
and the normal domestic price, but in the case of non-market economies it
is difficult to determine the normal price because of the significant role of
the state in determining market prices, not so much directly, but through
various measures that are given to assist industry, including tax holidays,
subsidised finance and land at below market prices. The investigation
found that all of these measures prevented the footwear producers from
being entitled to market economy status, and accordingly the normal price
had to be calculated by reference to production costs.
PREFERENTIAL ARRANGEMENTS
The EU has in place a number of preferential agreements that allow goods
to be imported at lower rates of duty than those listed in the standard
customs tariff. They tend to fall into three groups. First, there are bilateral
agreements with some countries that allow preferential access for specific
goods. Second, there are bilateral free trade agreements between the EU
and some countries that tend to give preferential access to a wide class
of goods at nil or low duty rates. Third, there are a series of multilateral
agreements that the EU has either entered into or is currently negotiating
that allow for preferential access of goods between EU member countries
and the other countries that are a part of the multilateral trade agreement.
The following discussion deals with each of these categories in turn.
The EU has bilateral agreements in place with the vast majority of
countries around the world. However, many of the agreements are quite
general in nature, such as the many trade development and cooperation
agreements with developing countries. However, when it comes to preferential access for specific goods from specific countries, the bilateral agreements that the EU has in place tend to have a fairly narrow coverage.
The Europa website has a section that provides a detailed analysis of
individual agreements by country and by region.60 In relation to specific

goods, this source shows that there are agreements in place to allow preferential access for wine from Canada, Australia and South Africa; textiles
from Brazil and the Ukraine; sugar from India; and an agreement that
relates to quantities of steel that can be imported from the Ukraine. In
addition, the EU has in place mutual recognition agreements relating to
standards and quality of nominated products. Mutual recognition agreements were discussed earlier and the EU has these in place with Canada,
Australia, Japan and New Zealand. There are also special customs cooperation agreements with Canada, India and Korea to achieve mutually
compatible customs systems to allow easier access for goods and also to
prevent fraud.
The second category of agreements is free trade agreements with individual countries. Currently the EU has in place comprehensive preferential
agreements with Switzerland, Turkey, Chile and Mexico. There are over
100 separate agreements with Switzerland that cover relations between it
and the EU and include much more than trade cooperation. They extend
back to the 1950s when European cooperation began with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community. The composite effect of
the agreements effectively gives Switzerland de facto EU membership in
relation to commercial matters while allowing the country to retain significant independence from the EUs institutional and political structure.
The agreement with Turkey takes the form of a customs union and covers
free trade in industrial goods but not in agriculture (other than processed
agricultural products). The free trade agreements with Mexico and Chile
are of much more recent origin Mexico from 2000 and Chile from 2003.
Both are compressive trade agreements that extend preferential access for
industrial goods and some agricultural products as well as including trade
facilitation arrangements such as mutual recognition agreements for standards in industrial products and phytosanitary agreements for standards in
agricultural products. In line with current international trends in relation
to free trade agreements, the Chile and Mexico agreements deal with not
only preferential access for goods but with a series of trade related issues
including investment facilitation, intellectual property protection, customs cooperation, government procurement and technical standards for
goods.
60
See <http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/countries/index en.htm> and <http://ec.europa.

eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/index en.htm>. In addition, an annotated summary of the EUs
bilateral and multilateral agreements can be found on the treaties database on the Europa website,
at <http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do>.
87
88
In addition to bilateral free trade agreements already in place, the EU

is currently negotiating with Russia and Canada. Canada currently has
several preferential agreements with the EU but recent negotiations for a
trade and investment enhancement agreement cover much broader issues
similar to those covered in the Mexico and Chile free trade agreements. It
is noteworthy that both Canada and Mexico are members of the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the aim of negotiation of
free trade agreements between these two countries with the EU seems to be
to give European firms some of the advantages that the NAFTA agreement
gives to US firms in those markets. The EU is also negotiating a Common
Economic Space agreement with Russia that tackles similar issues to the
EUs existing free trade agreements.
There are several multilateral agreements between the EU and groups of
countries. Perhaps the most far reaching of these is the European Economic
Area agreement with Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. This agreement
was entered into in 1992 and creates a single market between the EU and
these countries for trade in all goods other than agricultural products and
fish. Thus exporters of industrial products to the EU from third countries
effectively have access not only to all EU member countries but also free
movement of goods to Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein subject to the
exceptions that were noted earlier in relation to general restrictions on
movement of goods within the EU.
The second major multilateral arrangement that the EU has in place is
the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) that exists within the WTO
system. This allows developing countries preferential rates of duty for many
categories of goods exported to industrialised countries. A full list of goods
that have preferential access under the GSP can be found in the Common
Customs Tariff of the EU. There are 178 countries that have such access.
There are procedural requirements that need to be met for exporters from
developing countries in order to take advantage of the preferential rates of
duty that exist. The major requirement is a GSP Form A that is essentially
a certificate of origin signed by the relevant authority in the exporting
country to show that the goods were manufactured or produced in the
exporting country. There are detailed rules in relation to the origin of
goods that authorities need to follow when issuing these certificates. The
importer in the EU then has to produce this certificate to obtain the
preferential duty rate. Not all goods in a particular category might be
eligible for the preferential rate because, for some goods, the preferential
rate only applies to a set quota of goods. Once the quota is exhausted then
the normal rate of duty applies. The system that the EU has in place for
allowing exporters to assess the extent to which a quota has been filled was
described earlier.
In addition, the EU has set up special relationships with several groups
of developing countries. The oldest of these dates from the 1970s with
the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries whereby preferences
were given by the EU to exporters from those countries. The EU is currently updating this general arrangement with specific economic partnership agreements with sub-regional groupings of the original ACP member
states. The Balkan states also have access to the EU for all exports other
than agriculture without customs duties or limits on quantities.
The EU is in the process of negotiating two major multilateral free trade
agreements. The first of these is with the Mediterranean countries including
Tunisia, Turkey, Israel, Morocco, Jordan, Egypt, Algeria, Lebanon, Syria
and the Palestinian Authority. The aim of the EuropeanMediterranean
Free Trade Area is to achieve duty-free access in industrial products between
the EU and the Mediterranean countries as well as between Mediterranean
countries themselves and to achieve gradual liberalisation of trade in agricultural goods.
The second major agreement under negotiation is between the EU and
the Mercosur countries of Latin America.61 At present negotiations have
been put on hold pending the outcome of the Doha trade agenda. Should
the Doha round of global trade negotiations not proceed, the EU and
Mercosur may move forward to an agreement. If this proves to be the
case it may make negotiation of the mooted Free Trade Agreement of the
Americas that much more difficult for the USA. The USA first proposed
a free trade agreement of the Americas in the late 1990s but progress in
negotiations has been slow and, in recent years, there has been a trend
towards bilateral agreements between the USA and other countries. Chile
is currently the only South American country to have a comprehensive free
trade agreement in place with the USA.
However, the EU is also exploring free trade agreements with other
regional groupings of countries. The process of entering into free trade
agreements is underway with the South Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and
Georgia), the Gulf States (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and
United Arab Emirates) and the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Vietnam, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, Brunei,
Cambodia and Laos).
61
Full members of Mercosur are Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Paraguay and Uruguay. Chile, Peru,
Ecuador and Bolivia are associate members.
89
90
A key procedural matter for exporters seeking preferential access under

agreements between their countries and the EU is the need to obtain certificates of origin for the goods. These accompany other export documents
such as the transport document, commercial invoice and insurance certificate when those documents are transmitted to the buyer either directly
or through the banking system. There are no standard globalised rules for
determining when goods can be said to originate in the country of export.
Thus, each of the EU preferential agreements might contain slightly different rules and exporters need to check the relevant rule and agreements
to ensure procedural matters are met.
Payment and risk management

in international sales
HERE ARE FOUR main methods by which an exporter can

be paid for goods in an international sales transaction. In order of least
to most risk for the exporter these are: pre-payment; payment by letters
of credit; payment against documents; and payment on open account. A
discussion of each of these methods of payments follows together with
some observations regarding the way in which exporters can minimise risk
of non-payment in each case.
P R E - PAY M E N T
Pre-payment occurs when the exporter is paid for the goods before they
leave the exporters place of business. Pre-payment usually occurs electronically with the purchaser arranging with their bank to transfer the funds
to the account specified by the exporter in the contract of sale. While
most exporters would prefer this means of payment, it is difficult to get
a buyer to agree unless there is a long-established relationship between
the parties and a sufficient degree of trust to allow any problems with
conformity of the goods or their transport to be resolved in an amicable
fashion.
LETTERS OF CREDIT
Payment by letter of credit is perhaps the most frequently used method
of payment in international trade. A 20012002 survey of UK exporters
revealed the extent of use of letters of credit for export transactions between
91
92
UK exporters and buyers in third countries.1 For importers in Asia, Africa

and the Middle East, letters of credit represented around 50% of all payment types. For importers from Latin America, letters of credit were used
27% of the time, while in Australia and New Zealand letters of credit only
accounted for 17% of payments. Letters of credit were much less frequently
used by importers from other EU countries and North America. In those
cases, letters of credit were only used for around 10% of transactions. A
probable explanation for this is that as trading relationships become more
established and risk is less of a factor, exporters tend to rely less on letters
of credit and more on open account terms. However, it seems likely that
when using open account terms they will protect against non-payment by
using credit risk insurance. Premium rates for more developed countries
that exhibit less political risk will also be lower and may be cheaper than
using letters of credit.
The process of payment by letter of credit commences with the exporter
and the buyer agreeing in their contract of sale that this is to be the means of
payment for the goods. An important part of the contract of sale is the list
of documents that need to be presented in order to obtain payment under
the letter of credit. These will usually include the transport document,
the commercial invoice, the packing list, a certificate of origin and the
insurance certificate. As will be seen, early agreement on these matters is
essential to avoid exporters having problems when presenting documents
to the relevant bank in exchange for payment. Once these matters have
been agreed, the buyer approaches its bank to issue a letter of credit in
favour of the exporter. The buyers bank will usually require the buyer to
have sufficient funds in its account before they will agree to do this. The
buyers bank transmits the letter of credit electronically to a bank in the
exporters country that will advise the exporter of the opening of the credit.
This bank is known as the advising bank. Upon shipment of the goods the
exporter is able to present the documents required by the letter of credit to
a bank in the exporters country named in the letter of credit as the bank
to which documents should be presented for payment. The documents
are usually accompanied by a bill of exchange drawn by the exporter and
addressed to the buyer or buyers bank requiring them to pay. Provided the
documents are in order, the bank will pay the exporter and transmit the
documents to the issuing bank. The buyer receives the documents from
SITPRO, Report on the Use of Export Letters of Credit 20012002, 11 April 2003, <http://www.
sitpro.org.uk/reports/lettcredr/lettcredr.pdf >.
PAY M E N T A N D R I S K M A N A G E M E N T I N I N T E R N AT I O N A L S A L E S
Exporter and buyer agree in their

contract of sale that letter of credit is
to be the means of payment. Buyer
needs to consult its bank to get list of
required documents to included in
contract.
Buyers bank issues letter of credit
and makes arrangement with buyer
for funds.
Letter of credit is transmitted by
buyers bank to advising bank in
exporters country.
Exporter presents transport
documents and others as required to
nominated negotiating bank in
exporters country in exchange for
payment.
Exporters bank forwards documents
to buyers bank and receives
reimbursement for the funds paid to
exporter.
Buyers bank hands documents to

buyer to allow for collection of goods.
Figure 5.1 Flow chart for simple letter of credit procedure
the issuing bank to enable them to collect the goods. The paying bank
receives reimbursement from the buyers bank.
Banks have standard procedures for the issue of letters of credit and since
most have agreed to submit themselves to the standard rules contained in
the Uniform Customs and Practices for Documentary Credits,2 letters of
credit have become reasonably uniform throughout the world. These rules,
the current version of which is the UCP 600, require letters of credit to
contain certain particulars including the following:
r the name of the applicant for the letter of credit (the buyer)
r the name of the issuing bank (buyers bank)
r the beneficiary of the letter of credit (the exporter)
2
ICC Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits, UCP 600, ICC Publication
No. 600, 2007 edn.
93
94
r the advising bank

r the bank where the documents are to be presented (the bank with which
it is available)
an expiry date for presentation
the date by which goods must be shipped
the port of shipment
the name and signature of the carrier on the transport document
the date of issue of the letter of credit
the amount for which the letter of credit is issued (usually the contact
price)
r whether the drafts drawn under the letter of credit are payable at sight
or by deferred payment, acceptance or negotiation
r the documents required to be presented with the draft to allow the
letter of credit in exchange for payment usually include the transport
document, the commercial invoice, insurance certificate, packing list
and certificate or origin
r whether the letter of credit is confirmed by the exporters bank (see
below).
The UCP 600 has the effect that all letters of credit are, by definition,
irrevocable. In the past, letters of credit could be either revocable or irrevocable. A revocable letter of credit meant that the bank issuing it could
revoke it at any time prior to payment under it. This devalued the letter
of credit as a means of payment and, accordingly, the UCP 600 requires
letters of credit to be irrevocable.
A letter of credit might not only be enforceable against the bank issuing
it but may also be enforceable against a bank in the exporters country
that has agreed to confirm it. Having a confirmed letter of credit therefore
minimises any risk for the exporter of the issuing bank not honouring it.
It should be noted that if a letter of credit is not confirmed then the bank
that actually pays the exporter will do so on a with recourse basis. This
means that if they are unable to recover the funds from the issuing bank
they can call on the exporter to reimburse them.
There are a number of variations on the standard letter of credit as
described above. A special type of letter of credit can be used to allow
an exporter to draw funds under it earlier than shipment of the goods
to finance production of the goods (red clause credit). A letter of credit
can be issued to allow for repeated drawings up to a certain amount to
allow the same letter of credit to be used for a number of shipments
(a revolving credit). This saves the exporter and the importer having to
arrange a separate letter of credit for each shipment where there is to be
r
r
r
r
r
r
a number of shipments over a set period. Letters of credit can also be

transferable. A transferable letter of credit is used when the exporter has to
purchase the goods from a manufacturer or supplier before sending them
to an overseas customer. The exporter arranges for the letter of credit to be
transferred in favour of the supplier so that the supplier can collect their
price for the goods under the transferred letter of credit. The exporter then
obtains the documents from the supplier and substitutes their invoice for
that of the buyer. The invoice that the exporter presents to their bank will
be for the contract price with the buyer. This will be for a higher amount
than the supplier invoice allowing the exporter to derive a profit on the
transaction. These are three of the common variations on letters of credit.
While letters of credit are regarded as a secure means of obtaining
payment in international trade transactions, there are two major categories
of risk with their use. First, there is the risk that the issuing bank will refuse
to reimburse the negotiating bank, leading to that bank requiring the
exporter to repay the funds. To guard against this risk, many exporters will
consult their own banks in an attempt to establish the reliability of the bank
issuing the letter of credit before finally agreeing to this means of payment.
Further, credit insurance may be taken out to protect against failure of the
issuing bank to pay. If the issuing bank or political circumstances in the
importers country is regarded as posing a risk, exporters might request that
the letter of credit be confirmed. However, confirmation may be costly;
one estimate suggests that the cost of confirmation may vary between 2
and 8% of the value of the amount for which the letter of credit has been
issued.3
The second category of risk lies with the exporter and the attention to
detail that letters of credit require. The UK-based SITPRO survey referred
to earlier reported that despite letters of credit having been widely used in
international trade transactions for the past 150 years, banks continue to
reject almost half at the first attempt of presentation because of insufficient
attention to detail by the exporter. While the survey deals only with UK
exporters, it seems likely that its findings might be generally applicable to
exporters in many countries. This survey questioned three banks as to the
most common reasons why letters of credit were not honoured on the first
attempt at presentation. The following table sets out the most common
reasons why negotiating banks refuse to pay on letters of credit along with
who bears the responsibility for the errors.
SITPRO, op. cit., p. 11.
95
96
Table 5.1 Top 10 discrepancies leading to rejection of letters of credit

Discrepancy
Reason
Responsibility
Inconsistent data
Different information between

the different documents
Documents required by the
letter of credit are missing
Other documentation reasons
not specifically noted
Documents presented later
than 21 days after the
shipment or after the
number of days stipulated
in the letter of credit
Name of the carrier on
the transport document is
missing or not signed by
the carrier
Information on the set of
documents is not in
conformity with the letter
of credit
Documents presented after the
letter of credit have expired
Goods description on the
documents differs from that
on the letter of credit
Bill of lading, insurance
certificate or bill of exchange
is not endorsed by the
exporter or other party
Goods shipped after the last
date given for shipment
Exporter
Absence of
documents
Other
Late presentation
Carrier not named

and signing
capacity
Incorrect data
Letter of credit
expired
Incorrect goods
description
Incorrect or absence
of endorsement
Late shipment
Exporter
Exporter; any third
party, e.g. carrier
Exporter
The transport
provider
Exporter
Exporter
Exporter
Exporter or insurance
company
Exporter or carrier
Source: SITPRO, Report on the Use of Export Letters of Credit 20012002,

11 April 2003, <http://www.sitpro.org.uk/reports/lettcredr/lettcredr.pdf>, p.13.
Most of the risks set out in Table 5.1 can be prevented by sound training
in letters of credit procedure and careful negotiation with buyers about what
the letter of credit is to contain before it is issued by the buyers bank. There
are now many export service companies that provide computerised export
documentation programs that assist in ensuring that all export documents
are consistent and comply with what is required by the letter of credit. The
UCP 600 allows for submission of documents to banks electronically. It

remains to be seen whether this leads to more or fewer discrepancies.
If the buyer and the banks involved do not agree to allow the exporter to
correct discrepancies or accept documents that do not strictly comply with
the letter of credit, the exporter may be faced with attempting to secure
payment in some other way that will incur more costs. However, it needs
to be noted that the UCP 600 contains strict procedures that banks must
follow if the letter of credit is not to be honoured. These include giving
notice of its dishonour within a reasonable time.
Failure of the exporter to obtain payment under the letter of credit
does not absolve the buyer from the obligation to pay.4 It simply means
the exporter has to bear the additional expense of arranging payment by
some other means. This can also be problematic because confusion has
arisen in a number of cases5 where discrepant documents were forwarded
by negotiating banks to issuing banks on a collection basis. The question
that arose was whether this meant that the letter of credit was no longer
relied on as the means of payment and that payment was to be made on
a documentary collection basis, or whether the letter of credit was still
active and the documents were simply forwarded to the issuing bank to
see if the applicant would accept them with discrepancies. The difference
is significant because if the letter of credit remained active then the issuing
bank may have maintained some liability to pay. However, if the means of
payment had been converted into a documentary collection, the bank was
simply obliged to hand the documents to the applicant in exchange for
payment. If the applicant failed to pay, the exporter was usually left only
with recourse against the buyer.
The best protection against the risks posed by letters of credit is to
ensure that the documentary and other requirements of the letter of credit
are complied with precisely. In addition, exporters banks will often offer
a service that allows exporters to gain some appreciation of the creditworthiness of the issuing bank.
PAY M E N T A G A I N S T D O C U M E N T S
( D O C U M E N TA RY C O L L E C T I O N )
If payment against documents is the agreed means of payment in an
international transaction, the parties must first agree on what documents
4
See Samsung American Investment v Yugoslav-Korean Consulting and Trading Co. Inc. [1998] 670 NYS
2d 466, and the discussion in K. Fung, Leading Court Cases on Letters of Credit, ICC Publishing,
Paris, 2004, p. 20.
See Harlow and Jones v American Express Bank [1990] 2 Lloyds Rep 343 and the discussion in Fung,
ibid., at pp. 99108.
97
98
Exporter and buyer agree in their
contract of sale that documentary
collection is to be the means of
payment. List of required documents
to be included in contract.
Exporter provides remitting bank
with documents after shipment of
goods.
Exporters bank forwards documents
to buyers bank.
Buyers bank (collecting bank) hands
documents to buyer in exchange for
payment or promise to pay within
time required.
Collecting bank sends funds to
exporters bank for account of
exporter.
Figure 5.2 Flow chart for documentary collection procedure
are necessary to be produced to the buyer to require them to pay. As with

letters of credit, the documents are usually agreed in the contract of sale
between the exporter and the buyer. Because the transmission of documents
and funds occurs through the banking system, it is also necessary for the
parties to agree on the identity of the relevant banks.
The procedure for obtaining payment begins with the exporter shipping
the goods and then forwarding the agreed documents to the agreed bank
in the exporters country. That bank (the remitting bank) then transits the
documents to the buyers bank (the collecting bank) along with a collection
order and a bill of exchange (draft) drawn by the exporter requiring the
buyer to pay. The draft will require the buyer either to pay in exchange for
the documents (documents against payment) or within a certain period of
receiving the documents usually 30, 60 or 90 days (documents against
acceptance). The buyers bank then transmits the funds received from the
buyer through the banking system to the exporter.
This form of payment differs from letters of credit in that the bank in the
buyers country is only obligated to examine the documents to ensure that
they conform with what is set out in the collection order before handing
them over to the buyer. There is no obligation on the bank itself to pay
but merely to transit the payment through to the exporters bank. This
obligation is set out in the Uniform Rules for Collections6 developed by

the ICC and accepted by most banks as the basis upon which they will agree
to assist parties to engage in this mechanism of payment in international
transactions.
An interesting web-based survey conducted in 2005 leads to the tentative
conclusion that many exporters do not favour this means of payment.7
Given a choice of four means of payment letters of credit, advance
payment, payment against documents and other means only 6% of
over 1 500 respondents preferred payment against documents. By way of
contrast, 47% preferred payment by letters of credit and a further 30%
preferred advance payment. No analysis is provided of the results but a
reading of the comments of those responding suggests that many were not
aware of the payments against documents procedure as a means of payment
in international transactions. Of those who were, many considered letters
of credit to be a safer option.
There are several risks to the exporter if this method of payment is used.
First, the process gives the buyer the opportunity to reject documents
and hence not make payment because of some minor discrepancy. The
Uniform Rules for Collections provide that neither the remitting nor the
collecting bank has any obligation to verify the content or the authenticity
of the documents. Thus the exporter is left in an uncertain position as to
whether an unscrupulous buyer might find some minor discrepancy and
refuse to pay. A second risk for the exporter is that in a documents against
acceptance transaction, the exporter has to wait until the relevant 30, 60
or 90 days have elapsed before the buyer has to pay. If the buyer defaults,
the exporter is then confronted with the expense of legal proceedings to
recover the purchase price. A third risk for the exporter is that this means
of payment is not appropriate for air transport of goods given the time
that it takes for documents to be transmitted through the banking system.
Since the buyer needs the documents to collect the goods from the relevant
transport operator and clear them through customs, the documents need
to arrive before the goods. This may not occur in the case of air transport.
If payments against documents is to be the method of payment, then to
minimise risks the exporter needs to ensure that all documents are in order
so that buyers have little room to validly reject them. Further, exporters
may wish to consider credit insurance as a means of protecting against
non-payment. Credit insurance is discussed in more detail below.
6
7
ICC Uniform Rules for Collections, URC 522, ICC Publication No. 522, 1995 edn.
See <http://resources.alibaba.com/topic/100/What is your preferred payment method .htm>.
99
100
OPEN ACCOUNT
In open account transactions the buyer pays for the goods after they have
arrived. Sometimes this occurs within 30, 60 or 90 days after the buyer
themselves has had the opportunity to resell the goods. For that reason
open account payments are common in distribution relationships. These
are discussed in detail in the next chapter. However, as noted earlier, open
account transactions are very common where there appears to be little
credit risk. This helps to explain the very high percentage of transactions
conduced within the EU and between EU and North American buyers on
this basis.
There are considerable risks involved for the exporter in an open account
transaction. The buyer might simply refuse to pay on the alleged basis that
the goods do not meet the contract requirements. Alternatively, the goods
may be rejected by customs. In either case, the exporter will then be faced
with extensive legal costs in attempting to recover the money. Two common
options for minimising the risk are either to take out credit risk insurance
or to engage the services of a factor to collect the debt on their behalf. Each
of these strategies is discussed below.
CREDIT INSURANCE
There are a number of globally based companies that specialise in providing
credit risk insurance to exporters as well as a number of national agencies
that provide such a service for firms located in their countries. Credit
risk insurance is available not only for open account transactions but
also to cover risks involved if other payment methods are adopted such as
payments against documents or even letters of credit. Frequently the global
risk insurers will offer other services to their clients including credit risk
assessment and debt collection.
When considering credit risk insurance, exporters need to be aware of
a number of issues. These include what is covered by the policy, what is
excluded, the obligations of the insured (the exporter) and the obligations
of the insurance company. As with all insurance contracts it is absolutely
necessary to read the fine print at the time of entering into the contract.
Also, as with other types of insurance it is common practice for there to be
an excess. Only losses above the excess will be able to be claimed. Credit
insurance companies have a variety of ways of calculating an excess and this
can be negotiated at the time of taking out the policy. It is also common
practice to set maximum limits for any one buyer and a maximum limit
for all claims within a given time period. Because of the specific nature
of credit risk insurance, it is also common to find limitations on the
maximum terms of credit that can be extended to a buyer and maximum
time limits for which the payment period can be extended before a claim is
made.
Case study
Credit risk insurance
Atradius is a leading credit insurer with total revenues of around 1.8
billion and a 31% share of the world credit insurance market. It insures
against non-payment and provides a comprehensive range of risk transfer, financing and trade receivables management services. With 4000
staff and more than 160 offices in 40 countries, Atradius has access to
credit information on 52 million companies worldwide and makes more
than 22 000 credit limit decisions daily. It is A rated by Standard & Poors
and A2 by Moodys. Atradius has provided the following information
in response to issues put by the author.
The benefits that taking out credit risk insurance with Atradius can
have for exporters dealing with EU firms and the matters that an
exporter needs to consider before doing so
Growing an international client base is an exciting and potentially
lucrative opportunity but with that increased growth comes increased
risk: transporting and delivering goods, currency fluctuations, language
barriers, different business regulations, political and economic instability,
dealing with unknown customers and debt defaults are some of the
issues that face exporters.
There are a number of measures exporters can take in order to mitigate potential risk when dealing with EU and international customers.
The first step in risk mitigation is to get to know the target market and customers. Exporters can access general information on political, legal and regulatory conditions and gain introductions to potential
business partners from local government agencies. They can also speak
to their insuring agent or broker to seek advice on entering particular
markets.
For a more detailed overview of a market or potential buyers, business
intelligence experts with on-the-ground resources such as credit insurance companies can provide more specific information on the high-level
101
102
economic drivers in each market, as well as gathering intelligence on

individual buyers and their credit history. In many cases, these agencies
can visit potential customers to add personal knowledge and interaction to publicly available data if an exporter cannot visit the potential
buyer.
In addition to information gathering before selling, exporters need
to protect both their goods while in transit and their cash flow to ensure
they are paid and paid in reasonable time. Companies supplying goods
overseas may choose cargo or marine insurance that covers potential
damage or loss of goods while in transit. However, this does not insure
companies against loss of business if a client chooses another supplier
due to any damage or loss incurred in transit.
Credit insurance, or trade insurance, insures a business against customer insolvency and payment default. Businesses may choose to protect themselves for insolvency of the buyer and non-payment or payment default for both domestic and export trade. Research shows that
overseas buyers may take up to anything from 27 to 80 days to pay for
goods and services supplied. Each European country differs greatly in
terms of their accepted payment terms so exporters should make themselves familiar with these. In addition, using credit insurance as protection against payment defaults can remove the worry from this waiting
period.
As each European country has different commercial terms and practices, there is no one European matter or issue that an exporter needs
to consider; exporters should treat EU customers the same as any other
international customer.
Importantly for exporters is the network of on-the-ground resources
available through global credit insurance companies. This network can
not only visit a potential customer and offer excellent local market
knowledge including cultural and commercial traditions, it can also offer
local debt collection services which may be very valuable for exporters
dealing with a large number of different countries and separate political,
legal and commercial risks in each market.
Typically, insurance costs less than half a per cent of a companys total
insured sales and customers in European markets are well accustomed
to working with partners who have credit insurance.
Insurance can also provide additional benefits to the bottom line by
giving a business the ability to extend more credit to customers and
expand sales without expanding risk. It can also allow them to use
insured accounts receivable as collateral when negotiating better costs

of financing your business.
The information that an exporter needs to provide to Atradius if they
decide to take out credit insurance to cover transactions to a firm in an
EU country
To take out credit insurance against customers in Europe, companies
need to provide the following to Atradius:
r turnover and bad debt history for the last four years
r spread of risk usually involves an aged receivable listing showing
current clients balances
r contractual terms of payment available to clients
r list of clients to be covered
r current recovery procedure, that is, debt chasing timeline.
Variations in cover for different types of risk and different countries
Companies can choose the level of protection to offset credit risks. The
most common and widely accepted type of cover is Whole of Turnover.
This offers the most comprehensive coverage, protecting a clients whole
ledger.
Atradius also offers a Named Risk option where companies can
choose which customers to protect against. For example, a company
may choose to only cover their top ten trading partners or only those
customers they perceive as high risk.
The final option is Single Risk coverage. This protects companies to
a minimum exposure of A$1 000 000.
Some countries may carry specific conditions such as letter of credit
only; however these tend to be outside of Europe. Underwriters may also
impose specific conditions to individual companies, that is, maximum
terms of payment or shorter reporting of overdues on specific clients.
The procedure that Atradius adopts in processing the exporters application for credit risk insurance
There are a number of things that are assessed in the application for
credit insurance. These include:
r previous bad debt history
r spread of risk
r trade sector involved
r current payment performance on account (Day Sales Outstanding)
r individual accounts being considered.
Important information relating to claims
To make a claim, companies need to provide the following:
103
104
r a copy of the invoices under the claim

r proof of delivery or confirmation of services performed
r a six-month statement of account so we can review the payment
history
r proof of debt chasing up to the point of claim

r proof of insolvency, if applicable.
FA C T O R I N G
Factoring is a further alternative for exporters wishing to protect against
losses when sales are made on an open account or documents against
acceptance basis. The process begins with the exporter agreeing with a
factoring firm in their own country as to which debts the factor will agree
to collect. This will involve the factoring firm liaising with a correspondent
factoring firm in the buyers country to assess the credit risk. If the factoring
firm agrees to take on the debt collection, the exporter assigns the rights
to payment to them and provides them the invoice for the goods after the
goods have been shipped. The factor then takes on the risk of collecting
the debt. The factoring firm will pay the exporter up to 80% of the value
of the invoice upon presentation of it to them. The factoring firm then
forwards the invoice to a correspondent firm in the buyers country and
that firm collects the invoice amount from the buyer. It then transmits the
funds to the exporters factoring firm and the exporter is paid the remaining
amount due less the factoring firms fees.
Factoring has significant advantages for the exporter in that they are able
to receive a considerable portion of the funds from the sale immediately the
goods are shipped. The website of Factors Chain International8 suggests
that the overall costs of factoring are lower than for letters of credit. It is
also particularly useful for exporters selling into a number of EU countries
because it is more frequently the case that the one correspondent factoring
firm will cover debts on an EU-wide basis. However, there are a number
of possible problems for the exporter. First, if a dispute exists between the
exporter and the buyer relating to the quality of the goods, for example,
then the factoring firm will not pay the balance of the money due until
the dispute is resolved. The factoring firm in the buyers country will often
assist with this as it is in the interests of the factoring firm as well as the
seller and buyer that disputes are resolved speedily. Second, factoring firms
8
See <http://www.factors-chain.com>.
might not agree to take on debts from all buyers. Much will depend on
their assessment of the risk to themselves. Third, while the costs and risks
may be less than for letters of credit, the exporter has to wait to receive
the balance of the funds due to them until they have been received by the
exporters factoring firm. Many factoring firms will agree that if this period
exceeds 120 days then the exporter is guaranteed payment regardless of
whether the factoring firm has received the funds.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK
As of 1 January 2008, the euro is the currency of 15 of the 27 members
of the European Union. Those that have not yet adopted it include the
UK, Denmark, Sweden, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland,
Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bulgaria and Romania.
In order to secure a sale, exporters entering into agreements with customers in the EU may find it necessary to have the contract amount stated
in either euros or the currency of the customers country. The risk that this
poses for the exporter is that if their currency appreciates against the euro
or other relevant currency between the date of contract and the date when
payment is due, they may lose a considerable amount. This risk is present
when there is a delay between the date that the contract amount is agreed
and the date for payment and applies whether payment is by letter of credit,
documentary collection or open account and is expressed in the currency
of the buyer. With small profit margins, exchange rate losses can quickly
erode the profit on any particular sale. On the other hand, exchange rate
gains can also lead to greater profits for the exporter.
To illustrate this, Table 5.2 shows the highest and lowest amounts of
US dollars, Canadian dollars, Australian dollars and Japanese yen that
would have been required to purchase one euro during the period from
1 October 2007 to 31 December 2007.
The table shows that not only do various currencies tend to fluctuate quite widely against the euro but that each currency fluctuates
somewhat independently. Thus a Canadian exporter who was receiving
payment on 7 November 2007 for goods sold under an earlier contract for 1 million would receive CAD$1.34 million upon conversion
into Canadian dollars on that day. Yet if the same exporter received
payment on 4 December and converted to Canadian dollars that day
they would receive CAD$1.49 million. Conversely if a Canadian businessperson was importing from an EU firm they would have needed
more Canadian dollars to buy the goods on 4 December than they
105
106
Table 5.2 Highest and lowest exchange rates for the euro during the period
1 October 2007 to 31 December 2007 for selected currencies
Currency
Highest value of currency to

euro during 1 October to
31 December 2007
Lowest value of currency to

euro during 1 October to
31 December 2007
US dollar
Canadian dollar
Australian dollar
Japanese yen
1.41 (9 October)
1.34 (7 November)
1.56 (31 October)
160.4 (23 November)
1.49 (26 November)

1.49 (4 December)
1.70 (21 November)
167.5 (11 October)
Source: Table compiled from data supplied on the website <www.x-rates.com>.
would have needed on 7 November. The same applies in the case of

the Australian and US currencies due to the international strengthening
of the euro at this time against these currencies. However, the table shows
that the euro actually weakened against the yen during this time and accordingly Japanese exporters and importers would have been in the reverse
position to those from the other three countries in terms of exchange rate
gains and losses for earlier negotiated contracts.
In order to obtain some certainty about the amount that they will receive
when time for payment arrives, exporters use a variety of currency hedging
techniques to guard against exchange rate movements. The simplest of
these is the forward exchange contract. A forward exchange contract allows
the exporter to obtain, in advance, the rate at which they will buy currency
at the time that payment is due. From the exporters point of view, a simple
forward contract is intended to guard against their own currency appreciating against the contract currency. Thus the risk with forward contracts
is that if the exporters currency depreciates in the period between the date
of contact and the date for payment, the exporter would have been better
off not entering into a forward exchange contract. Table 5.2 shows that the
Australian, Canadian and US currencies mentioned actually depreciated
against the euro during the period under consideration. Thus, taking out
a forward exchange contract would not have been to the exporters advantage during that period. On the other hand, exporters from Japan would
have benefited from taking out a forward exchange contract because their
currency apprenticed against the euro.
There are a variety of other hedging instruments that can protect an
exporter whether their currency moves either favourably or adversely to
them between the date of contract and the payment date. These include
open dated forward contracts, currency options, flexible forwards and

participating forwards. An explanation of these various hedging techniques
can be found at <www.tdcommercialbanking.com>. Exporters banks are
most often in the best position to advise as to the most appropriate type of
hedging instrument for any particular transaction or series of transactions.
107
Sales to the EU using

an EU representative
INTRODUCTION
MANY FIRMS exporting goods to the EU find it beneficial
to have a representative in one or more of its member countries. How

many representatives and where they are located will depend upon the
market that the exporter has found for its goods. The most common
types of representative are agents and distributors. Agents act on behalf
of the exporter to find customers for the goods or services being sold.
Those customers then contract directly with the exporter as in a direct
export transaction. The agent receives a commission for having found the
customer and carrying out other duties that the agreement between the
agent and the exporter might specify. Distributors, on the other hand,
buy directly from the exporter and then on-sell to end customers. Because
there is a long-term relationship between the exporter and the distributor,
there is often a master agreement between them setting out the obligations of each and usually the terms of sale for the ongoing shipments of
goods.
It should now be apparent that all of the issues covered in the previous
chapters relating to contract terms, delivery obligations, transport, customs
and payment when an exporter sells directly to a customer in an EU country
will also be applicable in agency and distribution arrangements. In the case
of agency, while the agent finds customers for the exporter, the agent will
most often refer the customer on to the exporter for the final negotiation
of the contract of sale. Each contract of sale with a customer found by
the agent will need to include terms regarding the delivery of the goods
and the transport of the goods and will involve either the customer or
the exporter arranging customs clearance. In the case of a distribution
108
S A L E S T O T H E E U U S I N G A N E U R E P R E S E N TAT I V E
agreement, the exporters master agreement with the distributor also needs
to include provisions relating to the delivery of the goods, their transport,
and clearance of the goods through customs. Because distributors in the EU
tend to have considerable bargaining power in relation to smaller exporters
from outside the EU, an exporter may often be faced with a situation
where they will have to accept terms requiring them to deliver the goods
to the distributors warehouse within the EU. Thus the exporter will be
confronted with all of the issues raised in the previous chapter.
This chapter begins with some observations on the usefulness of having
an EU representative. It then proceeds with a discussion of the general
considerations involved in selecting an agent or distributor. Many of the
factors to be considered are common to both arrangements. Where there are
some factors that are peculiar to either arrangement, this will be indicated.
The chapter then discusses the main terms that an exporter is likely to
want to include in an agency agreement and the limitations that Directive
86/653/EEC1 (referred to in this chapter as the Commercial Agency
Directive) imposes on the types of obligations that an exporter can require
of an agent in the EU. This directive dates from 1986 and is required
to be implemented by all EU member countries in their laws that deal
with commercial agents. It therefore applies to actions of agents within all
member countries. This is followed by a section dealing with the impact
of EU competition laws on agency agreements.
The chapter then makes some observations about the provisions that
an exporter will want to include in a distribution agreement, emphasising
those provisions that differ from an agency agreement. The final section
of the chapter deals with distribution agreements and more particularly
the restraints that EU competition laws impose on them. EU competition
laws are enshrined in the EU Treaty and are aimed at preventing anticompetitive arrangements as well as curbing abuse of a dominant position.
In many cases smaller exporters from outside of the EU will not be greatly
affected by these laws. The reasons for this will be made clear in the
discussion.
W H Y A P P O I N T A R E P R E S E N TAT I V E
FOR THE EU MARKET?
The first issue that concerns exporters is whether to appoint a representative for the entire EU market or to divide the market among a number of
1
[1986] OJ L382/17.
109
110
representatives. It has already been noted that one of the overriding objectives of the European Commission is the achievement of a single market
for goods. However, major differences remain from country to country and
region to region in terms of consumer tastes and preferences and in terms of
the degree to which there may be competing products to those of an outside
exporter. After having undertaken the relevant market research, an exporter
may find that only one or two countries within the EU represent potential
markets for their product range. Accordingly, if an EU representative is to
be appointed, then to achieve the best results the representative should be
based within the country where the market for the goods exists or at least
be very familiar with the relevant competing products within that market.
If it is considered that there may be several countries in which the product
might sell, the exporter is then faced with a choice of either appointing one
representative for the entire market or alternatively segmenting the market
and appointing different representatives for each segment. This is often a
key decision for an exporter and underlines the importance of thorough
market research.
The second issue concerns the logistical advice and assistance that a
representative can provide. A representative familiar with EU transport
providers and costs as well as the various national and EU-wide regulations
that apply to the product can boost the profits of exporters to a greater
degree than the costs involved in having that representative. In all likelihood, the sales representative appointed by the exporter will not be able
to handle any customs clearance issues that need to be resolved given that
customs agents tend to specialise in this area. However, a knowledgeable
agent can give advice about which customs agents have expertise in relation
to the product in question.
A third reason for appointing a representative, whether agent or distributor, is the ongoing knowledge that the representative can provide about
competing products and how the exporter might best tailor their product range to meet the competition. The expansion of the EU market in
recent years to effectively 30 countries and the diversity of those countries
have significantly increased the competitiveness of the overall market in
global terms. The multilateral agreements that the EU is in the process
of negotiating with the Mediterranean countries and other bilateral deals
will only increase the competitive pressure. Thus, as the single market
policy becomes more widespread, it is to be expected that local producers
will have significant advantages over those from outside. This means that
exporters need every assistance in order to meet not only the high level of
internal competition but also other competing products from outside of
the EU. The appointment of a knowledgeable and diligent representative

can therefore reduce the risk of failure in the market.
SELECTING AN AGENT OR DISTRIBUTOR

Selecting the right representative is an all-important step for the exporter.
While most prudent exporters enter into formal agreements with their
chosen representatives, it can be argued that no agreement can substitute
for a carefully cultivated relationship based upon trust. The following
discussion provides an explanation of some of the issues that need to be
considered.
Most exporters will aim to find a representative who has some experience
within the relevant industry. This is important not only in terms of the
representatives ability to locate customers for the product but also in terms
of the representative being able to provide accurate advice about competing
products and relevant regulations affecting the entry of the product into
the EU.
Following on from this is the reputation of the representative within the
industry. This is much harder to establish but a prudent exporter will want
to be satisfied that the representative will be able to keep trade secrets and
intellectual property rights related to the product confidential. Additionally,
it is useful to establish if the representative has shown commitment in terms
of selling the products of firms that they might have represented in the past
and provided adequate after-sales service if required. It would also be useful
to know if the proposed representative has been engaged in any litigation
arising out of their duties as representative for prior principals.
The business capability of the representative needs to be assessed to
ensure that they have adequate staff, financial capability and record-keeping
systems to be able to deal with customer requests and advise the exporter
in a timely manner of updated sales and product information.
In the case of a representative who is a distributor, the financial strength
of the distributor is important to the exporter because the distributor
may well be the exporters biggest customer. If the distributor encounters
financial difficulties, this may well place the exporter in financial difficulties
as well. Closely tied to this is the logistics capability of the distributor.
Distributors commonly sell to retail outlets. If their distribution systems are
not well managed and their customers not well served in a timely manner,
this may lead to those customers going elsewhere with the consequent
adverse effect on the exporters business.
111
112
Case study
Using a distributor to sell into the EU market
Ozkleen is a family-owned business producing cleaning products. Its wellknown brands include Shower Power (Bath Power in the UK), Shower
Power Pine, Carpet Power, Pre-wash Power, Grease Monkey, Power
Wipes, Power Cloth, Oven Power and Drycleaners Secret. The philosophy behind its market-leading product, Shower Power, was to develop
a product that was technologically superior to its rivals, environmentally
friendly, user-friendly, contained no chlorine, required no scrubbing and
had a pleasant fragrance.
The company commenced operations in 1995 and full distribution
was achieved in Australia in 1997. By October 1997, Shower Power was
ranked the number one household cleaner in Australia. In 1998, the company commenced planning to enter the export market, targeting the UK
first. The company received considerable assistance from the Queensland
Government Office in London in developing its initial strategy and making contacts. By 2000, it had its product on the supermarket shelves of
Sainsbury, followed quickly by Tesco, also in 2000, and Waitrose, in 2001.
It has subsequently been successful in having its product placed on the
shelves of Carrefour, Frances leading supermarket chain and a global
player in the supermarket business.
The Ozkleen experience in entering the EU market provides valuable
insights into the process of achieving sustained sales of the product
there. These include the need for a successful distributor; the role that a
representative of the exporting company located in Europe can play; the
financial and managerial commitment required when exporting into the
European market; and the extremely competitive yet segmented nature
of this market. Each of these matters is dealt with in more detail below.
The need for a successful distributor

Without a successful distributor it is almost impossible to get products
onto supermarket shelves. Supermarkets are often reluctant to deal with
individual product suppliers, preferring to deal with the larger distributors in order to reduce the number of their suppliers; they may elect
to consolidate suppliers. In addition, supermarkets are reluctant to stock
any more than three or four brands of competing products and it is
often necessary to wait until one of the existing product lines drops out
before there is a chance for a new entrant. Consequently, the choice

of a distributor that has considerable power and good relations with
supermarket chains is vital.
Ozkleen first engaged a distributor for the UK market in 1998. The
distributor was one of the UKs largest distributors and dealt in no competing products to those produced by Ozkleen. Despite its large size,
the distributor ran into financial troubles in 2005 due to intense competition within the distribution sector. This was a setback for Ozkleen
but the success of its products made the search for a new distributor easier. A new approach was adopted and a distributor was chosen that specialised in the non-food household sector and had excellent connections with supermarket chains but at the same time did not
handle products directly competing with Ozkleens range. This experience demonstrates that an exporter must be flexible enough and
have sufficient financial commitment to be able to withstand difficulties
with distributors that often arise quite independently of the exporters
control regardless of the care which has been taken in their initial
selection.
The need for a representative of the exporter in the EU

Many exporters might think once a distributor has been found then
all marketing matters will be seen to by the distributor. However, the
Ozkleen experience demonstrates the opposite. A representative of the
exporting company is often necessary to ensure success in the EU market.
First, it may not always be easy to convince a distributor to take on
a companys product and, second, the company itself, rather than the
distributor, often has to be involved in marketing the product. Having
an Ozkleen representative in Europe has performed a vital role in both
of these tasks.
In the UK, the opportunity for accessing supermarkets came when
one of the competing products was no longer stocked by the supermarket. A clever marketing campaign was launched by Ozkleen by getting
members of the public to trial the Ozkleen product and have them contact the supermarket requesting that it be stocked. Still, supermarkets
were not that easily convinced. It was necessary for the Ozkleen representative and the distributor to convince the supermarkets that it was
worthwhile for them to stock the product on the basis that consumers
demanded it and it would provide a healthy rate of sales along with a
decent margin.
113
114
In terms of marketing the product, Ozkleen has found it necessary to

market directly. Supermarkets tend to change their range of products
quickly if a product is not performing. Ozkleen has undertaken television advertising campaigns both in France and the UK. While filming in
Europe is extremely expensive, the costs have been kept down by recruiting people to volunteer to be in the television advertisements based on
their experience with using the products.
Financial and management commitment

Too frequently exporters have the view that if a distributor is appointed,
exporting costs will be kept to a minimum and stocks that are surplus
to the domestic market can easily be disposed of by the overseas distributor. The Ozkleen experience belies this view. First, there has been
a significant commitment of management time and expense in sustaining an in-country presence in Europe to first of all get the product into
the supermarkets and then to maintain and increase sales. Without these
efforts and attention, success in supermarkets would have been unlikely.
Second, the terms of sale that exporters must accept both from distributors and supermarkets are generally not advantageous. Distributors
will generally require exporters to use Delivered Duty Paid incoterms,
thus requiring exporters to clear goods for customs at the EU end.
Ozkleen initially used a customs agent but, in order to get goods delivered to replenish stocks so that strict supermarket delivery deadlines
could be met, turned to DHL, a major logistics provider that could
handle all aspects of the transport and customs clearance procedures.
Supermarkets insist that 99% of their requests for product must be met
on time. Retaining a logistics company that can meet these demands
involves significant costs to the exporter, and care has to be taken when
adding these costs to the cost of production to maintain the products
competitiveness.
Transport and production costs are not recovered quickly when supplying supermarkets. Exporters will frequently have to wait for payment
from the distributor until after the distributor has been paid by the
supermarket and are thus out of pocket in the meantime. This can be a
considerable cost given that transport time from Australia to the EU can
be around 89 weeks and 913 weeks of stock are generally required by
the distributor at all times to meet supermarket demands. In addition,
some supermarkets will require that a set minimum of a product be sold
and will adjust their payments if such minimum is not reached.
A competitive and segmented market

It has been noted above that the success of the product in the UK was,
in itself, insufficient to convince French supermarkets to stock the product and separate campaigns had to be launched in France. In addition,
labelling and packaging has to not only meet language requirements
but must be tailored to suit nuances of the particular market. In the case
of France, this required a greater appeal to the environmental attributes
of the product.
The market for those goods produced by Ozkleen is a very competitive
one. While the company has its trademark registered in all countries
throughout Europe, it has faced attempts to trade off its successful use
of the word power for its products and has also found that its successful
marketing strategies are now being copied by some competitors. The
role of the companys representative in Europe is therefore an essential
one in terms of anticipating and dealing with competitive threats. Such
matters cannot normally be left to distributors alone.
APPOINTING AN AGENT
When entering into an agreement with a prospective agent in EU member countries, an exporter needs to be aware of the Commercial Agency
Directive2 which contains several mandatory provisions that are likely to
apply to the agreement. At the outset it needs to be noted that the directive
provides that either party can ask the other for a statement in writing of
the terms of the agreement3 and, accordingly, most exporters appointing
agents tend to have a formal written agreement. The following discusses
the common terms that are included in agency agreements and how those
terms are affected by the Commercial Agency Directive. Decided cases are
used to illustrate the points made.
PA RT I E S T O T H E A G R E E M E N T
Representatives who are intending to act as agents are usually careful to
insist that the agreement between them and the exporter contains a term
that specifically states that the representative will be a commercial agent.
2
3
Ibid.
Article 13.
115
116
The Commercial Agency Directive sets out the characteristics of a

commercial agent in Articles 1 and 2. In summary, Article 1 states that a
commercial agent is a self-employed intermediary who has continuing
authority to negotiate the sale or the purchase of goods on behalf of another
person (the principal) or to negotiate and conclude such transactions on
behalf of the principal.4
Article 2 states that representatives who are not paid for their services
are not considered commercial agents. Commercial agents operating on
commodity exchanges or in the commodity market are also excluded from
the definition. Article 2 allows member states to provide in their legislation
implementing the directive that if a representatives activities as a commercial agent are considered to be secondary, then they will not be considered
to be commercial agents in that member state. It is therefore important to
check the legislation implementing the directive in the member state in
which the agent is to be appointed in those cases where the representative
will perform other activities for the principal other than what is normally
considered to be agency activities as defined above.
There have been a number of cases where representatives have sought to
bring themselves within the definition of commercial agents in order to
attract the other provisions of the directive, particularly the one relating
to compensation upon termination of the agreement. However, the courts
have taken the approach that they will look beyond the words used by the
parties in their agreement to the actual facts concerning the relationship.
In Blanc Canet v Europecar [2005] ECC 34, the representatives agreement stated that she was an independent commercial agent on behalf of
Europecar. However, on an examination of the facts, the court found that
she was not able to negotiate contracts on behalf of Europecar, did not
carry out her activities independently and could not enter into contracts
on Europecars behalf. Consequently, despite the wording used, she could
not be considered a commercial agent in terms of the directive.
In Smith v Reliance Water Control [2004] ECC 38, the plaintiff Smith
requested the defendant that he be permitted to cease his employment
with the defendant and became a commercial agent instead. The reason
for the plaintiff s request was that, as an employee, child support payments
could be deducted automatically from his salary. Such was not the case
with commission payments made under an agency agreement. The lower
court took a dim view of the plaintiff s motives in converting his relationship from one of employee to one of commercial agency and refused to
4
Commercial Agency Directive, Article 1(2).
find that he was a commercial agent. On appeal Smith was successful. The
appeal court said that it was necessary to look at all of the facts of the
relationship regardless of the motive. The court found that the agreement
provided that Smith had a sales target that had to be met; he had a no
competition clause in his agreement; he had to ensure adequate margins
for any sales that he negotiated on the companys behalf; he had to regularly
provide information about his activities to the defendant; and he had to
follow up any leads that the defendant gave to him regarding potential
customers. He was paid a commission of 4.5% and the commission was
paid within two weeks of the sale being made. In essence, most of the common terms of an agency agreement were found in his agreement with the
defendant.
In Mercantile International Group PLC v Chuan Soon Huat Industrial
Group Limited [2003] ECC 28, the claimant was the sole representative
of the Singaporean defendant for the UK for over 20 years. The claimant
entered into contracts as agent for the defendant and the original agreement between them had been entitled an agency agreement. The practice
of the parties was that the claimant would enter into agreements with
customers on behalf of the defendant but would charge the customers a
higher price than the claimant notified to the defendant. The defendant
was aware of this practice. The claimant was not paid a commission. Its
sole basis of remuneration was the difference between the prices it charged
customers and the amount that it notified to the defendant as the sales figure. Upon termination of the agreement, the claimant asked for damages.
The question was whether it was a commercial agent. The court found
that regardless of the fact that different prices were charged to customers
than were notified to the defendant and regardless that there was no commission as such, the claimant was still a commercial agent as defined in
the commercial agents directive. However, representatives will not always
be successful in claiming that their relationship is truly one of agency even
if they are paid a commission. For example, in AMB Imballagi Plastici v
Pacflex Limited [2003] ECC 381, the court found that the true relationship between the parties was that the claimant actually bought the goods
from the defendant and on-sold them to customers. Although the claimant
was paid commissions, the nature of the relationship was more akin to a
distributorship than an agency.
Thus, the cases make it clear that courts will look at all of the circumstances of the parties relationship before deciding whether the relationship
is in fact one of commercial agency within the definitions provided within
the Commercial Agency Directive.
117
118
A G E N T S B A S I C O B L I G AT I O N S
Article 3 of the Commercial Agency Directive provides that a commercial
agent must look after his principals interests and act dutifully and in
good faith. In particular, the agent must make proper efforts on the
principals behalf in negotiating transactions (or, if authorised, entering
into transactions), must make all necessary information available to the
principal and comply with the principals reasonable instructions. Article
5 of the directive states that the parties cannot derogate from the basic
obligations as stated in Article 3.
It is advisable to fill out these obligations in more detail with specific
provisions such as, for example, what must be communicated to the principal and what constitutes proper efforts on the principals behalf. It is also
advisable for the parties to make it clear that the agent cannot enter into
contracts on the principals behalf but merely negotiate and refer potential
customers on to the principal. Such a provision is in the interests of both
parties because under continental EU law, if an agent enters into a contract
with a customer and does not disclose the fact that they are acting as an
agent, then the agent themselves will be liable to the customer and the customer also will only have rights against the agent. This type of provision
is even more significant under UK law because, in the absence of such a
provision, if an agent acts on behalf of an undisclosed principal but acts
otherwise within the scope of their authority, then the customer may elect
to either claim against the agent or against the principal if the contract is
not fulfilled.
P R I N C I PA L S B A S I C O B L I G AT I O N S
The primary obligation of the principal is to pay the agent commission.
This is discussed in more detail below. However, Article 4 of the Commercial Agency Directive also provides that a principal must act dutifully and
in good faith. In particular, the principal must assist the agent by producing
all documentation relating to the goods so that the agent is able to carry
out their sales obligations. In addition the principal must inform the agent
within a reasonable time of the acceptance or rejection of orders passed on
by the agent to the principal. Agents may well wish to see a clause included
in the agreement that extends this obligation by stating that the principal
cannot unreasonably refuse to accept orders.
Article 4 also contains a somewhat unusual provision in that it requires
the principal to advise the agent if the principal has reason to believe that
there is likely to be a significant decrease in the volume of transactions that

the agent could normally have expected to occur. Failure to advise the agent
will amount to a breach of the agreement and may lead to termination by
the agent. Along with the other obligations in Article 4, this obligation is
reinforced by the fact that Article 5 provides that the parties are not able
to derogate from any of the obligations in Article 4.
T E R R I T O RY A N D P R O D U C T S
It is usual for the parties to agree on the specific products for which the agent
will arrange sales on behalf of the principal and the geographic territory in
which the agent is responsible for arranging those sales. Provision needs to
be made in agency agreements for cases where the principal develops new
products and whether those can be sold directly by the principal into the
agents territory or whether they will automatically be added to the list of
products that the agent can sell on behalf of the principal.
COMMISSION
One of the key objectives of the Commercial Agency Directive is to protect
the rights of commercial agents. An examination of the provisions in the
directive relating to commission and compensation for termination make
this apparent. This section examines the provisions relating to commission
while a later section looks at termination payments. Articles 612 of the
directive relate to commission. The issues covered in these articles include
the agents basic right to remuneration; transactions concluded during
the term of the agency for which the agent is entitled to commission;
transactions concluded after the termination of the agency for which the
agent may be entitled to commission; and when commission becomes due
and when it has to be paid.
Article 6 of the directive provides that any part of the remuneration (of
the agent) which varies with the number or value of business transactions
shall be deemed commission. It is usual for the parties to have specific
provisions in their agreement that set out the formula for calculating commission. It is possible for the parties to either have a set rate of commission
or to vary the rate of commission depending on the volume of sales in total
or the volume of sales to specific customers. In the absence of specific provisions relating to the rate of commission, Article 6 provides that, subject
to individual member countries laws about the level of remuneration, the
119
120
commission will be calculated in accordance with industry standards or, if

none, on the basis of what is reasonable.
Article 7 of the directive provides that an agent is entitled to commission
where the transaction has been concluded as a result of his action or
where the principal concludes a transaction with a customer that the agent
has previously found for the principal. This is subject to the range of
products as covered by the agreement. The second part of Article 7 refers
specifically to the agents territorial rights to customers. It provides that
when implementing the directive, member states must specify in their
legislation that commercial agents are entitled to commission on one of
two bases. Either the agent is always entitled to commission if he is entrusted
with a specific geographical area or group of customers, or the agent is only
so entitled if he has an exclusive right to a specific geographical area or group
of customers. Thus, when drawing up the terms of agency agreements for
agents in a particular country, it is necessary to check the legislation for that
country implementing the directive to see if agents only have an automatic
right to commission if they are appointed on an exclusive basis or if they
have an automatic entitlement whether or not the word exclusive is used.
Article 8 provides that the agent will also be entitled to commission on
transactions concluded after the termination of the agency if the transaction
has resulted from the agents efforts during the life of the agency relationship
and if the transaction occurs within a reasonable time after the conclusion
of the agency relationship. It may be advisable to be more specific about
what amounts to reasonable time when drawing up agency agreements.
Article 9 adds to the provisions of Article 8 by stating that a new commercial
agent in the territory will not be entitled to commission on any transaction
that results in payments to the previous agent.
Article 10 provides that commission becomes due either when the principal has executed the transaction or should have executed the transaction
in accordance with his agreement with the third party or the customer
has executed the transaction. Thus commission is payable both in cases
where the transaction has been completed and where it would have been
completed if the principal had not defaulted. Article 11 makes this even
clearer by stating that the right to commission can only be extinguished if
it is established that the contract between the principal and the customer
will not be executed and the principal is not to blame. These provisions are
clearly to protect the agents rights to be remunerated for the work done in
negotiating a transaction which falls over through the fault of the principal.
Transactions which fall over as a result of the customer are not protected.
This is because the agent should take responsibility for the selection of
customers and if a bad choice is made the agent should not be entitled to
be remunerated because if it.
The timing for the payment of commission is no later than the last day
of the month following the quarter in which it became due. Article 12
requires principals to give agents a statement of all commission no later
than the last day for the payment of commission. The agent is entitled to
be provided by the principal with all information to enable them to check
how the commission has been calculated. The directive does not specify
whether the commission is calculated according to the net price of the
goods (excluding transport costs if paid by the principal) or whether it is
the full amount of the transaction. When drafting an agency agreement
this point needs to be clarified by specifying which price shall form the
basis for the payment of commission.
Many exporters may commence agency relationships within the EU
with an appointment of an agent for only one country. This may lead
to a situation where customers outside of the territory find out about the
product and make contact with the agent. This issue needs to be clarified in
agency agreements so that the agent is compensated for their expansion of
the principals business in those instances while at the same time allowing
the principal the right to develop this business themselves and maintain the
freedom to appoint another agent for that other territory if need be.
M I N I M U M S A L E S TA R G E T
It is usual to include a provision in the agreement that requires the agent to
reach a certain performance level. This can either be in terms of a minimum
sales volume in terms of quantity, a minimum sales amount in monetary
terms or a minimum number of customers. It is a matter for the parties
to decide what performance level is acceptable. However, as noted below,
attempts by a principal to terminate agency agreements for failure to reach
minimum targets will be examined closely by the courts to determine if
this arose due to the failure of the agent to adequately carry out their duties
or for reasons over which the agent has little control.
R E P O RT I N G R E Q U I R E M E N T S
While there is a general obligation on the part of agents to act diligently
and in the best interests of the principal, it is useful to also specify the type
of matters that must be reported to the principal to allow the principal
to make an assessment of the agents performance of their duties. These
121
122
might include updates on competing products in the territory, changes in

regulations that affect the product, or general market conditions within
the territory.
A D V E RT I S I N G A N D P R O M O T I O N
O B L I G AT I O N S
The parties must decide which of them is responsible for the promotion
of the products within the agents territory, who will produce any promotional material and who will be responsible for the costs of doing so.
With highly technical products it is likely that the principal will wish to
produce all promotional material themselves to avoid any possibility of
misrepresentation occurring in relation to the products. If the agent is to
produce promotional material, then the principal will want to be assured
that any trademarks used in it will be used correctly.
CONFIDENTIALITY
When negotiating agency agreements, it is frequently necessary for the
principal to divulge considerable information about their product to ensure
that the agent has the capability to sell it. Since there is no formal agency
agreement in place at this stage, it may be necessary for the principal and
the prospective agent to enter into a confidentiality agreement requiring
the potential agent to keep confidential any information that the principal
has disclosed during negotiations. It is also usual to include in the formal
agency agreement an obligation on the agent not to divulge to others or
seek to appropriate to themselves the intellectual property of the principal.
NO COMPETITION
If the agent is representing competing products to those of the principal on
behalf of some other party, the agent is likely to find themselves in a conflict
of interest situation and will be unable to adequately carry out their duties
to act in the best interests of either of the principals for whom they are
acting as representative. For this reason it is usual to provide that the agent
cannot represent competing products to those of the principal without the
principals formal agreement. In order to ensure the effectiveness of such
a clause, it will be necessary to define carefully those products for which
the agent is responsible. It may also be necessary to have the agent declare
in the agreement the range of other products for which they currently
act as representative on behalf of other parties. However, if the agent is

precluded from representing any other products of any kind for any other
principal, it may lead to the conclusion that the agency is simply a part of
the principals business located in the country concerned. This may lead to
tax authorities deciding that the principal has a permanent establishment
in that territory and imposing tax on any profits made in that territory. In
addition, it is possible that such an arrangement might lead to the agency
not being considered a genuine agency for the purposes of the block
exemption for vertical agreements discussed below.
D E L E G AT I O N
Implicit in the selection and appointment of a particular agent by a principal is the understanding that the agent will act personally and not delegate
their functions or assign the obligations and rights under the agreement
to some other firm. Accordingly, there is frequently a provision in agency
agreements that only allows the appointment of sub-agents, delegation to
another firm or assignment of the agency with the express permission of
the principal.
D U R AT I O N O F T H E A G E N C Y A G R E E M E N T
The parties can decide to have an agency for a fixed term or for an indefinite
term. Where an agency for a fixed term expires but the arrangement continues on an informal basis, Article 14 of the Commercial Agency Directive
deems the agency to be converted into one for an indefinite term. In RII
Diffusion v Relais Informatique Diffusion Sarl Compain [2005] ECC 21, an
agency agreement that stated that it continues from year to year unless
three months notice is given was held to be an agency for an indefinite
term.
T E R M I N AT I O N O F T H E A G E N C Y
AGREEMENT
Termination can occur in two situations. The first is where neither party is
at fault and simply wishes to terminate the arrangement. In this case, if the
agency is terminated by the principal, then compensation may be payable
to the agent see below. The second is where there has been a breach of
the agreement by one of the parties and the other wants to terminate it.
123
124
Turning first to the situation where there is no breach by either party,

if the agency agreement is for a fixed term it will expire at the end of that
term. An agency agreement for an indefinite term may be terminated by
either party provided that notice is given. The period of notice required
is set out in Article 15 of the Commercial Agency Directive. Essentially,
the notice period is on a sliding scale, being one month if terminated
during the first year of the contract, two months if terminated during the
second year and three months if terminated during the third year. The
parties cannot contract out of these periods of notice. Member states are
able to provide in their implementing legislation for continuation of notice
periods on this sliding scale for agreements that have been in existence up
to six years. Periods of notice to be given by the principal cannot be shorter
than those required of the agent. In order that commissions due can be
calculated in accordance with the provisions on commission, the end of
the notice period must occur at the end of a calendar month.
The second situation in which an agency agreement can be terminated
is where there has been a breach by one of the parties. Article 16 of the
Commercial Agency Directive makes it clear that nothing in the directive
shall affect member countries laws regarding termination of the agency
agreement for breach or termination of the agreement because of exceptional circumstances. Because the directive is not more specific than that
and because individual countries laws vary slightly in relation to termination for breach of contract, it is advisable when drafting agency agreements
to spell out in detail the type of circumstances that will allow termination.
These are often couched in terms of a breach of the fundamental or substantial obligations of the agent or of the principal and those obligations
considered fundamental are frequently listed. However, the case of Laboratories Arkopharma SA v Gravier [2003] ECC 33 discussed below suggests
that such an attempt might not always be effective.
It comes as no surprise that there have been a number of cases on the
point of whether the agent has committed a breach significant enough to
allow for termination by the principal. Several of these cases revolve around
the question of the principals rights to terminate the agreement because
of an agents failure to achieve results. An analysis of the cases tends to
suggest that the courts are somewhat reluctant to deny an agents rights to
compensation in line with the intent of the directive which is to protect
agents.
In Laboratoires Arkopharma SA v Gravier [2003] ECC 33, the issue
was the termination of the agreement for alleged serious misconduct of
the agent. The agency agreement had defined serious misconduct as,
among other things, failing to achieve minimum targets. The principal

argued that the parties should be free to determine what defined serious misconduct and the court should be prepared to give effect to their
intentions. However, the court took the position that it was not up to the
parties to decide what serious misconduct was but that the court should
decide this in all of the circumstances. The court affirmed that in the
circumstances of this case that failure to meet targets did not amount to
serious misconduct and, further, that attempting to define it in such a way
offended the relevant French law and was therefore null and void. A similar
decision was reached in the case of Re an Agreement to Exclude an Agents
Right to Compensation [1992] EEC 238 where the court also took the view
that it is a matter for the court to decide whether failure to reach sales
targets was sufficient to entitle the principal to terminate the agreement
for breach. Further, it may well be the case that the principal bears the
onus of proof if they want to terminate on these grounds. In Accodim
Sarl v Establissements Rabaud [1992] ECC 82, the principal argued that
the agent breached the agreement because it did not obtain results. The
agent claimed that its failure to do so was because of economic circumstances existing at the time. In upholding the agents appeal, the court
said that it was up to the principal to prove that the failure to perform
was in fact the agents fault and in this case the principal had failed to do
this.
However, in the case of Scandia Diffusion Sarl v Sopenkorpi [1990] ECC
159, the court found that where an agents sales had fallen by half from
one year to the next, an important customer had been lost and the agent
had failed to represent the principal at trade fairs and canvass customers,
then the principal was within its rights to terminate the agency agreement
by restricting the agents territory without payment of compensation.
The question of what amounts to a termination was addressed in Cooper
v Pure Fishing (UK) Limited [2005] ECC 6. Here the plaintiff had acted
as an agent for the defendant for the sale of fishing gear. The arrangement
was an ongoing one with renewal of contracts every six months. The
agent also acted for another principal but the products of that firm did
not compete with those of the defendant. The defendant brought out a
new range of fishing gear and the plaintiff refused to sell it because of
the conflict with its other agency arrangement. The defendant refused to
renew the agents contract on the basis that the agent was in breach of their
agreement because they refused to sell the new product range. The plaintiff
argued that the failure to renew amounted to a termination for which they
were entitled to compensation. The court found for the plaintiff because
125
126
it was of the view that a failure to renew cannot be described as equivalent

to a termination for breach.
C O M P E N S AT I O N F O R T E R M I N AT I O N
Article 17 of the Commercial Agency Directive requires member states to
include in their implementing legislation either a right to an indemnity
for the agent upon termination of the agency or a right to compensation.
Termination is likely to include the expiry of a fixed-term contract. The
UK has interpreted the provisions as meaning that member states must,
at a minimum, include either the indemnity basis or the compensation
basis. Because of its interpretation, the UK allows both alternatives. Parties
can choose which of these is to apply in their agency agreements. If no
choice is made the compensation basis will apply. Article 18 provides that
compensation will not be payable where the termination was for breach of
the agreement by the agent.
Where member states have elected to include the right to an indemnity,
the directive does not state how much the indemnity should be but rather
gives guidelines as to how it should be determined. The amount of the
indemnity should take into account the extent to which the agent has
brought in new business and improved existing business relationships along
with what is equitable having regard to the amount of the commission that
the agent will lose because of the termination. In any case, the amount
of the indemnity should not exceed one years commission. In addition
to obtaining an indemnity, the agent is also entitled to seek damages
if the agency has been wrongfully terminated. However, if the member
state has elected the compensation basis for determining how much the
agent should receive, then the court cannot use the indemnity basis. In
DSR Senator Agency v Maritime Union Sud Oeust [2003] ECC 27, the
agent asked for a termination payment based on the number of customers
he had brought to the principals business. A lower court had allowed
compensation to be calculated on this basis. However, on appeal, the
appellate court said that because France had adopted the compensation
basis for calculating termination payments, it could not use the number of
customers in assessing the compensation that the agent should receive.
Where member states have elected to provide a right to compensation
for termination, then the compensation is to be assessed in accordance with
the damages that the agent has suffered as result of the termination. Guidelines are given as to how the amount should be calculated. Article 17(3)
provides that damage shall be deemed to occur particularly when
termination takes place in circumstances leading to deprivation of the

agent of commission that they otherwise would have received but for the
termination. Damages will also include the extent to which the agent has
been unable to recoup the costs that they have incurred in setting up their
agency business on behalf of the principal.
In the case of King v Tunnock Limited [2001] ECC 6, the appellant
had been a commercial agent of the defendant for the sale of cakes and
biscuits for many years. The appellants father had held the agency business
before him. The respondent principal went out of that line of business and
therefore terminated the agency relationship. They argued that because they
had now gone out of that line of business the agent would not suffer a loss
of commission in the future and therefore no compensation was payable.
However, the court found that at the time of termination the agency had
considerable commercial value mainly attributable to the goodwill built up
by the agent and his father. Accordingly, the court assessed the damages as
being equivalent to the last two years of commission. The court made it
clear that Article 17 does not state that damages can only be assessed with
regard to future loss of commissions. The court seemed to take the view
that the use of the words particularly when the termination takes place
does not preclude other means of assessing damages. The quantification
of the damages was very much in line with the approach of French courts
that tend to adopt compensation equivalent to two years of commission
based on the average of the last three years of commission as the basis for
calculating damages.
However, in Ingmar GB Limited v Eaton Leonard Inc [2002] ECC 5, the
English High Court declined to follow the French method for assessing
compensation because it would result in an injustice to the defendants and
an excessive windfall to the claimants way above the value of the agency5
and instead assessed compensation on the basis of the length of time of the
agency (eight years), the inevitable lack of profitability in the early years,
the high degree of engineering and sales expertise required in obtaining,
nurturing and developing the customer base and the degree of profitability
of the agency at the time of its rupture.6 The end result was an award of
approximately 183 000 as opposed to an award of 211 000 which would
have been the figure under the French method. This departure from the
French method was followed in Lonsdale v Howard and Hallem [2007]
UKHL 32.
5
6
[2002] ECC 5 at 11.

Ibid.
127
128
Regardless of which alternative has been adopted by member states, the

agent shall not lose their right to compensation if the agency is terminated
by the death of the agent or where termination by the agent is justified by
age, ill health or infirmity and that because of this, they are no longer able
to carry on their business as agent. However, it is the responsibility of the
agent to prove that it was in fact their ill health, age or infirmity that led
them to terminate. In Exbanor SA v Patrigeon [2005] ECC 35, the agent
failed to advise the principal of their ill health at the time of termination
and was denied compensation. Agents must make a claim for an indemnity or compensation within one year of the termination of the agency.
Article 18(1) of the Commercial Agency Directive makes it very clear that
if the principal has grounds to terminate the agency because of a breach by
the agent, then no indemnity or compensation will be payable. Article 19
provides that the parties cannot derogate from the provisions of Articles
17 and 18 to the detriment of the agent. For this reason, standard agency
agreements tend to follow closely the provisions of Articles 17 and 18 in
that part of the agreement that relates to compensation for termination.
RESTRAINT OF TRADE
After termination of an agency relationship a principal will want to ensure
that the agent does not immediately start to act for a competitor or,
alternatively, establish a competing business themselves. Consequently, it
is usual to provide that the agent cannot engage in a competing business
in the territory in relation to the products for a set period. Article 20 sets
two years as the maximum time for restraining an agent from engaging in
a competing business.
A P P L I C A B L E L AW
Where a principal appoints an agent in an EU country, it seems likely that
the Agents Directive will apply to the contract. However, two cases where
this question has arisen have reached opposite conclusions.
In Allium SA v Alfin Incorporated [2001] ECC 35, the agency agreement was concluded by a principal based in New York and an agent in
France. The contract was expressly stated to be governed by New York
law which did not provide for compensation in the event of termination.
Consequently, the agent sought to argue that the Commercial Agency
Directive should apply. The French Supreme Court came to the view that
because the contract was an international one and made expressly subject
to New York law, the French law implementing the directive could not
apply to the agreement.
However, in the later case of Ingmar GB Limited v Eaton Leonard Inc
[2002] ECC 5, the court had to decide whether an agency agreement
between a Californian principal and an EU agent which expressly provided
that it was governed by Californian law was in fact governed by that law
or by the Commercial Agency Directive. A lower court had referred this
question to the European Court of Justice. The European Court of Justice
held that it was essential to the development of the community legal order
that a company established outside of the EC, whose commercial agent
carried on its activity within it, could not evade the provisions [of the
Commercial Agency Directive] by a choice of law clause.7 The English
judge applied this finding and added that the activities of a commercial
agent appointed in the EU are closely connected with the EU and that,
accordingly, the Commercial Agency Directive should be applied regardless
of the choice of law clause inserted by the parties.
DISPUTE RESOLUTION
The parties frequently insert a provision setting out how any disputes
under the agreement will be dealt with. Choices include informal dispute
resolution, arbitration or the more formal process of litigation. Chapter 9
deals with dispute resolution in some detail and the reader is referred to
that chapter for consideration of the issues that arise in selecting the most
appropriate method for the resolution of disputes.
AGENCY AGREEMENTS AND
COMPETITION LAW
Article 81 of the EC Treaty prohibits agreements between undertakings
that seek to restrict competition. An agency agreement is an agreement
between undertakings the principal and the agent. Moreover, it could
be classed as a vertical agreement in the sense that the principal and the
agent are at different levels of the distribution chain for the distribution
of goods or services. However, many vertical agreements are considered to
promote rather than restrict competition because they in fact facilitate the
distribution of goods and services throughout the EU. Because of this, a
block exemption regulation was promulgated in 1999 to exempt a range of
7
[2002] ECC 5 at 6.
129
130
vertical agreements from the operation of competition laws.8 The lengthy

guidelines9 set out by the Commission to aid in the interpretation of the
block exemption make clear that in ordinary circumstances where all that
the agent does is refer customers on to the principal (i.e. genuine agency
agreements), these agreements will be exempted from the operation of
EU competition laws by the block exemption regulation. The following
explores those situations where an agency agreement might not fall within
the exemption so that parties from outside of the EU can avoid those types
of agency arrangements that might offend EU competition laws.
The Guidelines on Vertical Restraints suggest that agency agreements
might not fall within the exemption if the agent bears significant financial
or commercial risk in relation to the sales that they make on the principals
behalf. In genuine agency arrangements, the principal bears the risk of the
sales and, accordingly, even though the agency is a separate undertaking,
the selling or purchasing is considered to be primarily part of the principals
business. The key defining characteristic of genuine agency agreements is
that property in the goods does not vest in the agent or the agent does not
themselves supply the contract services and, in addition, the agent does
not
r contribute to transport costs of the goods
r invest in sales promotion of the goods or services
r maintain stocks of the goods at their own expense and can return unsold
stocks to the principal at no expense to the agent
r operate after-sales service at their own expense
r make specific investments (such as premises or equipment) at their own
expense to assist in the sale of the goods or provision of the services
r have liability for defective products
r take responsibility for non-payment or default by a customer unless
caused by the agents default, in which case the agent should only lose
their commission on the sale.
The point has been made that it is reasonably common for agency agreements to contain some obligations on the part of the agent that could be
said to fall within the above list. However, the question is whether they
involve a significant financial or commercial risk to the agent. Only if the
risks are significant will the agency be considered to be a non-genuine
agency for purposes of the application of Article 81(1) of the EC Treaty.10
8
9
10
Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2790/1999, [1999] OJ L336/21.

Commission Notice, Guidelines on Vertical Restraints [2000] OJ C291/1.
For a further discussion of these grounds, see M. Mendelsohn and S. Rose, Guide to the EC Block
Exemption for Vertical Agreements, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 2002, pp. 813.
On the other hand, the guidelines also set out some provisions of agency
agreements which are allowable because they relate to the principals
commercial strategy. These include territorial limitations; limitations on
customers the agent is to contact; prices at which the goods or services will
be sold by the principal to the customers that the agent finds; exclusive
agency arrangements; limitations on the agent acting for a competitor; and
non-compete provisions after the termination of the agency provided that
those non-compete provisions do not lead to foreclosure of the relevant
market where the contract goods or services are sold or purchased.11
If an agency arrangement does not fall within the provisions of the block
exemption, then it may be caught by Article 81. A number of issues need
consideration here. First, if the agreement is one in which the agent actually
takes title to the goods, then it is more likely to be a distribution agreement
and should be considered in relation to the block exemption regulations
provisions on distribution agreements (see below). Second, even if the
agency agreement contains some of the features that characterise it as a
non-genuine agency, those provisions of the block exemption regulation
that exempt from the operation of competition law those agreements where
the market share is less than 30% are likely to apply provided no hardcore restrictions are contained in the agreement (see below). Third, even
if a particular agency arrangement appears to offend Article 81 because,
for example, the agent takes on the credit risk of some customers, the
parties still have the option of attempting to use the general exemption
provisions of Article 81(3) to show that it leads to benefits in terms of efficiency gains due to the improved distribution of goods and services within
the EU.
DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS
A distribution relationship differs from an agency in that in a distributorship, the exporter sells the product to the distributor who then on-sells
to the customer. However, when framing a suitable agreement for the
appointment of a distributor, many of the same issues arise as for an
agency agreement. The following discussion details provisions which are
similar between the two agreements and provisions where the two types of
agreements diverge.
11
See Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, para. 19.
131
132
As is the case in an agency relationship, an exporter will frequently

wish to define carefully the territory into which the distributor should onsell the goods and the products which the distributor is to on-sell. Thus,
provisions here between the two types of agreement are similar with the
exception that, in distribution agreements, clauses which limit territory
need to framed carefully so as not to offend EU competition clauses. This
is discussed more fully below.
Distribution agreements will also seek to impose obligations on the
distributor not to distribute competing products without the consent of the
exporter; to achieve minimum targets; to report regularly on sales matters
to the exporter; to share the expense of advertising the product; to keep
information relating to the exporters business and products confidential;
and to use the exporters intellectual property rights only for the purposes of
the distribution agreement. Standard agreements also include provisions on
the length of the agreement, how it can be renewed and the circumstances
in which it can be terminated early. Early termination provisions need to be
framed carefully given that one frequently finds in the civil and commercial
codes of European countries provisions that require the termination of
agreements only for just cause. Many standard agreements reflect this with
a general duty on the parties to deal with each other fairly and in good
faith. Further, some standard agreements provide for an indemnity for the
distributor after termination of the agreement.
As in agency agreements, there are also provisions regarding the resolution of disputes and the law that will apply to the agreement. While parties
have flexibility to determine the governing law of the contract, regard must
be had to each countrys conflict of law rules which may have the effect
that mandatory laws, such as EU competition laws, and other specific
laws that countries may have regarding distribution agreements and contracts that are carried out within their territories apply regardless of the
parties choice of law.
Because of the different nature of distribution relationships, there are
also provisions found in distribution agreements that do not have their
counterpart in agency relationships. Many of these relate to the resale of
the goods purchased by the distributor from the exporter. A distribution
agreement will spell out clearly that the distributor buys the goods from
the agent and will often annex the standard terms and conditions that will
apply to each shipment. While there is a master agreement between the
exporter and the distributor that covers matters concerned with the ongoing
relationship, the terms and conditions of each particular sale need to take
into account the matters discussed in detail in earlier chapters dealing with
terms of delivery, transport and insurance, payment and clearance of the

goods through customs.
Further provisions in the master agreements that relate to the on-sale of
goods often require the distributor to maintain an adequate sales organisation to perform their duties in on-selling the goods; to carry out after-sales
service; and perhaps to have regard to maximum prices subject to the provisions of competition law (as discussed below). It is also possible to find
provisions that a distributor is able to be paid a commission should they
increase the business of the exporter by more than a set margin. Unlike
agents, distributors are often free to appoint sub-distributors of the goods
as long as they inform the exporter that they are doing so. Again, this
is because exporters may be limited in restricting the parties to whom
goods will be on-sold due to competition law. Finally, exporters need to
have regard to the provisions of the EU Product Liability Directive. It is
discussed in more detail in the following chapter.
The question of EU competition law as it applies to distribution agreements is an important one and, accordingly, the following discusses in some
detail how it may affect a distribution arrangement between an exporter
from outside of the EU and an internal EU distributor.
EU COMPETITION LAW AND
DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENTS
In the simplest form of distribution arrangement between a firm outside
of the EU and a distributor located within the EU, the outside firm will
sell to the distributor with no restrictions as to how the distributor will
on-sell the product and the agreement will impose no restrictions on other
distributors that the outside firm might wish to use. However, in order
to increase their market share and profitability, firms exporting to the EU
market and distributors operating within that market might enter into
particular types of distribution arrangement that seem, at first glance, to
be restricting competition and accordingly might offend EU competition
laws. The following first explores some of the more common distribution
arrangements of this type12 and then discusses some of the more important
EU competition law issues that need to be considered when entering into
arrangements of these types.
12
The Commissions Guidelines on Vertical Restraints discuss these types of distribution agreement
in some detail at paras. 137229. However, the guidelines make it clear that these are only examples
of the various types of vertical restraints that can exist and that all of the principles set out in the
guidelines will apply in assessing other types of vertical restraints that may arise.
133
134
COMMON RESTRICTIVE DISTRIBUTION

ARRANGEMENTS
The first example of a distribution arrangement that might offend EU
competition laws is one in which a firm outside of the EU attempts to
ensure that the EU distributor purchases all of its supplies from the one
supplier. This has the effect of restricting the distributor from buying and
reselling competing goods and services. This is known as single branding
because the distributor is in effect confined to selling just one brand of the
product. This type of arrangement has the potential to offend competition
laws because, among other reasons, it precludes suppliers of competing
products from dealing with the distributor and it means that customers
of the distributor are limited to only one choice for that type of product
when buying from the distributor.
The second common type of restrictive agreement is the exclusive distributorship. Here, the arrangement is that the supplier has only one distributor for a particular territory. Since each national market in the EU
has its own characteristics and already has its own distributors with a
long history of major customers in that market, it is common for outside firms to attempt to appoint one well-known distributor for an entire
country market. In larger countries in which there are distinct regional
variations, a single distributor might be appointed for each region. At the
same time, each exclusive distributor is prohibited from selling into the
territory of another distributor. One of the major problems with exclusive
distribution arrangements, as far as competition law is concerned, is that
customers are faced with only one source for the product within their country or region. Different distributors might charge different prices for the
product depending upon the purchasing power within that market, thus
defeating competition on an EU-wide basis. A variation on the exclusive
distribution arrangement is where a supplier appoints different distributors
for different classes of customers. As is the case with exclusive distribution
arrangements, those customers will be faced with only one supplier for the
product and accordingly this has the potential to offend competition laws.
A third possibility is that of selective distribution. Here suppliers are
selective in which firms they will use as distributors based not on territorial
considerations but on the qualities of the distributors themselves. These
might include the level of training of the distributors staff and hence their
ability to adequately market the product or their ability to provide aftersales service. There might also be a limit on the number of distributors
for a particular market territory as in the case of exclusive distribution
arrangements. In this type of arrangement suppliers will agree not to sell to

any unauthorised distributors, thus limiting the number of firms within
the EU from whom final customers can buy the product in question and
accordingly having the potential to offend competition laws.
A fourth possibility is the exclusive supply arrangement. Here an EU
distributor will seek to impose on a firm supplying from outside the EU the
condition that the supplier will sell all or most of their output to just one
firm within the EU or alternatively that all of their output that is destined
for the EU market will only be sold to that distributor. It can be seen that
in the situation where the supplier is forced to supply all of the output to
the distributor (quantity forcing), this arrangement is the opposite of the
single branding case where the distributor is forced to purchase all or most
of their supplies from the one supplier. In situations where the supplier
only deals with one distributor within the EU, it can be seen to be an
extreme form of exclusive distribution arrangement. It has the potential to
offend competition laws because there is only one distributor from whom
final customers can purchase the product and hence a lack of competition.
H O W D O E S E U C O M P E T I T I O N L AW A F F E C T
THESE AGREEMENTS?
At the outset it needs to be pointed out that where a firm from outside
appoints a distributor in only one country within the EU, the agreement
is unlikely to be subject to EU competition law. This is because EU competition law only applies to agreements that affect trade between member
states. However, because most member states of the EU have sought to
harmonise their own national competition laws with those of the EU, an
outside firm may find that restrictive distribution agreements may fall foul
of national laws on much the same basis as they would if EU competition
law applied. In any event, most firms outside of the EU want to share in
the broader EU market and not only in one particular country. For that
reason they are likely to have distributors in at least two countries or one
EU-wide distributor and this would accordingly bring their arrangements
within the realms of EU competition law. Thus the following discussion
focuses on competition law at the EU level.
The starting point for any discussion of the types of arrangement discussed above in the context of EU competition law is Article 81 of the
EC Treaty. In summary, Articles 81(1) and 81(2) provide that agreements
between undertakings that affect trade between member states and that
have as their object or effect the prevention, distortion or restriction of
135
136
competition within the common market shall be void. In particular, it

prohibits agreements that seek to fix prices; limit or control markets; share
markets or sources of supply; apply dissimilar trading conditions that place
some firms at a competitive disadvantage; or bind parties with supplementary obligations that have no connection with the subject matter of the
contract. A first reading of Article 81 suggests that all of the distribution
arrangements outlined above would be void.
However, it is recognised that there may be some benefits to restrictive
agreements between undertakings, even if at first glance they might seem
to restrict competition. For example, without some form of incentive for
distributors to be given a particular market share, they may simply not take
up the opportunity to distribute products and, accordingly, consumers
would be worse off than if there were some restrictions.13 For that reason,
Article 81(3) of the EC Treaty allows agreements that improve the distribution of goods or services provided that such agreements fulfil four
conditions. The relevance of these four conditions to any of the types
of distribution agreements mentioned above is that the agreement must
contribute to the improvement of production or distribution of goods or
services; consumers still get a fair share of the benefit; the agreement must
not allow the firms to eliminate competition or a substantial part of it for
the products in question and that the restrictions are vital for the attainment
of the goals of improving the distribution of goods or services. Detailed
discussion as to how these criteria should be applied is contained in the
Guidelines on Vertical Restraint. Most arrangements made by smaller and
medium firms outside of the EU appointing a distributor within the EU
will most likely be covered by the more specific block exemption for vertical agreements14 discussed below. However, an understanding of the more
general provisions of Article 81(3) is important for those arrangements that
might fall outside of the block exemption.
The block exemption regulation was promulgated to set out the circumstances where vertical agreements will gain the benefit of exemption under
Article 81(3) and therefore not offend the provisions of Article 81(1).
The block exemption applies to all of the types of agreement mentioned
in the preceding section. This provision exempts the types of agreements
mentioned above from offending Article 81(1) provided that the relevant
13
14
A discussion of some of the reasons for exempting some vertical agreements from offending
competition laws is found in paras. 115118 of the Guidelines on Vertical Restraints.
Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2790/1999 [1999] OJ L336/21 (the block exemption regulation).
market share is below 30%, provided that the agreements do not contain any hardcore restrictions15 and provided that the agreements do not
contain certain non-compete clauses. As this regulation is most relevant
for smaller and medium firms entering into distribution arrangements
with EU distributors, each of these three criteria are discussed in detail
below.16
The first issue therefore that needs to considered by firms in determining
if their arrangement with distributors is covered by the block exemption
regulation is the market share for the product or service in question.
In the case of single branding, exclusive distribution, exclusive customer
allocation and selective distribution arrangements, the market share of the
supplier for the product or service in question cannot exceed 30% if the
agreement is to be exempted by the block exemption. This is the case
because, in these types of arrangement, it is the supplier that is attempting
to limit competition within the marketplace. In the case of exclusive supply
agreements, the market share of the buyer cannot exceed 30% if the block
exemption is to apply. This is because in exclusive supply arrangements it
is the buyer who is trying to limit competition. In both cases, the market
share is determined by an assessment of both the relevant product market
and the relevant geographic market. The relevant market has been defined
as follows:
The relevant product market comprises any goods or services which are
regarded by the buyer as interchangeable, by reason of their characteristics,
prices and intended use. The relevant geographic market comprises the area
in which the undertakings concerned are involved in the supply and demand
of relevant goods or services, in which the conditions of competition are
sufficiently homogenous, and which can be distinguished from neighbouring geographic areas because, in particular, conditions of competition are
appreciably different in those areas.17
This definition is taken from the Commission notice on the definition of

relevant market for the purposes of Community competition law.18 This
15
16
17
18
Block exemption regulation, Articles 2 and 3.

It should be noted that there are other block exemptions that apply to specific industries and also
to horizontal agreements between firms. However, because the 1999 block exemption regulation is
the most relevant to the type of distribution agreements mentioned above, the discussion focuses
on it.
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, para. 90.
[1997] OJ C372/5.
137
138
document is used to define relevant product and geographic markets not

only for the purposes of Article 81(1) but also for determining whether
firms are in a dominant position (Article 82) in a market and where mergers
between firms will adversely affect competition. In simple terms, the notice
proposes that the test to determine whether goods or services fall within
the same product group and the extent of the geographic market can be
determined by analysing the effect of a small change in prices. Accordingly,
if a 510% change in the price of product A which is alleged to be a
substitute for, or interchangeable with, product B would in fact result
in consumers switching to product B and away from product A, then
the goods are in fact interchangeable and in the same product market.
Similarly, if a 510% increase in prices by a firm in country A would
lead to consumers switching their source of supply to a competing firm
in country B, then countries A and B would be the relevant geographic
market. However, it is a complicated matter to get the evidence to decide if
in fact consumers would switch in response to a change in prices. The notice
proposes various ways in which this can be achieved. Firms running the
risk of offending EU competition laws should seek expert advice as to the
determination of their relevant product and geographic market. Article 9
of the block exemption regulation sets out the time frame during which
the data to determine market share will be applicable.
The second criterion to qualify for the benefit of the block exemption is
that the agreement must not contain any hardcore restrictions. Hardcore
restrictions are set out in Article 4.19 These hardcore restrictions will render
the whole of any agreement containing any of them void. Because of this,
it is necessary to deal with each of them in turn.
The first hardcore restriction prohibits the fixing of prices or the setting
of minimum prices for goods or services. The second is more complicated
and prohibits restrictions on the territory or the customer group to which
goods or services can be sold. However, territorial restrictions are allowed
for exclusive distribution and exclusive customer allocation agreements
provided that those agreements do not attempt to restrict sales by customers
of the buyer and provided that only active sales into the territory of another
distributor or territory reserved to the supplier are prevented. This means
that a distributor in territory A cannot actively seek out customers in
the territory of distributor B but that if customers from distributor Bs
territory place an order with distributor A, then they must be supplied. It
19
See Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, paras. 456, for a detailed explanation of hardcore restrictions.
is also permissible to restrict wholesalers from selling to end users, sales to

unauthorised distributors in a selective distribution system, and the sale
by the buyer to other manufacturers for components that were supplied to
the buyer for purposes of incorporation into final products.
The third hardcore restriction means that selective distributors operating
at the retail level cannot be prevented from either active or passive sales
to end users but can be prevented from operating out of an unauthorised
establishment. In other words, in this type of selective distribution system,
all distributors must be free to seek out customers or to service customers
who approach them.
The fourth hardcore restriction outlaws any agreement that seeks to
prevent distributors in a selective distribution system from obtaining supplies from each other. The final hardcore restriction prohibits agreements
that seek to allow buyers of components that they use in the manufacture
of products preventing the supplier of those components from supplying
them to any of the buyers authorised repairers.
As noted above, the third issue that needs to be considered is any noncompete obligations on the part of the distributor. Non-compete obligations will not void the entire agreement but only the clause imposing them
will be struck out. Article 5 of the block exemption regulation provides for
three types of non-compete arrangements that will be struck down. The
first of these is that the distributor should not be prevented from dealing
in competing goods for a period that exceeds five years including agreements that are for an indefinite term. The only exception here is where the
supplier owns the premises from which the goods are distributed and then
the non-compete period cannot outlive the period of tenancy. While this
provision appears to make it difficult for the types of agreement mentioned
above to be entered into for any more than five years, it is necessary to
have regard to the guidelines that suggest that agreements beyond five years
will be permissible provided that renewal requires the explicit consent of
both parties and there are no obligations that prevent termination by the
distributor at the end of the five-year term.20
The second restriction on non-compete clauses prohibits the supplier
from preventing the distributor dealing in competing goods for more than
one year after the termination of the agreement. There are some very
limited circumstances where the one-year period can be exceeded. Third,
selective distribution agreements cannot ban the distributor from selling
20
139
140
the products of particular competing suppliers. In other words, while it is

possible to prevent the selective distributor from dealing in all competing
products, it is not permissible to single out particular competing suppliers
and prevent the selective distributor from selling their brands.
While distribution arrangements that meet these criteria will normally
be exempted under the block exemption, the benefits of the exemption can
be withdrawn in cases where they are found to be incompatible with any
of the conditions set out in Article 81(3).21 The Guidelines on Vertical
Restraints set out in detail circumstances where distribution agreements
that might otherwise meet the criteria might still be incompatible with
Article 81(3). This will be the case primarily where while an individual
agreement relates to less than 30% of the market share, there are parallel
distribution agreements that have a cumulative negative effect on competition in the marketplace. Thus, while an individual suppliers market
share is less than 30% under one of the distribution agreements mentioned
above, it is possible that most of the suppliers within the industry have
their own vertical agreements. In these cases, the cumulative effect of the
agreements within the industry may limit competition and accordingly the
benefits of the block exemption may be withdrawn.
In summary, firms from outside of the EU entering into single branding,
exclusive distribution, exclusive customer allocation, selective distribution
or exclusive supply arrangements need to look carefully at the specific
provisions of the block exemption regulation and, if it does not apply,
to the more general Article 81(3) exemptions to determine if their type
of arrangement will avoid being caught by EU competition laws. If the
agreement is not exempted by either the specific provisions of the block
exemption or the general provisions of Article 81(3), there is the possibility
that it will be challenged either by the Commission, the competition
authorities of an EU member country, or in the courts of a member
country.22
The above discussion has not canvassed the possibility that such distribution agreements, while not offending Article 81, might offend Article 82.
This article proscribes conduct that amounts to an abuse of a dominant
position. To offend Article 82, a firm must be in a position of dominance;
it must abuse that position; and there must be an effect on trade between
member states. Given that most smaller and medium firms engaging
21
22
Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2790/1999 [1999] OJ L336/21, Articles 6 and 7.

Council Regulation (EC) No. 1/2003 [2003] OJ L1/1 allows the provisions of the block exemption
regulation to be enforced by either EU courts or the courts in member states.
distributors in the EU are not likely to gain dominance in the EU market,

this issue will not be canvassed in any greater depth. The reader is referred
to general works on EU competition law or EU law generally.
The foregoing has provided a very introductory outline to the relevant
law. The expertise of a lawyer well versed in EU competition laws is essential
when drafting these agreements.
141
Entering the EU market via

franchising arrangements
INTRODUCTION
FRANCHISING IS A form of licensing arrangement where
the owner of intellectual property (trade marks, patents, copyrights and

designs) authorises another person to make use of those intellectual property rights in exchange for a fee. The difference between franchising and
other types of licensing arrangements is that the grant of the intellectual
property rights is frequently accompanied by a comprehensive manual that
not only sets out how the intellectual property rights are to be used but also
the manner in which the business in which they are used is conducted. It is
increasingly common for franchisors to impose their entire business system
upon the franchisee, so that each franchised unit is essentially a clone of the
original. This allows the franchisor to achieve ready recognition of their
brand name and product or service that accompanies it and provides some
business certainty to potential franchisees by reducing the risks of business
failure that might otherwise occur if the potential franchisee had sought to
develop and market a completely new product or service themselves.
Franchising typically starts with success in the domestic market before
the franchisor will consider internationalising the franchise operations.
However, smaller domestic markets soon become saturated and, in order
to ensure growth of the business, a franchisor may have little choice but
to look for opportunities overseas. A survey of Australian franchisors in
20081 found that the top three reasons for international expansion were to
increase the size of the organisation (52.7%); there had been approaches
1
L. Frazer, S. Weaven and O. Wright, Franchising Australia 2008, Griffith University, <http://www.
griffith.edu.au/ data/assets/pdf file/0008/101051/fa2008-web-version.pdf >, p. 59.
142
ENTERING THE EU MARKET VIA FRANCHISING ARRANGEMENTS
from investors in other countries wanting to become franchisees (25.4%);

and the business had been successful in the domestic market (16.4%).
The EU is an important destination for outside firms seeking international expansion of their domestic franchising operations. A survey of 109
franchisors in the USA in 20062 found that more than half of them had
franchisees in one or more countries of the EU. In terms of countries where
those franchisors had the most franchise operations, the survey found that
more than half of the respondents nominated the UK as the country where
they had the most units. Only 12% of respondents indicated that they had
the most units in Germany and 8% in France. Cultural similarities matter
when it comes to successful international franchising and this may well
explain why more than half selected the UK as the most attractive target
country.3 The Franchising Australia 2008 survey found that around 30%
of them had franchise operations in the EU. The UK was the most popular
destination, with 20% of respondents having outlets there. A further
11.5% indicated that they had operations in other countries in the EU.4
It is likely that the EU will be an increasingly popular franchise destination. The US survey referred to above found that of the franchisors that did
not have operations somewhere in the EU, two-thirds of these planned to
do so in the future. Part of the reason for this may be that 92% of existing
franchisors were either satisfied or very satisfied with their European operations, thus providing an impetus to those not already established there to
plan to do so. The countries targeted by most potential franchisors were
the UK, Germany, France and Spain.
Some statistics regarding the extent of franchising in various European
countries appears in Table 7.1. It shows the number of franchise systems
in various European countries along with franchising growth rates (where
provided) and the approximate amount of royalties that franchisees have
to pay to franchisors. No information is provided regarding the breakdown
between purely national and international franchise systems in each case.
The table draws on information provided by the Eurofranchise Lawyers
Group in a publication on the web.5 The publication is a useful reference
for all legal aspects of franchising into the various countries covered.
2
3
4
5
U. Schlentrich et. al., International Franchising: The European Union, report presented on
behalf of Rosenberg International Centre of Franchising, International Franchise Association
46th Annual Convention, Palm Springs, California, 2528 February 2006, <http://www.unh.
edu/news/docs/RCIF EU2006.pdf >.
A. Schultz and S. Kozuka, The Importance of Cultural Differences When Expanding a Franchise
Internationally (2008) 6 International Journal of Franchising Law 5.
Franchising Australia 2008, op. cit., p. 55.
See Table 7.1 source note.
143
144
Table 7.1 Franchising in various European countries

Approximate
growth rate
per year
Country
Number of franchise
systems per year
Austria
Belgium
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
330 (2002)
100 franchisors
146 (2006)
835 (2004)
845 (2004)
420 (year unknown)
Italy
Netherlands
735 (2005)
480 (2004)
8%
Not available
820%
7%
6%
90% (over last
10 years)
10%
7%
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
UK
250 (2004)
506 (2005)
347 (2003)
712 (2005)
300 (2004)
220 (year unknown)
718 (2005)
Not available
1520%
Not available
912%
10%
5%
Not available
Percentage of
turnover as royalties
26%
38%
310%
28%
26%
210%
27%
46% (goods)
1040% (services)
24%
5%
641%
36%
243%
210%
10%
Source: Eurofranchise Lawyers Group, Franchising Europe: Comparative Survey

(2007), <http://www.eurofranchiselawyers.com/pdf/Comparative_Table_05_05_
08%20printable.pdf>.
The aims of this chapter are to provide the reader with an overview of
types of franchising arrangements; legal issues that need to be considered
before entering into a franchise agreement with an EU franchisee; the
franchise agreement itself; and finally some EU-wide laws that affect the
operation of the franchisees business but that might also have an impact
on the entire chain if disregarded by the franchisee.
TYPES OF FRANCHISE ARRANGEMENTS

The most common form of franchise arrangement is the master franchise
in which the franchisor selects a head franchisee in the intended franchise
territory and then allows that franchisee (the master franchisee) to in turn
select and supervise sub-franchisees. The Franchising Australia 2008 survey
found that over 64% of franchisors used master franchising as a method
for entering overseas markets.6 No comparable figures are provided in the

US survey referred to above.
The relationship between the franchisor and the master franchisee can
take a variety of forms. The master franchisee might be permitted to
select sub-franchisees independently or they might require the approval
of the franchisor for each sub-franchisee. The franchisor might allow the
master franchisee to run some outlets themselves in addition to appointing
sub-franchisees. The terms of remuneration of the master franchisee can
also vary. They may be paid a set fee for each sub-franchisee that they
establish within the territory or they may receive a percentage of the
profits from each sub-franchisee. The franchisor is also likely to receive
a percentage of the profits within the territory directly from the master
franchisee.
While the arrangements between franchisor and master franchisee may
vary, it is usual that the agreements between the master franchisee and the
sub-franchisees follow the standard format for all agreements within the
franchise network to ensure the uniformity and hence quality standards
of the entire network. Most often the agreements will take the form of a
business format franchise in which the operator of each individual franchise
outlet agrees to meet strict requirements concerning the way in which the
business is to be run; the range of products and services that are provided;
the sourcing of supplies; the training of personnel; and the layout and
appearance of each store or outlet. As the franchisor is often not in direct
contractual relations with each sub-franchisee and therefore has limited
opportunity to monitor each sub-franchisees operations, it is common in
master franchising arrangements for each sub-franchisee to be provided
with a detailed manual of operations. Franchise agreements will provide
that failure to operate the business in accordance with the manual will be
a breach of the agreement.
A second alternative strategy for franchisors when expanding into international markets is direct franchising. Here the franchisor will contract
directly with each franchisee whether they are located in the home country of the franchisor or overseas. The terms of agreement between the
franchisor and the franchisee will again usually follow the business format
franchise arrangement as described above. There are considerable administrative costs associated with international expansion via direct franchising. The franchisor will bear significant expense not only in negotiating
and setting up each outlet but also in providing ongoing supervision to
ensure that quality standards are maintained. As culture, business practices
6
145
146
and regulations vary in each country in which the franchisor wants to

establish operations, the administrative overheads of direct franchising on
an international basis may well outweigh the risk of appointing a master
franchisee. However, where there will be only a few outlets in each country
and considerations of quality are paramount, franchisors might opt for
direct franchising.
A third method of international expansion is via the joint venture.
In countries where there is little experience with franchising and where
business practices and culture are very different to that which exists in
the home country of the franchisor, the joint venture can be a means of
expanding internationally while at the same time being able to directly
monitor and train franchisees. Joint venture arrangements might occur as
a precursor to the later establishment of a master franchise arrangement
once the franchisor is sufficiently confident of the business environment
and capability of potential master franchisees within the territory. Joint
venture arrangements are most suited to countries and products where
only a few outlets will be operated. If a number of outlets are to be
established, consideration needs to be given to whether the same joint
venture partner will be selected for each outlet or whether different joint
venture partners will be needed who have local knowledge of the market
in the area in which they will be operating. However, managing a large
number of joint ventures across a number of countries is likely to create even
more administrative difficulties than managing a large number of direct
franchises because of differences in management culture and organisational
practices between the two partners. The Franchising Australia 2008 survey
found that 15% of respondents used the joint venture as a method of
international expansion.7 By way of contrast, the US survey revealed that
only 4.93% of the total overseas units of all franchisees in the survey were
of the joint venture type.8 However, the US survey also found that of those
planning to expand into the EU, 21% planned to use the joint venture
option as opposed to 66% who planned franchisee-owned operations and
12% who favoured outlets directly owned by the franchisor.9
A fourth method of expansion is either by 100% direct company-owned
outlets or by 100% indirect ownership via a wholly owned subsidiary.
Here the franchisor will establish and manage their own outlets in the
overseas country. This will not only incur high administrative overheads
but also require consideration of all of the usual issues that confront a
7
8
9
Ibid., p. 60.
International Franchising: The European Union, op. cit., p. 14.
Ibid., p. 21.
firm when establishing a permanent presence in an overseas country. These

are discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Regardless of the potential
difficulties, the 2008 Australian survey found that 33% of franchisors had
wholly owned operations as a method for conducting their international
operations.10 In the US survey, only 7% of overseas outlets were wholly
owned by the franchisor.11
Case study
Franchising into the EU market
Bartercard is an international network allowing members who join the
network to trade with each other without using cash. Bartercard commenced operations on the Gold Coast in Australia in the 1990s. After
success in Australia, the concept was launched in other countries with
operations commencing in New Zealand in 1993, and in the UK and Sri
Lanka in 1996. Bartercard now has operations in 13 countries throughout the world. It has operations in the UK, Australia and New Zealand
and Cyprus in the EU and has plans in place to expand to Spain, Italy,
Ireland and Germany. The Bartercard system was developed by founder,
Chairman and CEO Wayne Sharpe, and has won several awards including
the Franchise Council of Australias best homegrown franchise award in
2001, and best franchise system ($50 000 to $200 000) and best export
franchise system in 2002.
A business that is accepted for membership of the Bartercard network
is initially given a line of credit to allow it to commence trading with
other members. Each new member is also issued with a plastic Bartercard
similar to a credit or debit card. When the business wants to obtain goods
or services from another member of the network, it uses its card to obtain
those goods or services without payment of any cash. The value of those
goods or services is debited to its account. When another member of the
network wants to obtain goods or services from it, the value of those
goods and services is credited to the businesss account. Several banks
now allow the use of their EFTPOS facilities for Bartercard transactions,
indicating the increasing acceptance that this novel concept has reached
on a global basis. An example of how the Bartercard system works is
contained on the companys website.12 It is as follows.
10
11
12

International Franchising: The European Union, op. cit., p. 14.
At <http://bartercard.com>.
147
148
A restaurant wishes to barter for $10 000 worth of printing using

meals and drinks. No printer would ever want $10 000 in meals from the
one restaurant; however, by selecting a Bartercard printer, the restaurateur pays the printer in Trade Dollars, in this case T$10 000. The printers
account is credited and the restaurateurs account debited, so the
restaurant now owes T$10 000 in meals to the Bartercard network, not
the printer. This is repaid as various Bartercard members come to the
restaurant (new business) over the following months. Hence, the restaurant has paid for its printing requirements with meals, using an interestfree line of credit and at a cost of approximately 3040 cents in the
dollar, in replacement good cost. The printer can now use the Trade Dollars earned to buy office furniture, advertising, car repairs, stationery,
courier services, colour separations, accounting and legal services even
a family holiday. These are all commodities for which the printer would
normally pay cash. By using Bartercard Trade Dollars, the printer conserves cash and benefits from the extra business.
The Bartercard experience provides some valuable lessons in the
methods that franchisors can use for their international expansion. Prior
to its expansion overseas, Bartercard had trialled and proved the success of its business concept in the Australian marketplace. Two of its
first overseas expansions were to the culturally similar New Zealand and
UK markets. This experience suggests the importance of success in the
domestic market before overseas expansion as well as illustrating the
tendency of franchisors to expand to culturally similar countries for their
initial international operations.
Bartercard uses a mix of master franchises and wholly owned outlets in its international operations. In the UK for instance, there are
12 offices. Of these, four are wholly owned operations and the remainder are independent, operating as franchises under the control of the
UK head office which itself is a wholly owned operation. The UK experience suggests that franchisors need to be flexible in their franchise
methods. Initially, the UK office was an independent master franchisee.
However, this arrangement failed to produce satisfactory results and,
accordingly, Bartercard bought back the licence and the UK head office
became wholly owned. Similar experiences have occurred in other countries including the United Arab Emirates. However, the strategy of having some outlets directly owned has its advantages as well as being
necessary from time to time. Wholly owned outlets provide a solid
training ground for people who wish to pursue a career within the
organisation rather than simply running their own independent franchise. Bartercard has found that staff who have managed directly run
franchises quickly learn the system and have opportunities for global
career development.
In terms of the advantages of franchising as a means of international
expansion, Bartercard has found a major advantage to be that expansion
on a global scale can be achieved relatively quickly because franchisees
provide the capital to establish their own operations. In addition, franchisees have better knowledge of local laws, customs and market opportunities than does the franchisor. Local franchisees are permitted to do
their own advertising, being more familiar with the best opportunities
in their geographic area.
However, there are some potential disadvantages. First, franchisors
must be rock solid in their home market if they want to make a success
of international franchising. Second, they should not underestimate the
cost of supporting overseas expansion or the costs that may be incurred
when operations have to be bought back. Third, franchisors have to be
constantly vigilant so that if an overseas operation is not going well, it
can be bought back before the reputation of the franchisor is damaged
in the country concerned. This risk can be minimised with the careful
selection of franchisees at the outset and over its time of operation.
Bartercard has developed its ability to select franchisees that are likely
to make the business concept work successfully.
Bartercard provides extensive training to its franchisees. Typically,
franchisees will require up 57 weeks training to become familiar with
the various manuals that set out the companys method of operations.
Training occurs in sales and marketing, member relationships management, administration systems and business management as well as in the
technology systems upon which Bartercard relies. In the UK, this training
is provided through the UK head office, and partially in Australia. After
a franchise is established in a country, there will be ongoing in-country
support given to new franchisees in that overseas country. Head office
within each country (whether wholly owned or master franchisees) also
provide much ongoing support in all of the areas mentioned above.
So that the system can be maintained and other support given, franchisees generally not only pay an upfront franchise fee but also pay a
considerable percentage of their profits to the head franchisee. Yet even
though some 3040% of profits may be paid as a royalty, both the head
office within the country and the individual franchisee remain profitable.
149
150
Profits are earned through fees from businesses that want to become
part of the network and from transaction fees.
Bartercard has sought to protect its intellectual property in a number
of ways. Its trade mark is now registered in some 67 countries worldwide
and pending in a further 50. Its information technology systems are
protected by various copyright laws. Companies that have attempted to
copy the Bartercard system have not been successful. What they see from
the outside is not enough to enable the system to be easily copied. In
addition, there are at least 20 or 30 major things and many minor things
that Bartercard does better than its competitors, thereby enabling it to
maintain its market lead with this business concept.
Bartercard is not only useful for domestic transactions but can also be
used by members worldwide for export and import. In times of difficulties in international payments and financial uncertainties, the Bartercard
system offers major advantages for those engaging in international business transactions.
M AT T E R S F O R C O N S I D E R AT I O N P R I O R
TO ENTERING INTO A FRANCHISE
AGREEMENT
Before entering into a franchise agreement, there are number of matters
that the franchisor needs to consider. First, the franchisor needs to aware of
methods of registering and protecting their intellectual property rights in
the overseas territory. Second, they need to have regard to any pre-contract
disclosure requirements that exist in the overseas territory. Third, they need
to make an assessment of whether their franchise arrangements will offend
competition laws in the relevant overseas jurisdiction. Finally, regard must
be had to any codes of ethics for franchising. Each of these matters is now
discussed in relation to establishing franchise operations in an EU member
country.
R E G I S T R AT I O N O F I N T E L L E C T U A L
P R O P E RT Y R I G H T S
A franchise operation can involve the licensing of a range of different
types of intellectual property to the franchisee. The most common of
these are trade marks that identify the brand name of the product. Fast
food chains, auto shops and car rental companies provide examples of
franchises involving brand names. However, where a novel invention is

an essential part of the franchised business, then the right to use that
invention might also be licensed to the franchisee. An example might be a
car wash company that uses a novel piece of machinery that differentiates
its service to that of its competitors. It is also possible that designs are an
integral part of the franchise operation. For example, a fast food chain may
have developed and use a specific type of furniture in its outlets and the
shape of this might be an important part of its marketing strategy. Here
design protection may be sought. Finally, many business format franchises
involve the handing over to the franchisee of a comprehensive manual
of operations for which the franchisor will hold the copyright. While it
is not necessary to register copyright for it to be protected in the EU,
the other forms of intellectual property can be registered. It is therefore
necessary to point out the important features of each of these forms of
intellectual property, applicable registration procedures and the protection
that registration affords.
TRADE MARK PROTECTION
The key component of a successful franchise operation is the ready recognition of the brand name of the franchise by members of the public. Many
franchisors therefore seek to protect their brand name through registration
of a trade mark. A trade marks essential features are that it identifies the
origin of the goods or services to which it is applied; it represents a guarantee of the quality of the goods or services; and it allows the trade mark
owner and its licensees to use the trade mark to advertise the product or
service. It can be a symbol, slogan (cant believe its not butter), figure (501
jeans), name (Kodak), sounds, signature or even a portrait of a person. It
can even be registered as a three-dimensional mark that identifies shapes
of goods (Toblerone).13
The EU made it possible from 1996 to register what is known as a
community trade mark that will have effect throughout the entire EU area.
This was made possible by the Community Trade Mark Regulation.14 The
office handling registrations is known as the Office for the Harmonization
for International Marks (OHIM) and is located in Alicante in Spain. As
well as undertaking the registration process, it maintains a register of all
trade marks that have been registered and assists in their enforcement. At
13
14
The examples used here come from Intellectual Property Law in the European Community: A Country
by Country Review, 2nd edn, World Trade Press, Concord, MA, 2007.
Council Regulation (EC) No. 40/94 [1994] OJ L11/1.
151
152
the time of writing, there were over three million trade marks registered in
the member states of the EU.15 Not all of these are registered at OHIM
because, before 1996, each country had its own trade mark registry and
many trade marks remain registered only in national offices and some have
elected not to re-register at the EU level.
A franchisor from outside the EU who wishes to register a trade mark
needs to begin the process by appointing a trade mark representative from
the list held by OHIM to lodge the application on their behalf. In addition,
it is useful to have engaged a specialist industrial property adviser who is
able to conduct a search to ensure that the mark is not already registered
either by OHIM or one of the national offices within the EU and that it
is not likely to be confused with any existing mark. Understandably, this
can be an involved process given the number of trade marks already in
existence.
The next step will involve the trade mark representative lodging an
electronic application with OHIM. This application can be found on the
OHIM website16 along with further details of the registration procedure.
The application can be filed in any of the languages of EU member countries. However, one of the five official EU languages must be used as a
second language. The second language will be a permitted language for
those wishing to lodge objections, revocation or invalidity proceedings.
If the primary language of the application is one of the five official EU
languages, that will be the language for objections and other proceedings.
Once the application is received by the office it will be given priority
over any other applications filed later than that date. However, under the
provisions of the Paris Convention (Article 4), 17 the applicant will receive
the same priority date as in their home country if the application is lodged
within 12 months of the application being lodged in their home county.
Most often, however, franchisors will have already been operating in their
home country for several years before deciding to venture abroad. If another
person has the trade mark or a very similar one registered in the EU, then
the franchisor may well have to change their mark for EU purposes or,
alternatively, explore options for the revocation of the existing mark held
by the other person. For these reasons a franchisor who sees potential for
international expansion into the EU should register their trade mark at the
earliest opportunity.
15
16
17
OHIM, The Community Trade Mark in Practice. 3.8. How to Register, <http://oami.europa.
eu/en/mark/role/brochure/br1en19.htm>.
At <http://oami.europa.eu/en/mark/marque/efentry.htm>.
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 20 March 1883.
OHIM will conduct its own search to ensure that the proposed trade
mark is not already in use. Additionally, Article 7 of the Community Trade
Mark Regulation lays down certain absolute grounds upon which registration must be refused. These include marks that have become generic, or
are a customary sign in any of the EU member countries, or purport to
describe certain features of the goods themselves (such as quantity, quality,
geographic origin or value of the goods) as opposed to identifying them as
of a particular brand.
Provided that the proposed mark is not refused on any of these grounds,
it will be published in the Community Trade Marks Bulletin, with parties
allowed to object within a period of three months. Objections can be
lodged on several grounds but most particularly that the trade mark will
lead to confusion of the public because of its similarity to another mark.18
It is not only existing registered trade mark holders within the EU who
can object to the registration. Any holder of any other international trade
mark that has effect in the EU can object, as well as holders of trade marks
that are either well known or, while not registered, give the holder a right
to prevent the use of the trade mark by any other person by force of the
law of the member state where that trade mark has been in use. Prominent
examples here include business names and signs. Objections based on any
of these grounds will be heard by OHIM and, if they are upheld, the
applicant may have their application refused or be required to amend it.
There are provisions that allow the applicant to appeal against a decision of
OHIM by lodging an appeal to the Offices Board of Appeal, and thereafter
application can be made for judicial review on certain limited grounds.
If there are no objections within three months or if any objections are
dismissed, then the trade mark becomes registered. It will last for 10 years
and can be renewed for further periods of 10 years. Registration will mean
that the registered holder can prevent others from using the mark anywhere
within the EU. If there are any infringements of the trade mark, the holder
or licensee can bring an action against those infringing the trade mark
in the European Communitys Trade Mark courts.19 The action may be
commenced in the country where the infringement took place or in the
country where the holder is domiciled. Decisions of the Trade Mark courts
can be enforced in other member states.
Franchisors from outside of the EU also need to be aware that any
license for the use of the trade mark must also be recorded in the trade
18
19
Community Trade Mark Regulation, Article 8.

Member states designate which courts in their state will hear trade mark disputes pursuant to
Article 92 of the Community Trade Mark Regulation.
153
154
mark register. If the trade mark is not used for a period of five years in
some member country of the EU (one is sufficient) after registration or
if its use misleads the public or if it becomes generic, then an application
can be made by interested parties to have it revoked. OHIM has exclusive
jurisdiction in relation to these applications.
PAT E N T P R O T E C T I O N
A franchisor with a patentable invention is likely to have taken out a patent

on that invention in their own country prior to establishing franchising
operations there. It is also likely that they would have been advised by their
patent attorney to have the patent registered in any country throughout
the world in which they anticipate they might wish to use that invention,
at the same time as seeking protection in their own country. The reason
for applying for international registration at the same time as national
registration is to protect the novelty of the invention, as will be discussed
below.
There are three routes by which a patent can be registered within
EU member states. These are through national offices, under the European Patent Convention (EPC)20 or under the Patent Cooperation Treaty
(PCT).21 Registration in three or four national offices will generally be less
expensive than taking out a European patent under the PCT because of
the need to have various translations done when validating the patent in
each national patent office after the grant of a European patent. However,
for a potential franchise operation, EU-wide protection may be desirable
either through the EPC procedure or the PCT procedure. It is not yet
possible to take out a Community Patent but a proposal has been made
for a community patent procedure that would operate in a similar way to
the community trade mark.
To obtain a European patent, four criteria must be satisfied.22 There
must be an invention. The invention must be novel. It must involve an
inventive step and it must be industrially applicable. The criteria requiring
an invention is to exclude discoveries of naturally occurring phenomena
(e.g. minerals or plants). Novelty is assessed in terms of state of the art,
meaning that the invention must not form part of existing knowledge in
the world. In order to show that it is novel, the invention cannot have been
disclosed to anyone with specialised knowledge in the field prior to making
20
21
22
Convention on the Grant of European Patents (European Patent Convention), 5 October 1973.
Patent Cooperation Treaty, 19 June 1970.
European Patent Convention 1977, Articles 5257.
the application. Taking out a patent only in the inventors home country is
considered to be such a disclosure because the patent will have been open
to the public during the objection phase. Accordingly, if an invention is to
retain its novelty it is necessary to file the application in many countries if
it is to be protected internationally. The provisions of the Paris Convention
allow inventors 12 months from the date of filing in their own country
to file in any other country. If so, the application in those other countries
will be given the same priority data as in the inventors home country. The
third criterion for a European patent is that the invention must involve
an inventive step. This means that the solution that the invention adopts
to the problem that confronted the inventor must not be an obvious one.
For this reason, improvements in the functioning of existing products are
unlikely to be patentable. The fourth criterion is that the invention must be
able to be applied industrially. This excludes theoretical ideas that cannot
be implemented.
There are a number of exclusions from patentability. These include
computer programs, plant and animal varieties obtained through essentially biological means, and methods for the treatment of humans or animals or diagnostic methods practiced on the human body. However, these
exceptions are narrowly drawn so that, for example, pharmaceuticals are
not considered to be methods of treatment; biotechnology inventions are
not excluded because they are not considered to be purely biological means
of obtaining new plant and animal varieties; and computer programs that
have a technical effect such as controlling the operation of a technical
device are also not excluded.
The various steps for obtaining a European patent are shown in
Figure 7.1. A detailed guide to making patent applications has been prepared by the European Patent Office (EPO) and can be found on its
website.23 There is also a further detailed guide as to the examination procedure. The time required to obtain a European patent is usually 35 years,
although provisions exist for an accelerated application. However, once the
patent has been published, provisional protection is granted and there is a
right to prevent others from using that invention but any third party can
seek to oppose the patent within nine months of it being granted.
The PCT aims to facilitate the taking out of a patent in many countries
of the world simultaneously. There are 120 member countries of the PCT.
All EU member countries are signatories to the PCT along with most
23
How to Get a European Patent: Guide for Applicants, Part 1, <http://www.epo.org/patents/law/legaltexts/html/guiapp1/e/index.htm>.
155
156
Application is filed including particulars

of the invention, claims regarding the
invention and description of the
applicant.
Formalities examination is carried out to

ensure all relevant information has been
provided.
Search is carried out by EPO and
preliminary opinion as to patentability is
forwarded to applicant.
Application is published within

18 months of filing or of priority date.
Applicant is given six months from

publication to confirm request for
examination and if so advise countries
where protection is sought.
Substantive examination is carried out to

ensure patent meets eligibility tests.
If patent is granted it is published in

European Patent Bulletin.
Objections can be lodged within

nine months of publication in European
Patent Bulletin and are decided by
Oppositions Division of EPO.
Decisions can be appealed.
Patentee must validate patent in each
country where protection has been
sought to ensure patent meets any
specific criteria of those national offices.
Figure 7.1 Flow chart of patent application procedure in the EPO
other industrialised nations including the USA, Canada, Japan, Korea and
Australia. When an inventor files an international application under the
PCT, they can do so in their own countrys patent office. However, the
search report must be carried out by one of the patent offices that have been
designated as an international search authority. The EPO is one of those.
As with a European patent, the search report also contains an opinion on

patentability of the invention, allowing the inventor to decide whether or
not to proceed with the application. If a decision is made to proceed, then
an international preliminary examination is carried out and the application
is published by the World Intellectual Property Organization in the relevant
patent journal. This occurs as soon as possible after 18 months from the
time of filing of the application.
After publication, the application enters what is known as the national
phase. Accordingly, for inventors wishing to register within the entire
EU, the application would be sent to the EPO for it to then undertake
its processes to determine if the invention is patentable within the EU.
Because there will already be an international search report and opinion
of patentability, the process undertaken by the EPO is somewhat more
expedited than with an ordinary application to it. The application to
the EPO must be made within 31 months from the date of filing of the
original international application. A useful guide to the PCT procedure can
be found on the website of the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO)24 and a comprehensive guide to the role of the EPO in relation
to PCT applications can be found on the EPO website.25
DESIGNS
Franchisors may also wish to protect the design of the products associated
with the franchise. Registration of a design grants protection in relation
to the outward appearance of a product as opposed to trade marks that
protect the symbol or other mark that identifies the product as belonging
to a particular firm or patents that protect the way in which a product
functions. An example of a design that a franchisor might wish to protect
is the packaging in which the product is contained that has a distinctive
shape and helps consumer recognition and therefore sales.
A franchisor from outside of the EU who is already using a design in their
home country may gain protection for that design by registration pursuant
to the provisions of the Community Designs Regulation.26 There are
two basic requirements for registration. These are novelty and individual
character. The latter requirement means that the design must create a
24
25
26
WIPO, Protecting Your Inventions Abroad: Frequently Asked Questions about the Patent Cooperation
Treaty, April 2006, <http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/patents/433/wipo pub 433.pdf >.
How to Get a European Patent: Guide for Applicants, Part 2, <http://documents.epo.org/projects/
babylon/eponet.nsf/0/7c5ef05581e3aac0c12572580035c1ce/$FILE/applicants_guide_part2_en.
pdf>.
Council Regulation (EC) No. 6/02 [2002] OJ L3/1.
157
158
different impression on the person viewing it to that created by any other

existing design. Novelty means that a person will only be able to register
the design in the EU if it has not already been disclosed there. If interested
parties within the EU could reasonably be expected to be aware of the design
of the product, then it will be considered to have already been disclosed
and, accordingly, will not meet the novelty requirements for registration as
a design. However, in the EU, those wishing to apply for design protection
have a grace period of one year after disclosure to make their application for
registration without destroying the novelty criteria that needs to be satisfied
to register a design. The reason here is that the person inventing the design
may wish to test it on the market before going to the expense of registering
it. Although this grace period applies to the novelty requirement, if the
owner of the design wants the same priority date as applies in their home
country, they will need to have filed the application within six months of
filing for registration in their home country.
The first step in seeking registration for a design in the EU is to file
an application following the procedure on the standard form that can be
found on the website of OHIM.27 An important part of the application is
the detail of the design itself. Thus the application should be accompanied
by views of the product to show its novel character. Up to seven different views are permitted and most often these will be drawings or other
pictorial representations of the product. The application is then examined
but only for formalities and to ensure it is not contrary to public policy
or morals. Assuming there are no problems, the design is then registered
and published immediately. However, in order to protect the design itself,
only minimum details are provided in the publication of it. Applicants
can request that publication of the design be delayed for up to 30 months
from the date of filing of the application if they are not ready to exploit
the design commercially. If another party contests the right of the person
to register the design, they are able to file an application for invalidity
with OHIM who will then organise a hearing of the matter and make a
decision.
While any person from inside or outside of the EU can file an application for registration of a design, about 90% of applications are filed by
professional representatives who are familiar with the EU design legislation.
If there is any dispute concerning the design, a professional representative
will need to deal with this on the applicants behalf.
27
See <http://oami.europa.eu/en/design/form.htm> for the guide to completing an application for

a design.
Once a design is registered then the registered holder can take action
against any party infringing it. The period of protection by registration
is five years and this can be extended every five years up to maximum of
25 years. It needs to be noted that the EU design legislation also protects
unregistered designs from unauthorised copying. However, attempting to
enforce an unregistered design requires the owner to prove, among other
things, not only the date of disclosure in the EU but also that there has in
fact been such a disclosure. The evidence to prove this can be difficult and
expensive to gather.
PRE-CONTRACT DISCLOSURE
In line with international trends, an increasing number of countries within
the EU have decided that franchisees, being in a generally weaker bargaining position to powerful international franchisors, need some protection
when entering into franchising agreements. This protection is most often
provided by requiring the franchisor to disclose certain matters to the
franchisee prior to entering into a franchise agreement. The EU member countries where specific pre-contractual disclosure laws exist include
Belgium, France, Italy, Romania, Spain and Sweden. Pre-contract disclosure laws are also being considered by a number of other countries. The
contents of the disclosure laws differ significantly from country to country.
The following provides a summary of the major issues that are covered.
Franchisors need to consider each countrys disclosure laws carefully along
with the penalties for failing to comply with them before entering into
franchise agreements.
The first matter that the various laws require to be disclosed to potential
franchisees relates to the franchisor and its business. The extent to which
information must be provided varies from country to country, but most
countries require franchisors to disclose information about their operations
within the country where the franchisee will conduct its business. For
example, the information that a franchisor in the Belgian market must
provide includes a summary of the state of the market for the product
or service, the number of other franchisees that the franchisor has in
the country, and the number of agreements that have been entered into,
renewed and terminated over a set number of previous years.28 Italy, France
and Spain have similar requirements in their pre-contractual disclosure
28
See C. Wormald, Belgian Franchise Law (2005) International Journal of Franchising Law 35.
159
160
requirements. Italy also requires a summary of any judicial or arbitral

disputes concerning the network over the past three years.29
The second type of information that franchisors are frequently required
to disclose relates to the franchise agreement itself. Some countries require the
franchisor to disclose the important terms of the proposed agreement to
the potential franchisee. Belgium, for example, requires the franchisee to
be told the key obligations; the consequences of failing to meet them;
how royalties will be calculated; the term of the agreement; its termination
and renewal; the extent of non-compete clauses; and the rules for the
determination of the value of the business if the franchisor has the right to
repurchase.30 Other countries such as Italy31 and Romania32 go further and
specify a list of matters that must be contained in the franchise agreement
itself. In those cases careful regard must be had to the relevant legislation
when actually drafting the agreement.
A number of observations can be made about these disclosure obligations. First, because of the extensive nature of disclosure laws in those
countries that have adopted them, many franchisors might come to the
conclusion that in order to ensure that they have fully complied, they
should provide potential franchisees with a copy of the entire proposed
agreement at the same time as providing the other required information
such as the nature of the business and other franchisees.
Second, it is readily apparent that if a franchisee elects not to proceed
they will have in their possession a considerable amount of confidential
information regarding the business of the franchisor that could be potentially harmful to the franchisor if disclosed to competitors. For this reason,
several countries specifically provide in their franchise disclosure laws that
any information provided to potential franchisees as a part of the franchisors disclosure obligations must be kept confidential by the potential
franchisees. In those countries that have not specifically incorporated this
into their disclosure laws, other provisions regarding the protection of trade
secrets may be applicable.
Third, the disclosure laws of most countries apply equally to both
domestic franchisors as well as those from outside of the country. However,
Italy requires a foreign franchisor that has not previously operated in Italy to
disclose a range of information about the franchisors overseas operations.
29
30
31
32
See A. Frigani, Franchise Disclosure Legislation in Italy (2004) 2 Journal of International Franchising Law 38.
See Wormald, op. cit.
See Frigani, Franchise Disclosure Legislation in Italy, op. cit.
See M. Mendelsohn, Franchising Law, 2nd edn, Richmond Press, 2004, London, pp. 4047.
This includes the number of franchisees in the network; a list of outlets

directly run country by country; upon request by the franchisee the location
and contact details of at least 20 franchisees; and the variation in the number
of franchisees year by year and country by country for the last three years.33
Fourth, apart from complying with disclosure obligations, there is no
requirement for franchisors to register the franchise with authorities in
most countries. Spain seems to be alone in maintaining a register of all
franchise activities within the country and has regulations concerning what
information must be provided to the registering authorities.34
Finally, it needs to be noted that while franchising is not a regulated
type of contract pursuant to the civil and commercial codes of many
countries within the EU, often there are general provisions in those codes
that require parties entering into agreements to disclose matters that are
considered to be material. For example, in Germany and other countries
that have adopted close variations of the German civil and commercial
codes, there is a general duty to disclose information that a person knows
or should know is crucial in the decision-making processes of the other
party. However, this does not extend to contract risks such as an awareness
of general market conditions. The general duty of disclosure has been held
to apply to franchise agreements by German courts.35
E U C O M P E T I T I O N L AW
Most franchising arrangements will not be caught by EU competition laws
provided that the relevant market share of the franchisor does not exceed
30%. As explained in the previous chapter, this is because the EU block
exemption regulation specifically permits vertical restraints provided that
the market share of the supplier does not exceed 30%. The Guidelines on
Vertical Restraints36 specifically refer to franchising when discussing the
various types of vertical restraints such as exclusive or selective distribution arrangements (paras. 199201), the use of intellectual property rights
to assist in the distribution of goods or services (paras. 3041) and the
determination and calculation of market share (paras. 95 and 97).
33
34
35
36
Decree No. 204/2005 of the Ministry for Production Activities, Italy. See the discussion of this
regulation in A. Frigani Regulation Setting up Franchise Rules in Italy: Commentary and Unofficial
Translation (2006) 4 International Journal of Franchising Law 38.
See A. Echarri, Spain New Regulations on the Spanish Franchisors Registry (2006) 4 International Journal of Franchising Law 34.
See the discussion in A. Schultz, Fundamental Changes to the German Civil Code (2003)
3 International Journal of Franchising Law 2526.
Commission Notice, Guidelines on Vertical Restraints [2000] OJ C291/1.
161
162
Most franchising arrangements involve some vertical restraints on competition that could include exclusive distribution rights, selective distribution arrangements and non-compete obligations.37 An example of exclusive
distribution arrangements is the allocation of a specific territory to the franchisee. An example of selective distribution is strict selection criteria to be
admitted as a franchisee and a limit on the number of outlets that will be
opened in a particular geographic area. An example of non-compete clauses
occurs where the franchisee agrees not to sell competing brands of the product. The latter is particularly applicable to distribution franchises as exist
in the case of auto parts for example. The guidelines make it clear that
provided that the market share of the franchisor does not exceed the 30%
level, then such restraints are permissible in franchising arrangements.38
However, franchising also involves the franchisor allowing the franchisee
to use intellectual property rights. The guidelines contain five specific criteria that must be met in relation to intellectual property rights (referred
to in the guidelines as IPRs) if agreements are to qualify for exemption
from competition laws under the block exemption.39 First, the IPR provisions must be part of a vertical agreement. The definition of vertical
agreement includes one where there are terms containing conditions upon
which the parties may purchase sell or resell certain goods or services and
not pure licensing agreements.40 Most franchising agreements are vertical agreements because of the restrictions that are imposed in the way in
which goods or services are to be sold in compliance with the franchisors
manual of operations for example. Second, the IPRs must be assigned by
the supplier for the use of the buyer and not the other way around. In
franchising this is fulfilled by the use of the franchisee of the franchisors
trade name for example. Third, the IPR provisions must not constitute the
primary object of the agreement. The point here is that the IPRs assigned
must be assigned primarily for the purpose of assisting in the sale and distribution of goods or services. This is the case with franchising agreements.
Fourth, the IPRs assigned must be directly related to the sale of the goods
or services. Again, the use of the franchisors brand name suggests that the
use of the franchisors trade mark is directly related to the sale of the goods.
Finally, the assignment of the IPRs must not contain conditions that
have the same or similar effect to the hardcore restrictions that are not
permitted under the block exemption. These hardcore restrictions have
37
38
39
40
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, paras. 199201.

Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, para 200.
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints, paras. 3041.
Examples of licensing agreements which do not qualify for exemption under the block exemption
are given in para. 32 of the Guidelines on Vertical Restraints.
been discussed in the previous chapter. Thus, franchising agreements along

with ordinary distribution agreements cannot contain any of the hardcore
restrictions if they are to qualify for exemption from competition provisions
under the block exemption.
The guidelines provide some examples of clauses in a franchising agreement that would usually be considered necessary to protect a franchisors
IPRs. These include obligations on the franchisee not to engage in a similar or competing business; not to disclose the franchisors know-how or
any experience gained in the operation of the franchise; to only use the
know-how only for the purpose of the business; to obtain the franchisors
consent to any transfer of the business; and to advise the franchisor of any
infringements by third parties of those IPRs.41
The guidelines specifically refer to what amounts to market share in
the case of franchising.42 In the case of simple distribution franchises,
the franchisors share of the market where the goods are sold determines
whether or not the 30% threshold is met. In the case of business format
franchises, the issue is more complex. Here the franchisor needs to look at
their market share in the market where the business format is exploited.
In other words, what share of the market does the franchisor have in
supplying the services through the business format? The franchisor will
need to consider not only other competing franchises but also the supply
of other goods that are provided to the public other than through franchised
operations. Given this wide definition of competitors, the franchisor should
be able to meet the 30% test in most instances. Where goods are supplied
to the franchisee to be sold under a business format arrangement, the
franchisor needs to calculate their market share in relation to the sale of
those goods as well. For example, in the supply of goods by a franchisor to
a franchisee in a fast food chain, the franchisor has to assess their market
share in relation to the supply of those types of goods. In all cases, it is the
value of goods and services that is used to calculate market share.43
EUROPEAN CODE OF ETHICS FOR
FRANCHISING
The European Franchise Federation has a long-established code of ethics44
for franchisors within European countries. All European member-country
41
42
43
44

European Franchise Federation, European Code of Ethics for Franchising, <http://www.
eff-franchise.com/spip.php?rubrique13>.
163
164
franchise associations are members of the European Federation. The Code

of Ethics is not a binding legal instrument. However, it has been noted
that its provisions may well be used by courts in some countries as general
standards that apply within the industry should it become relevant to
examine the conduct of franchisors.45 For that reason, a brief explanation
of some of the more important aspects of the code are given here.
The code sets out three fundamental obligations of a franchisor in a
franchising relationship and three fundamental obligations of a franchisee.
A franchisor is obliged to have successfully operated the business that it
intends to franchise for a reasonable time and in at least one pilot unit before
embarking on the process of recruiting other franchisees. The franchisor
should also have the ownership or, at least, legal rights to the intellectual
property that are vital to the franchise and is obliged to provide training to
any franchisees that it recruits. A franchisee must use its best endeavours
in operating its business to ensure the overall growth and reputation of the
business. It should also be prepared to supply the franchisor with relevant
information as required and allow for inspections of its premises to ensure
operating standards are being maintained. There is also an obligation to
keep confidential the trade secrets and intellectual property rights of the
franchisor. There is an obligation on both parties to deal fairly with each
other and to resolve disputes in good faith. The franchisor should give the
franchisee a reasonable time to remedy any alleged defects in performance.
The code also contains provisions concerning the way in which advertising for potential franchisees should be conducted and standards that
should apply when selecting potential franchisees. It is noteworthy that the
code requires franchisors to give full disclosure of all information relevant
to the franchise relationship in a reasonable time prior to entering into
any formal agreement and that a pre-contract can be required with regard
to the information that is disclosed. Advertising for potential franchisees
must be free of misleading information. There is a list of essential terms
that franchising agreements should contain. This list largely parallels the
list of terms that are discussed below.
THE FRANCHISE AGREEMENT
This section deals with the matters to be considered when drawing up
the agreement between the franchisor and the franchisee that operates an
45
See A. Frignani, Disclosure in Franchise Agreements, paper prepared for a conference in Brussels on 31 October 1995, <http://www.jus.unitn.it/cardozo/Review/Business/Frignani-1997b/
Disclosr.htm>.
individual outlet. These agreements have tended to become standardised.

The following discussion makes clear that most of the matters to be considered will involve obligations on the part of both the franchisor and the
franchisee. Where some matters are more the responsibility of one party
rather than the other, this will be indicated. As noted above, agreements
between franchisors and master franchisees are generally more complex
and subject to variation. However, many of the matters covered in the
following discussion will also require consideration in the framing of an
agreement between a franchisor and a master franchisee.
I N T E L L E C T U A L P R O P E RT Y R I G H T S
The underlying basis of a franchising agreement is the grant of intellectual property rights from the franchisor to the franchisee. Standard form
agreements46 typically set out in detail the intellectual property rights that
the franchisor will allow the franchisee to use. Most often these are trade
marks but can also involve patents, copyright and designs. The agreement
will provide that the franchisee is able to use these rights in exchange for
a fee (royalty) and further that the franchisee must only use these rights
within the context of the franchised business and must surrender the right
to use them upon termination of the franchise. The franchisee will also
be obligated to keep confidential not only all intellectual property of the
franchisor but also any trade secrets and other matters concerning the
operation of the business that may give the franchisor its competitive edge
in the marketplace. Further, franchisees will often be obligated to inform
the franchisor if any third party is breaching the franchisors intellectual
property rights, so that the franchisor can take appropriate action by way
of seeking an injunction to prevent the unauthorised use of those rights.
Both parties may also be obligated to inform the other if either of them
develops any suggestions for improvements to the franchise system so that
the whole chain will gain the benefits and uniformity will be preserved.
RUNNING THE BUSINESS
Clauses regarding operation of the business will involve obligations on the
part of both the franchisor and the franchisee. In the case of a business
46
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) has a standard franchise agreement that can be
purchased. In addition, guidance for clauses to include in a franchise agreement can be found in
M. Hesselink et. al. (eds.), Principles of European Law, Vol. 4, Commercial Agency, Franchise and
Distribution Contracts, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.
165
166
format franchise, the franchisor will be obliged to provide the franchisee

with the operations manual and the franchisee will be obligated to follow it.
Franchisors maintain the right to inspect the business from time to time to
ensure that operations are being carried out in accordance with the manual
and other provisions of the agreement. In addition, the franchisor will often
assume some responsibility for initial training of staff but thereafter this
may become the responsibility of the franchisee. The franchisor may also
assist the franchisee in obtaining premises and may even assist the franchisee
to obtain the necessary capital to finance the start up of the business. Most
often the franchisor will be responsible for advertising and marketing of the
business to ensure a uniform message is portrayed throughout the territory.
However, franchisees may often be charged a levy to cover those expenses.
T E R R I T O RY
Franchisees will want to ensure that they are the only outlet in a given
geographical area so as to protect their customer base. However, franchisors
will want to maintain the right to open more outlets in the territory if
demand warrants it. Often a compromise is reached so that the franchisee
has the first right to purchase any additional outlets that the franchisor
considers are warranted within a given geographical area. As noted above,
territorial exclusivity is not considered to offend EU competition law if the
market share is below the 30% threshold.
R O YA LT Y A N D R E P O RT I N G
As noted above, the franchisee will pay a percentage of its takings as
a royalty to the franchisor in exchange for the use of the franchisors
intellectual property rights and other assistance that the franchisor gives
to the franchisee in the operation and promotion of the business. The
franchisee will also be obligated to provide the required information to
the franchisor to allow the royalty to be calculated. The franchisee will be
obliged to pay the royalty within a given time frame.
SUPPLIERS AND PRICING
In order to maintain the quality of products and services, the franchisor
may require the franchisee to purchase from a given list of suppliers. The
franchisor will be obligated to make this list available to the franchisee.
However, such clauses need to be carefully considered in the light of
competition laws of the relevant jurisdiction.
T E R M O F T H E A G R E E M E N T A N D R E N E WA L
The parties need to agree on the term for which the franchise is to operate. Given the nature of franchises as business opportunities, potential
franchisees will want a long-term agreement. Franchisors, on the other
hand, may want to make the agreement subject to renewal on, for example, a five-yearly basis, rather than fixing a longer term at the start. Again
the provisions of competition law may be relevant to a franchisees right
with regard to the length of the agreement and its renewal. The ability to
enter into agreements beyond five years has been discussed in the previous
chapter.
TRANSFER
Obligations regarding transfer fall upon both parties. If the franchisee
wishes to sell the business, they will frequently be obliged to seek the
consent of the franchisor to the new owner to ensure that they have
the capability of operating the business to the standard required. Such a
provision usually states that the franchisor cannot unreasonably withhold
their consent. On the other hand, the franchisor may sell the franchise. In
this case, the franchisor may have obligations to advise franchisees of an
impending change of ownership.
T E R M I N AT I O N
The agreement will usually contain a provision that allows the franchisor
to terminate for serious breaches of the agreement by the franchisee. To
make matters more certain, franchisees will often insist that those breaches
that are considered serious enough to warrant termination should be set
out in full in the agreement. Termination on the part of the franchisee may
be provided for by the giving of a prior notice to enable the franchisor to
find another person willing to take over the franchise in the event that the
franchisee is unable to sell it. Such a situation might arise in the event of
the death of the franchisee and where the franchise involves considerable
personal goodwill for its operation. Provisions relating to termination are
sometimes the subject of specific laws in the county where the franchisee
is located.
It has already been noted that the disclosure laws of some countries
require the franchisor to disclose the circumstances in which termination
of the agreement can occur. However, there may be general provisions in
civil and commercial codes that apply to the termination of agreements
167
168
including franchise agreements. The German Civil Code, for example,

provides that contracts can only be terminated without notice if there is
good cause. The German Federal Court of Justice declared invalid a clause
in a franchise agreement that provided for very short notice of termination
of the agreement on the grounds that there had been a breakdown of trust
because it was too general to indicate good cause.47 Accordingly, regard
must be had to general contract laws and their effect on a partys ability to
end the arrangement when drafting franchise agreements.
RESTRAINT OF TRADE
In the event that a franchise agreement comes to an end, the franchisor
will wish to prevent the franchisee from utilising the knowledge they have
gained in a similar business. Again, restraint of trade provisions are governed
by EU competition laws and have been discussed above.
O P E R AT I O N O F T H E F R A N C H I S E
BY THE FRANCHISEE
Franchisees must abide by relevant laws in their own country when operating the franchise. Failure to do so will not only incur problems for the
individual franchisee but may tarnish the entire brand name. Accordingly,
potential franchisors need to have an understanding of relevant business
laws in any country in the EU where they are intending to establish franchise operations. The best source of advice is a local lawyer. However, there
are some areas of EU-wide law that need to be discussed here that have
particular relevance for overseas franchisors. These are EU laws relating to
product liability and unfair commercial practices.
PRODUCT LIABILITY
Franchisors need to be aware of the EU Product Liability Directive
85/374/EEC48 as amended by Directive 1999/34/EEC49 which extended
the definition of products to include agricultural products. The directives
impose strict liability on, inter alia, persons putting their name, trade mark
47
48
49
See the discussion of the Apollo cases in A. Schultz and B. Kubala, Important Developments in
German Franchise Law through Far-reaching Court Decisions (2004) 2 International Journal of
Franchising Law 2124.
[1995] OJ L210/29.
[1999] OJ L141.
or other distinguishing feature on the product where the product causes

damage to a person as a result of a defect in the product. The person whose
trade mark appears on the product has a limited number of grounds of
escaping liability including they did not put the product into circulation;
that the defect occurred after the product was put into circulation by that
person; that the product was not manufactured or distributed in the course
of their business; that the defect was caused because of mandatory requirements imposed for the manufacture of the product by public authorities;
or that at the time the product was made, the state of scientific knowledge
was not such as to enable the defect to be discovered.
It would seem that this directive could have application to franchisors
because their trade mark is on the product in question and it may be difficult
for them to argue that they did not place the product into circulation.
The matter of product liability may therefore need to be addressed in any
agreement between an overseas franchisor and a master or direct franchisee.
E U U N FA I R C O M M E R C I A L
PRACTICES DIRECTIVE
As noted earlier, franchisors often have responsibility for advertising the
product or service for the entire franchise group. For this reason, overseas franchisors need to be aware of the EU Unfair Commercial Practices
Directive 2005/29/EC50 which proscribes misleading practices, aggressive
practices and other unfair commercial practices. This directive aims to
harmonise consumer law throughout the EU in furtherance of the single
market objective. The directive was enacted in 2005 and was to be incorporated into the laws of each member state by the end of 2007. As at the
beginning of 2009, six EU member states still had to implement it.51
The directive makes it very clear what type of practices fall into these
categories by setting out a list of practices that are absolutely forbidden (the
black list). The black list is not exhaustive and, accordingly, misleading,
aggressive or other unfair practices might also be actionable by consumers
against the persons engaging in them. The following provides an overview
of what amounts to a misleading, aggressive or other unfair commercial
practice and then deals at some length with those items on the black list
that seem most likely to apply to franchisors.
50
51
[2005] OJ L149/22.
See <http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/rights>.
169
170
Misleading practices can be either actions or omissions. A commercial

action is misleading if it either
r contains false information and is therefore untruthful, or,
r in any way, including overall presentation, deceives or is likely to deceive
the average consumer even if the information is correct
and
r causes or is likely to cause him to take a transactional decision that he
would otherwise not have taken.52
It is misleading to
r omit material information that the average consumer needs, according
to the context, to take an informed transactional decision;
r hide or provide material information in an unclear, unintelligible,
ambiguous or untimely manner;
r fail to identify the commercial intent of the commercial practice if not
already apparent from the context.53
A commercial practice is aggressive if the average consumers freedom of

choice or conduct is significantly impaired.54 The most common examples
of this occurring are when a trader exercises undue influence so as to apply
pressure to the consumer to enter into the transaction.
Other unfair commercial practices that do not fall into the category of
misleading or aggressive are also prohibited. However, there are two criteria
that the directive uses to identify these other unfair practices. First, if the
practice is contrary to the requirements of professional diligence it may be
an unfair practice. Professional diligence is defined as
the special skill and care which a trader may reasonably be expected to exercise, commensurate with honest market practices and/or general principle
of good faith in the traders field of activity.55
The second criterion for evaluating other practices is whether the

practice materially distorts or is likely to materially distort the average consumers economic behaviour56 in the sense that the practice
52
53
54
55
56
Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive,
Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2006, <http://ec.
europa.eu/consumers/cons int/safe shop/fair bus pract/ucp en.pdf >, p. 11.
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid., p. 14.
Ibid., p. 14.
Ibid., p. 15.
impairs the ability of the consumer to make an informed decision and

enter into a transaction that would not otherwise have been entered
into.
The black list of practices that will automatically be regarded as misleading or aggressive is set out in Annex 1 to the directive.57 The following
discusses only those items that are most likely to be relevant to franchisors
in their advertising practices. However, franchisees operating the actual
business units need to be familiar with the entire black list. An action
against a particular franchisee for misleading or aggressive practices may
well harm the overall reputation of the franchise chain.
The black list prohibits the use of trust marks, quality marks or similar
when the trader is not authorised to use the mark. Likewise, it is not
permissible to claim to be a signatory to a code of conduct if such is
not the case. Thus, if a franchisor discovers that someone other than an
authorised franchisee is using the trade mark of the franchisor, authorities
charged with enforcing the directive in the country concerned may take
action against the person or firm using the mark. Related to this is a
prohibition against misleading consumers into believing that a product
has been made by a particular manufacturer when it has not. Again, this is
relevant in instances where a franchisor discovers that someone other than
a franchisee is promoting their products as franchised products.
Bait advertising is also prohibited by the black list. Accordingly, those
franchisors engaged in advertising for their franchises (distribution franchises in particular) should not issue invitations to the public to buy
products at a certain price unless the franchisor undertaking the advertising knows that the franchisees will be able to supply those products at that
price for a period that is reasonable in the circumstances.
It is also illegal to market after-sales service in one language but, when
the time comes for the after-sales service, it is only available in another
language. Franchisors with networks throughout Europe need to be careful
to ensure that their advertising for after-sales service is in the same language
as the after-sales service will be delivered. Related to this is the prohibition
on creating an impression that after-sales service is available in a country of
the EU other than the country where the consumer purchased the product
if this is not the case.
Many businesses attempt to have their product or service endorsed by
way of advertorial. In other words, an article in a magazine is written
about the product or service which appears to be an independent recommendation of it, leading consumers to be attracted to it. If there has been
57
See also the discussion of the black list in ibid., pp. 205.
171
172
payment for the advertorial, this must be disclosed in the content of the
article in the magazine.
Claiming that a product is able to cure illnesses, dysfunction or malformations when, in fact it cannot, is also a prohibited practice. This may
be relevant to franchisors in the cosmetic or natural therapy industries.
Any claims made in advertising for the franchise group must be able to be
substantiated.
A range of aggressive marketing strategies are also contained in the black
list. Included here are marketing strategies claiming that a product is free
when in fact the consumer must buy another product to get the free gift;
enclosing in mailed-out advertising material an invoice for the product
leading to the impression that the consumer has already ordered it; and
making persistent and unwarranted solicitations to attempt to make a sale.
The consumer protection authorities of each member state are required
to enforce the directive. Penalties apply to those people who are found to
be in breach of it.
Establishing a permanent
presence in the EU
INTRODUCTION
PREVIOUS CHAPTERS HAVE dealt with selling goods into the
EU market either by direct exporting or via the intermediate step of having

an agent or distributor as an on-the-ground presence. Alternatively, those
with a successful business model for delivering either services or goods
may decide to embark upon franchising within the EU. However, many
exporters of services and those with regular customers for their goods may
find it necessary to have a permanent presence in order to satisfy customer
demands effectively and remain competitive.
Most firms wishing to set up a business presence within an EU member
country do so by forming the equivalent of a private limited company
in the European country where they intend to carry on their business.
Frequently, the person or firm establishing the private limited company
will wish to own 100% of the shares, making the new business a wholly
owed subsidiary. In this way the firm maintains control of the operation
while at the same time achieving the advantages of the new company being
a separate legal entity. The disadvantages of forming a private limited
company are that it cannot call on the public to subscribe capital, thus
limiting capital contributions to amounts that the founders can raise. In
addition, there are detailed procedures that must be followed to form a
company and associated expenses such as legal fees, registration expenses
and, in some cases, taxes on contributed capital. There are two main
sources of law relating to the establishment of private limited companies.
These are directives at the EU level and the company laws of individual
countries. The EU directives attempt to establish some common elements
173
174
that should be included in each countrys individual company law. The

more significant directives in relation to forming a private company are
discussed below.
An alternative means of establishing a business presence is to establish a
branch of the parent company in an EU member country. A branch is not
a separate legal entity from the parent company, meaning that the parent
company will be liable for all of the debts and obligations entered into
by the authorised person running the business of the branch. There are
also detailed procedures for establishing a branch in any European country
and obligations to disclose the accounts of the parent company so that
persons dealing with the branch are aware of the financial position of the
parent. In this respect, the establishment of a branch does not allow for
separateness of the two businesses. As is the case with a private limited
company, laws relevant to the formation of a branch also exist at both the
EU and individual country level. The EU branch directive is discussed
below.
A third means of establishing a business presence is to set up a public
company, list it on the stock exchange and invite members of the public to
subscribe for shares. It is rare for smaller businesses and those setting up a
new business to begin by incorporating a public company. It is more usual
for a firm to begin as a private limited company and then later convert to
a public company as the business grows and, with it, the need for wider
sources of capital. Until recently, a firm wishing to trade in several different
countries within the EU using a public company structure was obliged to
establish a separate public company in each country in which they wished
to have a presence or establish a branch to carry on business there. There has
been considerable activity at the EU level in regulating public companies.
Some of the more important EU directives will be mentioned below but
given that the private limited company is a business vehicle much more
frequently utilised by firms wishing to set up a permanent presence in an
EU member country, the following discussion focuses on it.
A fourth option is to set up what is known as a European Company or
SE (Societas Europeanas). The European Company can operate in more
than one country within the EU without having to separately establish
itself in each jurisdiction. It is most suitable for larger public companies.
As yet, there is no European Private Company option but the European
Parliament has passed a resolution calling for legislation to establish this
type of business vehicle to enable small and medium firms to set up EUwide operations without the need to register separate private companies
or branches of the parent company in each country in which they want a
E S TA B L I S H I N G A P E R M A N E N T P R E S E N C E I N T H E E U
presence. Both the European Company and the proposed European Private
Company are discussed below.
The remaining alternative for establishing a business within an EU
member country is to acquire or merge with an existing business there.
Again, the law relating to mergers and acquisitions is split between the
EU level and the individual country level. The main focus of the EU-level
law is to ensure that the entity that results from the acquisition or merger
does not limit competition and also that stakeholders in the merged or
acquired entity are protected. The regulation that deals with mergers and
acquisitions is discussed below. Individual country regulation of mergers is
becoming more harmonised, particularly given the advent of the European
Company. Some comments will be made below on regulation of mergers
at the private limited company level.
Prior to commencing operation, it is also common for companies to
have to obtain some form of business licence. The type of licence required
will depend on the country concerned and the nature of the business
being conducted. Once the company is established and operating, it is of
course bound by all of the laws within the country where it is established.
The most significant of these include local labour laws, taxation laws,
environmental laws, contract laws and consumer protection laws. In a
work of this length, it is impossible to deal with all of the individual laws
that affect a companys operation in all of the EU member states. Each
member country provides a considerable amount of information about
business laws on the internet. However, it is almost always necessary to
have a local lawyer in the country where the business is operating to advise
on local laws that affect the operation of the business and how these work in
practice. There still remains considerable variation within the EU regarding
taxation law, environmental law and aspects of labour law.
It is also common to find on the websites of the various member states
investment agencies throughout the EU that many countries offer incentives to establish in certain locations or in certain industries. The matter of
incentives is subject to those provisions of the EC Treaty that relate to state
aid. Nonetheless, member states have been very creative in developing a
range of incentives while ensuring that they come within the conditions
set out in the treaty and subsidiary legislation. Relevant state aid legislation
and examples of incentives offered will be discussed below.
This chapter discusses relevant EU regulation regarding each of the alternative company forms mentioned above: the private company, the branch,
the public company, the European Company and finally establishment
through merger or acquisition. It then examines licensing procedures and
175
176
incentives that exist. However, prior to that discussion it is necessary to

make some observations about the major provisions of the EC Treaty that
allow firms from one EU member country to establish in another through
any of the forms mentioned above. That provision is known as the right
of establishment and is one of the four fundamental freedoms of the EC
Treaty. While that provision applies to firms from EU member states, some
discussion is needed about the extent to which it also applies to firms from
outside of the EU.
R I G H T O F E S TA B L I S H M E N T
EU member countries have taken the view that in order to achieve the
overriding goal of a single market within Europe, there needs to be freedom
for any person within any country to establish a business in any other
member country. This is accompanied by the three other essential freedoms
for achieving a single market. These are freedom of movement of goods,
capital and labour. It is apparent that in many instances the successful
establishment of a business in another country will require capital transfers
across borders along with the movement of key personnel to run the
business. It may also be necessary for physical goods to cross boundaries as
a part of the businesss operations, as in a distribution outlet for example.
While this chapter deals primarily with how freedom of establishment is
implemented in practice across the EU, it needs to be borne in mind that,
in practical terms, the successful operation of the business will depend
upon the implementation of the other three important freedoms.
The right to establish a business is laid down in Article 43 of the EC
Treaty. This article has the effect that member countries must modify any
laws that restrict persons from other member countries from establishing
a business. In addition, member countries are not permitted to enact new
laws which conflict with the right to establishment. This not only includes
a prohibition on measures that discriminate against persons from other
member states wishing to establish a business. It also prohibits member
countries from maintaining measures that, while not specifically directed
against nationals from other states, nonetheless have this effect because they
might, for instance, make it more costly or more difficult administratively
for persons from other states to establish a business than for local persons.
Thus, persons from other member states have the same right as nationals
of the host country when wishing to establish a business. This is often
referred to as a right to national treatment and is fundamental to the right
of establishment as enshrined in the EC Treaty. Exceptions to the right to
establishment can be made on the grounds of public policy, public security

or health1 and in activities concerned with the exercise of a states official
authority.2
The European Commission is given the power to enforce the right to
establishment by Article 226 of the EC Treaty by taking infringement
proceedings (IP). The Commission must first bring the matter to the
attention of the state concerned and give the state an opportunity to
submit its observations. If the Commission remains of the view that the
matter is in breach of the treaty provisions, it can send the state a reasoned
opinion requiring it to amend its measures so that they comply. Failure
of the state to do so can result in the Commission bringing the matter
before the European Court of Justice. Failure of the state to comply with
the ruling can result in the matter again being referred to the Court
of Justice for the imposition of a penalty under Article 228 of the EC
Treaty.
Details of the cases where enforcement action has been taken can be
found on the Europa website.3 An examination of recent cases leads to the
following observations. First, the Commission is not deterred by the size
or power of member states when taking action. For example, both Italy
and France were required to amend the manner in which they awarded
contracts for hydroelectric concessions and, after having done so, infringement proceedings against them were dropped.4 Germany and Portugal
have been referred to the European Court of Justice for failing to amend
their requirements for organisations that could be authorised to conduct
vehicle inspections.5 Second, most of the action taken by the Commission has resulted from measures that have indirectly given an advantage to
local businesses. Thus, for example, onerous procedural requirements for
the establishment of distribution centres in the Catalan region of Spain
had to be amended after the Commissions investigation of them found
that the relevant laws gave an advantage to locals over foreigners.6 France
and Poland have been requested to amend their requirements for the setting up of shops that allowed for participation of existing retailers in the
1
2
3
4
5
6
EC Treaty, Article 46.

At <http://ec.europa.eu/internal market/services/infringements/index en.htm>.
See IP/07/912 and IP/08/1793 at <http://ec.europa.eu/internal market/services/infringements/
index en.htm>.
index en.htm>.
See IP/08/507 at <http://ec.europa.eu/internal market/services/infringements/index en.htm>.
177
178
decision-making process.7 There have also been a number of instances

where countries have been required to amend their laws relating to the
establishment and running of pharmacies.8 Third, the above examples
demonstrate that a wide range of sectors has been involved in Commission
action including distribution and retail industries, broadcasting and media
industries, electricity generation, and ownership of pharmacies.
Thus, the EU Treaty gives a clear right to persons in any member state
to establish a business in any other member state. This right is actively
enforced. However, the right to establishment is only extended by the
treaty to persons within the EU. This leaves open the question as to what
rights persons from outside the EU have to establish a business in any one
or more of the member countries. There is no EU-wide approach to this
matter and it is left to individual states to regulate it. Most states have a
foreign investment promotion agency that seeks to attract investment into
their country. An examination of the websites of these authorities shows
that member countries of the EU do not lay down any special requirements
for firms from outside of the EU wishing to establish a new business in their
country as compared to the requirements for other firms from within the
EU or local persons wishing to establish a corporate presence. Thus firms
from outside of the EU only need to comply with the same requirements as
firms from other EU countries when establishing a new corporate presence
in a member state. However, as will be noted below, the acquisition of
an existing business may be more difficult for firms from outside of the
EU than for firms from within it. Consequently, any businessperson from
outside of the EU needs to obtain appropriate advice as to the particular
country and particular industry in which they wish to invest.
Finally, it needs to be noted that once a firm from outside the EU
establishes a new corporation within an EU member state, that corporation
will be treated as a national of that state.9 Accordingly, the newly created
firm can avail itself of the right to offer services to the citizens of other
EU member states10 as well as establish branches or agencies within other
member states and take advantage of any favourable EU regulations on
mergers and acquisitions.
7
8
9
10

index en.htm>.
See for example IP/06/858 at <http://ec.europa.eu/internal market/services/infringements/index
en.htm>.
The offering of services is regulated by Articles 4955 of the EC Treaty and the various directives
that have been made pursuant to those provisions.
LEGAL AND PROCEDURAL ISSUES

A R I S I N G I N T H E F O R M AT I O N O F A
P R I VAT E C O M PA N Y
There are a number of legal and procedural considerations that arise when
forming a private limited company. At the outset, it needs to be noted
that each member country has its own company law that sets out detailed
procedures for the formation of private companies as well as registration
processes. It is impossible to deal with all of the variations to the form of
private companies and their incorporation processes here and, accordingly,
the following discussion raises the more significant matters requiring consideration. It also deals with the more important EU directives that relate
to the formation of private companies.
The first concern in forming a private company is the basic company
statutes.11 These have two main purposes. The first is to set out the objects
or purposes of the company, the details of the persons who are forming
it and the share capital of the company. The second is to set out the
rights of members and the governance arrangements for the company. The
company law of individual EU member countries will also contain provisions about the rights of members and governance arrangements and,
accordingly, the basic company documents need to be drafted with these
in mind. Some jurisdictions in Europe allow a single company statute
or constitution containing these matters. Others require separate instruments one for the objects and another for the other matters set out
above. It is usual to appoint a lawyer familiar with local company law
and the relevant EU directives to draw up these documents. In some
jurisdictions the company documents need to be approved by a notary
public.
Before the basic company statutes can be drawn up, several matters need
to be decided upon. First, the founders of the company must decide how
much capital the company will have, how it is to be divided into shares,
how many shares are to be allotted to each member and how those shares
can be transferred. Some EU countries company law provides that private
companies should have a certain minimum level of capital upon formation
while others allow the company capital to initially be as low as one pound.
There are also differences as to how much of the capital needs to be paid
in at the time of incorporation. Many countries have a provision in their
11
The names of the company statutes vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In some jurisdictions
they are referred to as the memorandum and articles of association and, in others, the company
constitution.
179
180
law that requires approval by shareholders representing 75% of the share

value of the company to transfer shares.
Each countrys company law will also set out the minimum requirements for governance structures and the obligations and powers of each
of the required company organs. Here there is considerable variation in
Europe because of the different histories of company development. In the
UK, for example, the bodies which are of primary importance are the
shareholders meeting and the board of directors. The board of directors
includes some members who are involved in the day-to-day management
of the company and other independent directors who provide objective
views of the companys activities. In Germany and countries which have
adopted German-style company laws, the board is split into two levels
the board that oversees the day-to-day management of the company and a
separate supervisory board that supervises the management board. In the
Netherlands there is an additional body called the works council which
represents the interests of workers. These variations highlight the need for
local legal expertise in drafting the company statutes.
In some EU member countries it is possible to avoid the need to draw up
company statutes and go through the registration process by the purchase
of a shelf company. Shelf companies are already incorporated companies
with standard company constitutions and usually a minimal share capital.
In some countries there are businesses that specialise in the incorporation
and sale of shelf companies. A person wishing to commence a business
need only purchase the shares from the incorporators and will then have a
business vehicle ready to start trading after obtaining any necessary licences
to operate. Of course, it needs to be pointed out that certain guarantees
need to be given and due diligence needs to be carried out to ensure that the
company being purchased has not incurred any binding legal obligations
because, given the perpetual succession of companies, these liabilities will
carry forward to the new owners. One disadvantage of shelf companies is
that those acquiring one may need to go through a process of amending
the statutes of the company to suit their own business needs, particularly
in relation to the governance of the company.
After the company statutes are drafted, it is necessary to formally lodge
these with the body required under the company law of the relevant country. Some EU countries have a registry of companies where the documents
are filed. Others require them to be filed in a court as well as in a company
registry. Once the documents are filed, the relevant body usually issues a
document to evidence the fact that the company is an incorporated legal
body in that country.
Most EU member country websites give clear guidance as to what

is required to form a company within their jurisdiction. The following
case study sets out what needs to be done to incorporate a company in
Estonia.
Case study
Establishing a private company in Estonia
Foreign firms wishing to establish a subsidiary in Estonia have two
options. The first is to purchase a shelf company and the second is
to go through the following procedures to incorporate a company in
Estonia. The following information on the incorporation option has
been compiled from information on the Estonian investment website.12
The primary law relating to private companies in Estonia is contained in Articles 135220 of the Estonian Commercial Code 1995
(as amended).
Step 1
A foreign company wishing to establish a subsidiary in Estonia must
obtain a notarised copy of its certificate of incorporation in the foreign
country and the resolution of the foreign company to establish a subsidiary in Estonia. The notary must be one who is recognised by both
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the foreign country and the Estonian
embassy in that country. Prior to notarisation, the documents must be
translated into Estonian by either a translator at the Estonian embassy
or, alternatively, if there is no translator available then the documents
must be sent to Estonia by the Estonian embassy for translation and
subsequent notarisation.
Step 2
The foreign company must prepare a memorandum of association that
includes the following information:
r the name of the Estonian subsidiary to be formed
r its location and address in Estonia
r the area of business activity of the Estonian company
12
<http://www.investinestonia.com>.
181
182
r the name of the foreign company and the companys registered office
in its country
r the amount of share capital (the minimum share capital is approx.

2500)
r the number of shares and their nominal value

r the names of the persons to whom shares will be issued (the foreign
company if a 100% owned subsidiary)
r the amount to be paid for the shares and the time for payment
r any non-monetary contribution and its value (the value of any nonmonetary contribution is to be valued by an auditor if it exceeds one
half of the value of the share capital or exceeds 2500 approx.)
r the names and places of residence of the management board (the
residence of at least one half of the management board must be in
the EU or Switzerland)
r the name and address of the auditor
r the amount of foundation expenses (calculated by reference to fees
required by Estonian registration authorities) and how these will be
paid.
The foreign company must also prepare articles of association that set
out the governance procedures of the company including the amount of
share capital, rights attaching to shares, members of the management
board and the amount of reserve capital. They are annexed to the memorandum. In a private company the general meeting of shareholders
and the management board are the governance bodies. A supervisory
board is also required if the share capital of the company is greater than
25 000 (approx.).
The memorandum (including the annexed articles) must be signed
by the duly authorised persons of the foreign company. They must be
translated into Estonian and notarised in the same way as the documents
in Step 1.
Step 3
The foreign company must open a bank account in Estonia and pay in
the minimum share capital.
Step 4
All members of the management board of the new Estonian company
must sign and then submit a petition for registration of the company
with the Central Commercial Register within six months of signing the
memorandum. This petition must also contain the following particulars
which will be entered in the commercial register:
r the name of the company
r its address and area of activity
r the amount of share capital
r the date of signing of the memorandum and articles of association
r the name and addresses of the management board
r other required information.
The petition must be accompanied by the signed memorandum with
articles attached, a bank notice evidencing payment of the capital into a
bank account, and specimen signatures of the management board along
with the names, addresses and contact details. The registration process
will take 23 weeks if all documents are in order.
We now turn to the various EU-wide regulatory requirements for establishing a private limited company. The disclosure directive,13 first promulgated
in 1968, requires member countries to make it obligatory for all companies incorporated within their territory to abide by minimum disclosure
requirements. It was amended by a further directive in 200314 which
essentially provided that the documents that are required to be disclosed
should be available electronically. The disclosure directive (as amended)
contains some important provisions relating to the formation of companies. Article 2 of the directive provides that all companies must disclose
the following:
r the key documents of their constitution
r any amendments of their constitution
r the entire new constitution as amended
r appointments and termination of officers authorised to represent the
company and take part in the administration, supervision and control
of the company
r the amount of capital subscribed (to be reported every year)
r balance sheets and profit and loss statements (to be reported every year).
In addition, the directive sets out a range matters that must be disclosed
on the transfer of the seat of the company, its winding up or liquidation or
a declaration of the nullity of the company by the courts.
13
14
Directive 68/151/EEC [1968] OJ L065/8.

Directive 2003/58/EC [2003] OJ L221/13.
183
184
Article 3 sets out how these matters are to be disclosed. All member
states are required to have a file for each company incorporated in their
jurisdiction containing the information set out above. The file has to be kept
in a central register, a commercial register or companies register, depending
on the individual arrangements for the keeping of records by individual
member states. Members of the public must be able to obtain copies of
these documents and the public are to be advised that such documents are
held by notification in the countrys gazette for reporting such matters.
Article 4 provides that documents issued by the company such as letters
and order forms need to show the legal form of the company (private, public
etc.) as well as the location of its seat. In Articles 7 and 8, the directive
contains provisions that allow for third parties and the company itself to rely
on the documents that are disclosed and the validity of obligations entered
into by the company before and after the disclosure of the documents.
The formation of private companies has also been assisted by the EU
directive on single member companies.15 This directive requires member
states to provide in their company laws for the formation of single member private companies (and optionally public companies). Where a single
member company is formed either on incorporation or by acquisition of
shares, the fact that it is a single member company and the name of the
sole shareholder must be recorded on the company file kept by the registration authorities in the country concerned. The directive also provides
that the sole member shall exercise the power of the general meeting and
that decisions taken must be recorded in the company minutes.
BRANCH
An alternative means of establishing a business presence in an EU member
country is through the formation of a branch of the parent company. The
branch will not have legal personality of its own, with the result that the
parent company will be responsible for obligations that the branch enters
into. For this reason, the selection of the branch manager is an important
company decision given that the branch manager will be authorised to
enter into obligations on behalf of the branch and therefore the company
at large.
The procedural requirements for the formation of a branch are simpler
than for the incorporation of a local private company as the following
15
Directive 89/667/EC [1989] OJ L395/40.
discussion of the branch directive16 makes clear. However, as will be noted,

the accounts of the parent company need to be disclosed in the country
where the branch is operating. For this reason, some companies who do
not necessarily want the full extent of the companys financial information
disclosed in the country where the branch is situated might prefer instead
to incorporate a subsidiary company which will be a separate legal entity.
A branch structure may well suit companies that simply wish to have
a sales and marketing presence in the overseas country. For example, a
company may have its European headquarters in the UK but also wish to
distribute its products in Sweden. For that purpose it wants a permanent
presence in Sweden that can take orders for its products and assist with the
physical distribution of them to outlets within Sweden including arranging any customs clearance procedures that might be necessary. Similar
considerations apply to some service companies. For example, information
technology companies might wish to have an on-the-ground presence to
manage the provision of their services in a particular country. While Article
49 of the EC Treaty allows the cross-border delivery of services within the
EU, for practical reasons it may be preferable to have an actual presence in
the country where the services are being delivered. A branch will be preferable to a mere representative office because a representative office will not
be permitted to carry on business.
The branch directive seeks to harmonise the information that companies
establishing branches need to provide to authorities within the country
where the branch is to be established regardless of which EU country that
may be. The range of documents required to be disclosed allows those
dealing with the branch to satisfy themselves about the financial standing
of the branch and its parent company. For companies from outside of
the EU who wish to establish a branch in an EU member country, the
branch directive requires that the following information be disclosed in
the country where the branch is to be established in accordance with the
procedure laid down in the disclosure directive discussed above in relation
to private companies:17
r the address of the branch
r the activities of the branch
r the law of the state by which the company is governed
r the register in which the company file is kept and its registration number
r the companys constitution (memorandum and articles)
16
17
Directive 89/666/EEC [1989] OJ L395/36 (the branch directive).

Articles 7 and 8 of the branch directive.
185
186
r the legal form of the company, its principal place of business and its
purpose
r the appointment, termination and particulars of persons who can rep-
resent the company, including specifically those who can represent the
branch and the extent of their powers
r the winding up of the company
r the accounts of the company.
The accounts of the company that are to be disclosed are the same as
those that are disclosed in the companys home state provided that the
home state adopts similar accounting requirements to those as laid down
in the accounting directives (78/660/EEC and 83/349/EEC). Otherwise,
separate branch accounts may be required to be drawn up and disclosed.18
As is the case with private companies, all branch documents must show
the register in which the file for the branch is kept and the number of the
branch in that register.19
While the branch directive appears to be comprehensive, it is necessary
to consult the individual requirements of the particular country where the
branch is to be established.
Case study
Establishing a branch in Sweden
The information for this case study was obtained from the factsheet
guidelines for starting a branch office on the Swedish government investment website20 and the website of the Swedish companys office.21
A company from outside of the EU which wants to establish a branch
in Sweden must make an application on the required form to the Swedish
companys registration office. Only one branch per foreign company is
permitted. The application must be made by the branchs managing
director. The application form requires the following details:
r the business name, postal address and registered office of the foreign
company
r the business name, postal address and registered of the branch (The
name of the branch must include the name of the parent company,
18
19
20
21
Article 9 of the branch directive.

Article 10 of the branch directive.
<http://www.isa.se>.
<http://www.bolagsverket.se/in english/forms/docuemnt/pdf/887e.pdf >.
its company form, the nationality of the parent company and have
the word filial after its name.)
r details of the managing director
r how the registration fee is being paid
r details of the person authorised to accept service of notices on behalf
of the branch (if not the managing director)
r who can sign on behalf of the branch (It must be either the managing
director alone or either one of the managing director and deputy
managing director.)
r the name of the auditor
r the accounting firm
r the registration number of the foreign company and the foreign
registry where it is registered
r the financial year of the foreign company
r the share capital of the foreign company
r the contact person for the foreign company
r the business activities of the foreign company (must be stated in
Swedish)
r the business activities of the branch in Sweden (must be stated in
Swedish).
There are a number of documents that must accompany the application.
These include:
r the power of attorney given to the managing director to conduct the
activities of the branch on behalf of the foreign company
r certification that the person giving the power of attorney to the
managing director is entitled to do so (The certification document
must include the names of the directors of the foreign company and
their signatory powers.)
r a copy of the passport of the managing director if they are not a
person entered on the Swedish population register
r the power of attorney from the foreign company or minutes of a
board meeting authorising a person to accept service of notices on
the branch (This is required if the managing director is not resident
in Sweden.)
r a certified copy or the original of the certificate of incorporation of
the foreign company
r a certified copy or the original of a certificate showing that the foreign company as not been declared bankrupt
r certified copies of the current articles and bylaws or similar document
of the foreign company
187
188
r annual accounts for the last two years of the foreign company.
Once the required fees are paid and the branch is registered, the branch
is given a number and must then register for taxation purposes.
The branch offices letterhead, invoices and order forms shall contain
information about the foreign companys legal form and its registered
office; the register in which it is registered; its registration number; the
branch offices registration number; and the Swedish register in which
the branch office is registered.
There are specific requirements in Sweden that a branch of a company
from outside the EU must prepare branch accounts annually and submit
these to the companys office along with the auditors report for the
branch and the accounts of the company as a whole. These must be in
the Swedish language.
All of the foregoing suggests that it is almost a necessity for the
branch managing director to be Swedish, although, for citizens of other
EU member states, this cannot be required because of the freedom of
movement of persons in the EU. However, if the manager is not resident
in Sweden, a local manager must be appointed to accept service of process on behalf of the foreign company. If the branch managing director
is from a country outside of the EU, special visas and work permits are
required.
P U B L I C C O M PA N Y
The most important directive relating to the formation of public companies is Directive 77/91/EEC, often referred to as the capital directive.22
Member states are required to ensure that their company law complies with
it. Since its promulgation in 1977, two further directives have amended
certain sections of it.23 The following discussion provides an overview of
what is covered by the capital directive as amended in order to highlight
the extent to which the formation and operation of public companies is
influenced by this directive. It also needs to be pointed out that the disclosure directive discussed above also applies to public companies and will
naturally be important in formation procedures.
The capital directive provides in Article 2 a list of matters that should
be covered in the companys articles of association or constitution. These
include the type and name of the company; its objects; the amount of
22
23
[1977] OJ L26/1 (the capital directive).

Directive 92/101/EEC [1992] OJ L347/64 and Directive 2006/68/EC [2006] OJ L264/32.
authorised capital or, if none, the amount of subscribed capital; the rules
relating to the functions and appointments of the governing bodies of the
company; and the duration of the company unless this is indefinite. It is
noteworthy that the articles of the company only need to set out rules
relating to the governing bodies of the company in so far as they are not
determined by the company law of individual member states. In addition,
the provisions of each member state are to continue to apply with regard
to modification of the articles of association or constituent documents of
the company.24 Thus, even at the time of drawing up of the articles of the
company, it is necessary to have regard to the law of the state where the
company is to be formed.
Public companies are required to have a minimum of subscribed share
capital that was originally prescribed as being equivalent to 25 000 European units of account.25 A method was set out for calculating how any
countrys currency can be converted to European units of account. The
amount of minimum capital was to be revised every five years taking into
account economic and monetary trends in the community. This suggests
that a common European currency was at least in the contemplation of the
drafters of this regulation in the mid-1970s. The capital of the company
can only be formed with assets that can be assessed as to their economic
value and an undertaking to perform work or supply services cannot form
part of the assets.26 Where assets other than cash are to be contributed,
a report must be drawn up by an expert valuing those assets and that
report must be published.27 In addition, where any person involved in
the formation of the company transfers an asset to the company within a
certain time period after formation and equivalent to at least 10% of the
companys subscribed capital, this must be disclosed and published along
with the report on value of assets other than cash as well as being approved
by the general meeting of the company.28 The detail of these original provisions regarding the drawing up of expert reports and transfers of assets
by founders have been extensively amended by Directive 2006/68/EEC
to restrict the circumstances in which valuation reports need to be
obtained.
The directive deals in some detail with what must be disclosed relating to the capital of the company. Matters include the registered office
24
25
26
27
28
Article 14 of the capital directive.

189
190
of the company; the nominal share capital for each class of shares; subscribed capital for each class of shares; the amount of paid-up capital;
shares issued for consideration other than cash; names of the founders
of the company; special conditions for the transfer of shares; any special
advantage gained by anyone involved in its formation; and the estimated
costs of the companys formation. These matters must be disclosed in
the companys articles of association or alternatively in a separate document published in accordance with the disclosure directive. Shares that
are issued by the company must be paid up at not less than 25% of their
nominal or par value29 and shares cannot be issued at a price below their
nominal or par value.30 Shareholders cannot be released from their obligation to pay contributions other than through an authorised reduction of
capital.31
These are the major matters covered in the directive relating to company formation. However, the directive also deals extensively with operational aspects of the company including distributions to shareholders;32
a company acquiring its own shares;33 increases in capital;34 reductions
in capital;35 redeemable shares;36 and liability for obligations entered into
before the company was authorised to commence business.37
While the capital directive as amended is the most significant instrument
dealing with the formation of public companies, there are numerous other
directives that affect company operations generally or in specific industries
such as finance for example. In this general category, the EU has been
particularly active in financial information disclosure by public companies.
Consequently, we find several directives relating to accounting and auditing
standards38 as well as transparency of information.39 This is in line with
the philosophy of the earliest directives the disclosure directive and the
capital directive which was to protect members of the public contributing
share capital to public companies.
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Articles 1516 of the capital directive.
See Directive 78/660/EEC [1978] OJ L222/11; Directive 83/349/EEC [1983] OJ L193/1; Directive 84/253/EEC [1984] OJ L126/20; and Directive 2006/46/EC [2006] OJ L224/1.
See Directive 2004/109/EC [2004] OJ L390/38 and Directive 2007/14/EC [2007] OJ L69/27.
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS

When a company from outside of the EU establishes a presence in an
EU member state by takeover or merger with an existing company, the
main source of law that the foreign company will need to consider will
be the law of the member state where the target company is located.40
While there is a directive in place that sets out procedures that member countries should adopt to facilitate mergers between two EU-based
companies,41 this directive will not apply when a company in an EU member state is either merged with or acquired by an outside company. There
is also a takeover directive that sets out procedures that member states
should adopt when framing their own takeover laws in relation to takeover
bids.42 However, it will be the takeover law of the individual member
states themselves that have most relevance for an outside purchaser of a
company.
Thus, the primary source of EU-level law that is relevant for outside
purchasers of companies within the EU is EU competition law as elaborated
upon in Regulation 2004/139/EEC.43 This regulation only applies where
there is a merger or an acquisition and where the merger or acquisition has a
community dimension. There are detailed criteria for determining whether
or not there is a community dimension. The most significant of these is that
the regulation will not be applicable to any merger or acquisition where
the worldwide turnover of the merged entity is less than 2.5 billion.
Accordingly, the regulation only applies to the largest of transactions. If it
is applicable, then the European Commission must sanction the merger or
acquisition. It has been noted that there have been some 3000 transactions
notified since 1990.44
Accordingly, the regulation is unlikely to apply to small and medium
businesses that wish to establish an EU presence through buying an already
existing company.
A foreign acquirer of a company in an EU member state will therefore
need to have most regard to individual country laws that have relevance for
40
41
42
43
44
A very useful reference for the individual country merger and acquisition laws is M. Whalley and
F. Semler (eds.), International Business Acquisitions: Major Legal Issues and Due Diligence, 3rd edn,
Kluwer Law International, Netherlands, 2007.
Directive 2005/56/EC [2005] OJ L310/1.
Directive 2004/25/EC [2004] OJ L142/12.
[2004] OJ L24/1.
See M. van de Hel, European Union EU Merger Control in Whalley and Semler (eds.), op. cit.,
p. 516.
191
192
the merger or acquisition being contemplated. Local legal advice is essential

not only on the general laws relating to business within the country but
most particularly on the following: any specific laws relevant to the type
of activity in which the target company is involved; individual countrys
competition laws; company laws that may stipulate requirements involved
in the takeover procedure; employment laws that have an impact on how
the foreign company must deal with workers in the acquired entity; and
tax laws.
Each EU member state will have its own laws regulating specific areas
of economic activity. Foreigners wishing to acquire companies engaged in
sensitive service sectors such as finance or media will often be required to
obtain special government approval before they can embark on a takeover
or merger. In addition, it is commonplace for many types of business
activity to be regulated by means of a licence to operate. When a foreigner
acquires a business that is subject to specific licensing, they may need
approval from the relevant government authority to transfer the licence to
the acquiring entity. To get this approval, they will frequently need to meet
the specific statutory requirements that are laid down for licence holders
for that activity.
Competition laws of EU member states often specify that where a merger
or acquisition results in a worldwide turnover of the merged entity in excess
of a specified amount and a turnover in excess of a specified amount in
the country of the target, then competition authorities must approve the
merger. In addition to exceeding threshold amounts, some countries also
require that the acquisition must amount to more than a set percentage of
the target companys shares or that the acquisition results in a market share
beyond a set amount. Laws throughout the EU are far from uniform in
this regard and local legal advice is essential.45
Foreigners will also need advice on the applicability of company laws
that will specify the way in which offers are made for target companies
shares; liability for any obligations incurred by the target company; how
shares are to be transferred; and whether there are any requirements regarding minimum numbers of shareholders and other requirements (such as
residence requirements) for office holders in the newly formed entity. Obligations to the employees of the target company are often the subject of
employment-related legislation and tax laws govern the taxation implications of the takeover.
45
See the various country chapters in Whalley and Semler (eds.), op. cit.
T H E E U R O P E A N C O M PA N Y
It took more than 30 years to bring about a form of business that could
operate in more than one state of the EU without having to go through
registration procedures every time the business wanted to set up a presence
in a different member state. This form of business is the European Company and the regulation establishing it finally entered into force in 2004.
The European Company Statute,46 as the regulation is known, provides
that a European Company can be formed in one of four ways:
r through a merger of two public limited companies from different member states
r through the formation of a holding company by public or private companies from different member states
r through the formation of a joint subsidiary by companies from different
member states
r through the conversion of a public limited company into a European
company.
In addition, the regulation provides in Article 2(5) that member states may
provide in their legislation that companies with their head office outside
of the EU can participate in one of the above four ways in the formation
of a European Company.
A European Company must have minimum capital of at least 120 000
and have its registered office in the place where its central administration
is situated. The registration process involves disclosure of the prescribed
information in the Official Journal of the European Communities as well
as registering with the national authorities in the state where its central
administration is located.
The main governance organs of the European Company are the general
meeting of shareholders and a management board plus supervisory board.
No person can be a member of both the supervisory and management
boards except where a causal vacancy exists on the management board
which can be temporarily filled by a representative from the supervisory
board. Alternatively, the main organs can be the general meeting of shareholders and an administrative board. For those companies that adopt the
management plus supervisory board model, the management board has
the power to legally represent the company and carries on the companys
business. However, as the name implies, the supervisory board maintains
46
Council Regulation (EC) 2157/2001 [2001] OJ L294/1.
193
194
oversight of major company decisions including major projects, establishment or closing down of business operations or taking on major debts or
loans.47
In accordance with corporate governance models in several major European countries, the statute requires that the company has in place a means
of employee participation. A directive on employee participation48 was
enacted and was finally implemented in all member states by the end
of 2007. The European Company has three choices in implementing
employee participation. First, employee participation can be through representation on the supervisory board. Second, a separate body to represent
employees can be created by the company and that body must be provided
with sufficient resources to be able to function to channel the input of
employees into major company decisions. The third alternative is a general catch-all provision that allows employees and management to agree
on some other form of employee participation. The company cannot be
registered until one of these three alternatives exists. Member states may
elect to opt out of the employee participation rules for SE companies
formed by merger. However, if they do so, then the SE will not be able
to be registered in their state unless none of the employees in the merged
company previously had a right to participation or unless some agreement has been reached between management and employees regarding
participation.49
Article 15 of the directive provides that the European Company will
be subject to the laws relating to public companies in the place where it
establishes its registered office. In addition, it will be subject to all of the
EU directives that apply to public companies as well as to the law of the
countries in which it does business.
The European Company Statute has now been in place long enough to
make some assessment of its use as an alterative form of business within the
EU. Its obvious advantage is that companies wishing to carry on business
in several countries can do so through one entity (formed as above) rather
than having to separately register a subsidiary in each country where it
wishes to carry on business. In some jurisdictions, including Germany, it
is even possible for companies who wish to form a European Company to
buy a European shelf company that is already set up with the minimum
capital and standard governance arrangements.
47
48
49
See Statute for a European Company, <http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l26016.htm>.

Directive 2001/86/EC [2001] OJ L294/22.
See Statute for a European Company, op. cit.
Despite this, statistics show that there are, as yet, only some 90 European
companies in existence.50 Most of these have their registered office in those
countries that have tended to have previously had company law governance
structures that most closely resemble those of the SE. Thus, as at June
2007, we find 29 registered SEs in Germany, nine in the Netherlands,
eight in Austria and seven in Belgium. Those countries without a history
of supervisory boards or formal employee participation have relatively few
registrations the UK for example has only three registered SEs.51 The
relatively high number of SEs in Germany is partly explained by the fact that
Germany has set up a number of shelf SE companies. It has been estimated
that 19% of all existing SEs are in fact mere shelf SEs. In terms of method
of formation, it has been noted that around 65% of SEs that actually
have operations and employees are formed by corporations that merged
subsidiaries in a number of EU states to save on administration costs.
A number of reasons have been advanced to explain the relatively poor
uptake of the European Company concept.52 These include the lack of
knowledge about the company by legal advisers; the relatively expensive
and time-consuming incorporation processes; the requirements regarding
employee participation; the delay in implementation of the directive on
employee participation; and, perhaps most significantly, the fact that the
SE remains regulated to a large extent by the countrys laws where it has
its registered office. This has the potential to lead to confusion because
outsiders tend to expect a European Company to operate according to the
one set of laws regardless of where it has its seat. However, the European
Company Statute specifically leaves much of the detailed regulation of the
SE to whatever national law applies.
Some authors draw attention to an even more fundamental problem.
If two companies are to merge to form an SE which will have its seat in
another jurisdiction, there will be a transfer of assets out of the original
jurisdiction.53 In many countries this will attract the attention of tax
authorities who will require that an exit tax be paid. For larger companies
this could be substantial and outweigh the other advantages of adopting the
European Company as the corporate form for their business operations.
50
51
52
53
P. Pelle, Companies Crossing Borders within Europe (2008) 4 Utrecht Law Review 6 at 8.
J. A. McCahery and E. Vermeulen, Understanding Corporate Mobility in the EU, paper prepared for the 5th European Law and Corporate Governance Conference, Berlin, 2728 June
2007, <http://www.bdi-online.de/en/Dokumente/Recht-Wettbewerb-Versicherungen/Panel I
WorkingPaper UnderstandingCorpMob.pdf >, p. 22.
See Pelle, op. cit., and McCahery and Vermeulen, op. cit.
See McCahery and Vermeulen, ibid., p. 27.
195
196
The European Commission is to bring down an evaluation report at the

end of 2009 on the European Company concept.
A P R I VAT E E U R O P E A N C O M PA N Y ?
The idea for a private European company has been around since the 1990s.
However, it was not until June 2006 that the Legal Affairs Committee of
the European Parliament held a public hearing on the matter and then
drafted a resolution calling on the Parliament to present a proposal. In
November 2006, the European Parliament published a detailed report
with recommendations to the Commission for a private company statute.54
This was followed in February 2007 with a formal European Parliament
resolution calling for a European Private Company (SPE) statute.55 In
July 2007 the Directorate-General for Internal Market and Services held
consultations on a possible statute. The results of the consultation have been
published by the Commission.56 In June 2008 the Commission presented
a proposal for a Council regulation for a European Private Company.57 The
following outlines the recommendations made by the European Parliament
and then proceeds to examine the proposal by the Commission and the
extent to which it reflects the Parliaments recommendations. The extent
to which there is an unanimity of views may influence the speed at which
the proposal is able to finally become law.
At the outset, the European Parliament recommended that the law that
applies to an SPE regardless of where it has its registered office should be
the proposed SPE statute. In other words, national laws will not govern
this type of company. Thus, for example, all matters related to formation, organisational structure, the powers of company bodies, shareholders
rights, voting majorities, purchase and sales of shares in the company, and
minimum standards for those representing the company should all be dealt
with in the SPE statute. Further, the statute should have a standard set of
articles of association attached that the members may adopt in whole or in
part.
This recommendation was supported by responses received in the Commissions consultation process. A majority of respondents said that they
54
55
56
57
European Parliament report with recommendations to the Commission on the European private
company statute (2006/2013(INI).
European Parliament resolution on the 14th company law directive and the European Private
Company (B6-0399/07).
At <http://ec.europa.eu/internal market/company/epc/index en.htm>.
Commission of the European Communities, Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Statute for a
Private European Company, Brussels COM (2008) 396/3.
faced considerable difficulties operating in a number of European countries

because of the diversity of national company law systems. Three-quarters
of the respondents supported the need for an SPE so that smaller companies intending to operate across Europe would face simpler administrative
processes, save money and time and not have to deal with company law in
27 different jurisdictions. Accordingly, it comes as no surprise that nearly
80% of respondents to the survey supported a statute that was exempt from
references to national law. Those who favoured retaining some reference to
national law saw it as the only feasible solution. Persuading member states
to surrender power over companies would be too difficult a task.
The European Parliament also recommended that the company should
be able to be formed completely anew or on the basis of an existing company, or following a merger between companies or in the context of a
common subsidiary.58 However, if existing private companies could convert themselves into SPEs and this was made relatively easy, then many
may do so, thereby significantly weakening the control over corporate citizens by the state in which they are resident. The European Parliament also
recommended that the SPE should be able to merge, change its registered
office and convert into a public company or convert back into a purely
national private company. In these cases the relevant directives of the EU
will apply supplemented as necessary by the national laws of the relevant
member states. Thus, to some degree at least, the SPE may have to confront
national legal regimes. A third recommendation was that the SPE have a
minimum capital of 10 000 but that it need not be fully paid in. This
proposal is unlikely to sit easily with those countries where the so-called
$2 companies are allowed.
There are also several recommendations dealing with the liability of
directors. Here, the European Parliament appears to have taken the view
that executive directors should have personal liability or at least joint
liability with the company for acts which are contrary to the provisions of
the civil or criminal code governing the particular activity. Thus, national
laws are still intended to apply to company conduct as will, of course,
taxation, environmental and labour laws. A distinction seems to be being
drawn between matters relating to the company internally which are to
be subject to the proposed EU-wide company law and those matters that
relate to everyday business conduct which, of necessity, must remain local
until harmonised.
58
See European Parliament report with recommendations to the Commission on the European
private company statute, op. cit., p.5.
197
198
The European Parliament recommended that the statute sets out a list
of the company forms in each of the member states that are regarded as
being equivalent to the SPE. The accounting standards that apply to these
companies should also be applicable to the SPE. In addition, the liquidation
and insolvency rules applicable to the equivalent types of companies should
also apply to the SPE. This is a further instance of SPEs being subject to
national laws.
The proposal from the Commission for the SPE can be summarised in
the following list of points:
r The SPE is a private company with limited liability for its members. Its
shares cannot be traded.
r It can be set up by one or more founders whether natural persons or
companies.
r It can be formed either as a new entity or by merger or by transforming
or dividing an existing company.
r Any company form under existing national laws can become an SPE.
r The regulation builds on the disclosure directive with regard to formation but specifically provides for electronic registration and a list of
documents that member states may require for registration.
r The SPE will be governed primarily by the SPE regulation and by its
articles.
r National law is only relevant to those matters not covered in the regulation. This includes labour law, tax law and insolvency law.
r Types of shares that may be issued and conditions for transfer are defined
in the articles. Minority shareholders must consent to any change in the
articles that affects their right to transfer shares.
r The company must keep a list of shareholders.
r The minimum capital will be 1 and capital can be contributed by cash
or in kind as regulated by the articles.
r Dividends can only be paid if the SPE satisfies the balance sheet test but
the articles can provide for a solvency test before dividends are paid out.
r The SPE can acquire its own shares subject to a balance sheet test.
r There is a list of decisions which must be taken by shareholders. This
list can be added to by the articles.
r Shareholders decide on the appointment and removal of directors.
r The regulation lays down a general duty of care owed by directors and
directors are liable for losses due to a breach of duty.
r All decisions not required to be taken by the shareholders can be taken
by the management of the company.
r Minority shareholders can request shareholder resolutions and have the
right to have an independent expert appointed by the court.
r The SPE will be subject to the laws on employee participation in the
place where it has its registered office.
r The SPE can transfer its registered office to another state.
It can be seen that the proposal from the Commission closely follows the
European Parliaments recommendation. One significant point of departure is the minimum capital requirement.
In March 2009, the European Parliament adopted the Commission proposal but made a significant number of amendments.59 These included a
requirement that the SPE have a cross-border element and that it may
only be established with a capital of 1 if the companys owners are
able to provide a certificate of solvency to show that the new company
can pay its debts. Otherwise, a capital of 8000 is required. The Parliament also amended the proposal in relation to the provisions on employee
participation.
The concerns about the SPE being just another company form that
is governed by national law have been addressed to some extent by the
proposed regulation but, as with the SE, the extent to which national
laws apply will become clearer once the statute is passed and companies
commence using it.
The proposal for a European Private Company is an initiative that
has the potential to significantly ease the burdens on small and medium
enterprises wanting to operate across borders and, in this respect, it is clearly
in line with the objective to create a single market. However, as is often
said, the devil is in the detail and it remains to be seen what results from the
process. It has been necessary to draw attention to this proposed company
form because, if implemented in the form desired by the Commission,
it could well revolutionise business practice in the EU over the coming
decades and it certainly presents an attractive alternative for companies
from outside of the EU who wish to establish a presence there.
LICENCES AND PERMITS
Countries vary in the degree to which they require businesses to obtain
some form of operating licence. The range of activities that are regulated also varies considerably and depends to a considerable extent on
the historical attitudes to freedom of business activity and how far the
state is prepared to go to limit this freedom in the interests of protecting the public against unscrupulous operators and those who do not have
59
European Parliament legislative resolution of 10 March 2009 on the proposal for a council regulation
on the Statute for a European private company (A6-0044/2009).
199
200
the necessary qualifications to carry out the activity in which they are
engaged.
Service-oriented businesses that are considered vital to the economy
tend to be the most highly regulated. Accordingly, establishing a business
as a financial institution, a utilities provider or public transport operator
is likely to be highly regulated in all countries whether the person wishing
to commence the business is local or foreign. Likewise, sensitive industries such as media will also attract strict licensing requirements as will
professional practice as a doctor, lawyer or accountant for example. Some
countries also require a licence to operate a manufacturing business. It
is not possible to deal with the licensing requirements for every business
activity in every EU member state. The websites of investment authorities
referred to earlier generally provide some guidance but nothing substitutes
for obtaining local legal advice as to the permits necessary and how to
obtain them.
Case study
Business licences in Luxembourg
This case study is compiled from information provided on the Luxembourg governments investment website. The extensive Doing Business
guide available on the website sets out clearly and in detail the requirements for operating licences.60
Luxembourgs law relating to the setting up of a business61 requires
a business permit for the carrying on of any form of business. Thus any
company or branch that is set up in Luxembourg must obtain a permit.
Foreigners from countries outside of the EU who visit Luxembourg occasionally to do business without having a permanent presence there must
also obtain a permit. The Doing Business guide suggests that the legislators have considered it prudent to maintain a system for licensing of
business activity in order to ensure that persons or companies that carry
on a business are qualified to do so. The guide states that the legislators
wished to make it clear that they did not intend to be joining those who
were calling for liberalisation at any price nor be influenced for those
calling for protectionism at all costs.62
60
61
62
Doing Business in Luxembourg, 11 November 2006, <http://www.bed.public.lu/publications/

doing business.pdf >, Ch. 2.
Act of 28 December 1988 (as amended).
Doing Business in Luxembourg, op. cit., p. 12.
A business permit has to be obtained from the Ministry of Middle

Classes and an application must be lodged on the required form along
with payment of the required administrative fee. The form can be downloaded from the Ministrys website.63 The application must be made by
the individual person who will be managing the business. Certain documents must accompany the application. For a company, these include
its constitution or charter or for a branch the constitution or charter
of its parent company along with documentary evidence of the branch
managers authority to carry on the branchs activities on behalf of the
parent company. Persons who have not lived in Luxembourg or have
lived there for less than five years must also submit a certificate of nonbankruptcy sworn before a notary public and a document showing any
criminal record. In addition, evidence must be provided of the persons
professional qualifications.
The Ministry will examine the application to ensure that the person
applying is of good standing and is qualified to undertake the business activity which they have specified in the application. In the case of
those activities that are not specially regulated (see below), the permit
that is issued will specify trade. To obtain this general class of permit,
the type of qualifications needed by the person applying are qualifications that show that they are capable of managing a company. Such
qualifications can be a university degree; an intensive training course
that includes a range of specified skills considered as necessary to properly run a business; on-the-job training for a period of three years; or
equivalent qualifications which include having passed an examination
in business management.
There is a range of specific business activities that require a special
permit. These include real estate businesses; large retail premises; pubs,
hotels and restaurants; transport of goods or persons; travel agents;
professional training bodies; childcare; landscape gardeners and horticultural pursuits; security and surveillance activities; and any business in
the finance sector. In addition, there is a range of professions that require
a special permit. These are architects, designers, engineers, accountants,
surveyors, advisers in industrial property, doctors, lawyers, pharmacists
and economic advisers. The Doing Business guide sets out in detail
the requirements for each activity or profession. Because of increasing
mutual recognition of qualifications across Europe, it will be easier for
someone within the EU to satisfy the requirements than for persons from
outside.
63
<http://www.mcm.public.lu>.
201
202
The nature of the business and permit numbers must be shown on all
of the businesss stationery including emails and websites. It should be
apparent that the permit that is issued is a personal one and also specific
to the activities for which it is issued. This means that if the person
holding it leaves the company, the company must obtain a new permit
for the new manager. Likewise, if the company changes the nature of its
business a new permit may be required.
S TAT E A I D T O I N D U S T RY
The provision of state aid to industry is heavily regulated at the EU level.
Nonetheless, as the following discussion shows, there are many opportunities for firms engaged in specific activities or in specific locations to obtain
assistance in the form of grants, loans, tax concessions, or infrastructure
support from member governments. It is therefore important for those
contemplating setting up a business in the EU to be aware of the basic
principles upon which that aid can be given.
The starting point for any discussion on state aid must be Article 87(1) of
the EC Treaty which prohibits aid by member states to industry. Prohibited
measures must satisfy four criteria to be caught by the prohibition.64
These are that any measure must involve a transfer of state resources; it
must confer an economic advantage on the recipient that they would not
have received in the ordinary course of business; it must be selective in
the sense that the administering authorities have some discretion in the
granting of the aid; and it must have some effect on trade and competition within the community in the sense that the activity in which the
beneficiary is engaged is one in which there is some trade between member
states. All of these criteria must be met for the measure to qualify as
state aid that is subject to EU oversight. It is not difficult to see that
most forms of state assistance to industry would meet these criteria and,
accordingly, the Commission has wide authority over state assistance to
industry.
However, Articles 87(2) and (3) of the EC Treaty allow certain categories
of aid as exemptions. Originally, every measure that a state proposed had
to be notified and approved by the Commission before a state could
implement it. With increasing numbers of member states, the approval
64
See the discussion in European Commission, Directorate-General for Competition, Vademecum: Community Rules on State Aid, 30 September 2008, <http://ec.europa.eu/competition/state
aid/studies reports/vademecum on rules 09 2008 en.pdf >.
of each measure became unworkable and, accordingly, the Commission

has in place regulations that set out in detail the criteria that apply to a
particular category of aid. This means, in effect, that for most categories
of allowable aid the member states need only provide information to the
Commission about the measure and do not have to obtain specific approval
to implement it.
This frees up the workload of the Commission, but for firms that
are receiving aid there are certain risks. These arise because of Article
88 of the treaty which requires the Commission to recover illegal aid
from the beneficiary of that aid. Accordingly, if a firm receives aid that the
Commission later finds was not delivered in accordance with the guidelines
for that particular category, then the Commission requires the member state
that delivered the aid to recover it from the beneficiary. Thus, firms that
are wishing to avail themselves of the sometimes quite generous incentives
need to obtain local legal advice to ensure that the measure under which
the aid is being given is in fact in accordance with the guidelines for that
particular category of aid.
This is all the more important because with the freeing up of Commission resources from the approval process, it will allow the Commission to
adopt closer scrutiny in cases where it has received complaints about the
aid measure (usually from other member states or industry groups) that the
aid is not in accordance with the guidelines. The Commission has always
been active in policing state aid. At the end of 2007, there were 49 pending
cases where recovery was being sought by the Commission.65 Germany,
France, Italy and Spain accounted for 38 of these 49 cases.66 There were
also 25 cases where the Commission had required states to take recovery
action and had subsequently taken action in the European Court of Justice
against the state concerned.67 In some cases, press releases are issued by the
Commission about the case to apply pressure on the state to recover the
money from the firm that received it. The spring 2008 report by the Commission on state aid noted that between 2000 and 2007 the total illegal aid
and fines recovered by the Commission was over 7 billion.68 However, by
and large, states comply with the guidelines when developing aid schemes.
Of the 629 decisions made by the Commission on aid measures in 2007,
65
66
67
68
Commission of the European Communities, Report from the Commission, State Aid Scoreboard Spring 2008 Update, Brussels, 21.5.2008, COM9(2008) 304 final, <http://ec.europa.
eu/competition/state aid/studies reports/archive/2008 spring en.pdf >, p. 28.
Ibid.
Ibid., Annex 4, p. 55.
Ibid., p. 29.
203
204
Table 8.1 State aid and eligible firms

Aid category
Firms eligible
Initial investment made by large

firms to establish a new business
or expand an existing business
Only available to firms in regions of

a member state where the standard
or living is abnormally low or
disadvantaged as defined in
Articles 87(3)(a) and 87(3)(c) of the
EC Treaty.
Medium firms (less than 250
employees and a turnover of less
than 50 million annually) and
small firms (less than 50 employees
and a turnover of less than 10
million).
Only available to firms in regions of
a member state where the standard
of living is abnormally low or
Articles 87(3)(a) and 87(3)(c) of the
EC Treaty.
and a turnover of less than 10
million).
All enterprises meeting conditions can
apply if offered by the member state
concerned.
Initial investment made by small and

medium firms to establish a new
business or expand an existing
business
Job creation by large firms leading to a

permanent increase in new jobs for
persons new to the workforce or
who have not lost their previous job
Job creation (as described above) by

small and medium firms
Environmental protection expenditure

for such purposes as energy saving,
renewable energy sources, energy
efficient heating, waste
management, remediation
of contaminated sites
Research, development and innovation
expenditure including fundamental
research, industrial research, and
experimental development
Operating Aid such as salary costs
transport costs and rent

concerned.
Only available in regions of a member
state where the standard of living is
abnormally low.
(cont.)
Table 8.1 (cont.)

Aid category
Firms eligible
Additional transport costs for

enterprises located in outermost
regions or regions of low population
density
Risk Capital Aid to promote risk
capital investments in small and
medium enterprises
Available for firms in outermost

regions, or regions of low
population density.
Important services of general economic

interest provided by public
authorities that would have not
otherwise been able to be provided
Training Aid for employees to gain

qualifications relevant to their
present firm or to obtain general
qualifications that are transferable
Rescue and Restructuring Aid for
temporary assistance to firms in
difficulty

and a turnover of less than
10 million).
Only available to firms in regions of a
member state where the standard or
living is abnormally low or
Article 87(3)(a) and 87(3)(c) of the
EC Treaty.
concerned.
concerned.
Source: European Commission, Directorate-Generale for Competition, Vademecum: Community Rules on State Aid, 30 September 2008, <http://ec.europa.eu/
competition/state_aid/studies_reports/vademecum_on_rules_09_2008_en.pdf>.
87% resulted in a finding that the aid measure complied with the relevant
regulations.69
This lengthy introduction has been necessary to acquaint the reader
with the basic framework of EU regulation of state aid. It is now necessary
to look in more detail at the more important categories of aid that are
exempted by the general block exemption. Table 8.1 sets out the categories
of aid that states may offer along with the types of firms eligible to receive
it. Most categories of aid have limits applied to the level of aid that can
be provided as well as some limitations on sectors of economic activity
69
Ibid., p. 37.
205
206
that are not eligible for aid. In many categories these include agriculture,
fisheries, transport, coal and steel industries. There are separate schemes
in these areas. The following is a case study of incentives offered in
Germany.
Case study
Investment incentives in Germany
The German government offers many of the categories of incentives
listed above. The following outlines each category of incentive and
the more important conditions that apply. The information has been
obtained from the Germany Trade & Invest website where more comprehensive information can be found.70
Cash incentives for investment

Germany offers grants to new investment projects that create long-term
jobs and have guaranteed financing from a private bank for that part
of the project costs that are not eligible for an incentive grant. There is
no nationality requirement attached to the grant of the incentives. The
percentage of project financing costs that are available will depend on
the region in which the investment project is located. Not all parts of
Germany qualify. The most generous incentives exist for locating in the
former East Germany, followed by regions that border the former Eastern bloc countries and regions in the far north of the country. For example, small firms setting up an investment in the former East Germany
can apply for up to 50% of the project costs, while medium firms can
claim up to 40% and large firms up to 30%. Firms investing in the former East Germany can elect to take part of the incentive as an investment allowance. However, the overall sum received from the grant and
investment allowance combined cannot exceed the maximum rate of
incentives for the region.
Loans
Firms establishing themselves in Germany can obtain low-interest loans
from the European Investment Bank, Germanys nationally operating
development bank or the state development banks. The European
70
See <http://www.gtai.com/homepage/investment-guide-to-germany/incentives-programs>.
Investment Bank provides loans at below-market interest rates for

projects that contribute to the EUs general policy objectives including
building up weaker regions and building up the general structure of the
EU as a business location. Projects must demonstrate economic, technological, environmental and financial viability. The German Development
Banks main loan types are the entrepreneur loan and the entrepreneur
capital loan. State development banks tend to specialise in loans to small
and medium start-up companies.
Labour incentives
Labour incentives are available at all stages of the employment cycle,
from recruitment to initial training prior to starting work, wage subsidies for employees and on-the-job training of employees. Recruitment
services are offered by Germanys 800 local job centres free of charge.
Pre-employment training programs for employees required to operate
machinery and technical equipment will often be subsidised up to the
extent of 100%. Those investors who are prepared to offer long-term
employment to persons who have had difficulty finding work may be
eligible for a subsidy of up to 50% of the wages of the employee for the
first 12 months. This subsidy can be up to 70% if the employee is disabled or elderly. Subsidies are also available for up to 50% of on-the-job
training costs.
R&D incentives
Research and development (R&D) grants are available to firms in Germany through a variety of sources. These include EU R&D grants, R&D
grants in Germany and further subsidies. Eligible categories of research
include fundamental research, industrial research or experimental development. Generally, the grants obtained can be used for expenditure on
personnel or relevant instruments and equipment.
An application for an R&D grant has to include the timeline for the
project as well as a commercialisation plan showing how the results of
the research project will generate additional turnover or employment in
the region where the project was carried out.
207
Resolving a dispute
with an EU firm
INTRODUCTION
MOST INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL DISPUTES ARE able to
be resolved by the parties themselves. This is by far the least expensive

and most satisfactory outcome. However, for the very small percentage of
disputes that cannot be resolved amicably, it is necessary to seek the intervention of a third party. The three options canvassed in this chapter are
litigation, arbitration and mediation. Most standard international contracts
of sale contain a clause that sets out which option the parties will use if
the dispute cannot be resolved by negotiation and also, most importantly,
the particular institution and place where any dispute resolution will take
place. As noted in Chapter 2, those entering into international contracts
are also advised to select the law that any dispute resolution body will use
in resolving the dispute.
Litigation, arbitration and mediation each have their strengths and
weaknesses as methods for resolving international disputes. Litigation is
the most formal method, with strict rules of court procedure governing the
conduct of disputes. However, because courts have the power to enforce
their decisions, it is often seen as the best method for providing a final
resolution of the matter. In addition, the parties can usually be confident
of a well-reasoned decision and, if such is not the case, the option exists
for appeal to a higher court. In most developed countries, the independence of the judiciary from the other arms of government and the business
community promotes impartial decision making. On the other hand, litigation has many disadvantages. Court proceedings can be lengthy, business
relationships are often destroyed by the adversarial process and costs tend
to be high.
208
R E S O LV I N G A D I S P U T E W I T H A N E U F I R M
Arbitration has the advantage of the parties having some say as to who
will hear their case. They are therefore able to select arbitrators who have
particular skill in the subject matter of the dispute. It is also less formal
than litigation and cases tend to be resolved more speedily. Arbitration
proceedings are most frequently kept confidential, thus avoiding the public
scrutiny that high-profile court action often attracts with the consequent
damage to the reputation of the litigants. However, arbitrators lack the
power to enforce their decisions and thus a party in whose favour an award
has been made may have to resort to the court to enforce that award if the
other party will not comply. Skilled arbitrators do not come cheaply and
parties may find that the costs of arbitration may exceed those of court
action.
Mediation is gathering strength as an alternative method for resolving
international business disputes. As noted in Chapter 1, the EU has recently
lent weight to this method by the enactment of the mediation directive in
2008. Mediation can be a speedy and less formal process for the resolution
of disputes than either litigation or arbitration. There is also a much greater
chance that the parties will be able to maintain their business relationship
if mediation is used effectively to resolve any disputes. It is less costly
than either litigation or arbitration. Its main disadvantages are ensuring
that those engaged in the process have the authority to enter into binding
settlement agreements on behalf of the parties and then having the parties
abide by those agreements. This can be made quite difficult in those cases
where one of the parties is simply using mediation as a delaying tactic to
gain some advantage by putting off court action.
This chapter reviews each of these methods of dispute resolution
in a European context. It sets out in more detail the potential problems that can arise in each method when attempting to resolve disputes
that arise in international business transactions with European business
partners.
L I T I G AT I O N A G A I N S T PA R T I E S F R O M
E U M E M B E R S TAT E S
A number of potentially expensive and complex issues arise in any court
proceeding against a party who is resident in another state and hence
outside of the jurisdiction of the court where the party bringing the action
is located. Bringing court action typically involves a series of well-recognised
steps. These are as follows:
209
210
r A writ or document commencing the proceedings must be filed in the
relevant court summoning the party to appear before the court to answer
the matter being brought against them.
r The writ must be served on the other party so that they have notice.
r Before trial there may be preliminary hearings before the court, along
with the requirements that each party provide to the other side the
documents upon which they are relying to plead their case.
r The trial itself will occur where each party has the opportunity to
present its case to the court and the court makes a decision based upon
the relevant law.
r Judgement will be given either for the party bringing the court action or
against them and, if it is in favour of the party bringing the action, then
it may be necessary for that judgement to be enforced in the country
where the defendant resides.
Each of these issues will now be discussed in relation to a party from
outside of the EU bringing an action against someone who is resident in
an EU member state. At the outset, it needs to be noted that the EU has
regulations that govern matters related to the jurisdiction of courts, service
of process, taking of evidence abroad and enforcement of judgements
between parties resident in EU member states. However, the effect of
these regulations when the litigation is between a party from a country
outside of the EU and a party from within the EU varies, as will be
seen.
I N I T I AT I N G P R O C E E D I N G S
The first question that confronts the lawyers for the plaintiff is to decide
which court should hear the case. Well-drafted commercial agreements will
contain a clause stating that in the event of any dispute, the parties agree to
submit themselves to the jurisdiction of a particular court. This is known
as a choice of jurisdiction or choice of forum clause. Understandably,
the negotiation of such a clause is not an easy task for lawyers drawing up
agreements. The parties themselves are keen to get on with the business
deal and do not wish to consider the possibility that they may end up in
court. Even if the idea of such a clause is able to be agreed upon, there is
still likely to be hard negotiations about which court is most appropriate
a court in the place where the party from outside of the EU has its place
of business or a place where the party from within the EU has its place
of business or even a third-country court where, for example, the contract
may be being performed.
If the parties have been able to agree on a choice of jurisdiction clause

in their contract and if a dispute arises, then one would think that the
chosen court would necessarily be the court where proceedings will occur.
However, a party initiating the action might choose to ignore the choice
of forum clause and commence action in a jurisdiction that they feel is
more convenient to them. The question then becomes one of whether that
court continues to hear the matter or whether it should decline to hear
the case on the basis that the parties have agreed to an alternative forum.
Here, the court where the proceedings have been initiated has to carefully
balance the clear will of the parties as expressed in their agreement as against
the possibility that if the will of the parties was honoured, then one of
them might suffer serious disadvantages in obtaining a fair hearing of their
case.
Within the EU, if there is a dispute between two parties from different
EU member states there is a clear provision that the court agreed by the
parties should have exclusive jurisdiction to hear the case.1 Accordingly, if
an action is commenced contrary to the choice of jurisdiction clause, then
the court where the action is brought should decline jurisdiction if the
party against whom the action is brought asserts their rights in accordance
with the choice of jurisdiction clause. If an agreement between a party
from outside of the EU and a party from an EU member state provides
that the court to hear the dispute will be that of a particular EU member
state, then the parties choice of jurisdiction clause must be given effect
should the action be brought in another EU court.
If, however, contrary to the parties choice of jurisdiction clause giving
jurisdiction to a court within the EU, a party brings an action in its own
courts, a potential problem arises. The court outside of the EU will use
its own national law to determine if it has jurisdiction. Laws as to when a
court may decline jurisdiction vary from country to country. It is possible
that the overseas court where the action is brought could decide to stay the
matter because of the parties choice of forum clause, or it could decide that
since the case was brought before it, it should continue to hear whether
it should have jurisdiction. In some circumstances, the overseas court might
not give effect to the parties choice of jurisdiction clause and consider it
to be in the interests of justice that it hears the case.
1
Article 23(3) of Regulation 44/2001/EC (Brussels Regulation) [2001] OJ L12/1. This regulation
has to a large extent replaced the earlier Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and Enforcement of
Judgment in Civil and Commercial Matters 1968 and the later Lugano Convention of 1988 as they
relate to jurisdiction in proceedings within EU member states.
211
212
Conversely, if the choice of jurisdiction clause designates a court outside

of the EU but an action is brought in an EU member state court, then
some commentators suggest that the effect of the Brussels Regulation
(44/2001/EEC) is that if the matter is brought before an EU court, the
court may have the option to decide if it has jurisdiction rather than simply
staying the matter because of a choice of forum clause.2 Understandably,
this approach means that if an EU party brings an action against a non-EU
party in an EU court, then the defendant could be faced with expensive
proceedings in attempting to convince the EU court that the forum selected
by the parties should be the one to eventually hear the case.
Because of these difficulties, considerable efforts have been made by
the Hague Conference on Private International Law to have countries
worldwide adopt a convention on choice of court issues. There is a draft
convention but it has not yet been accepted despite clear support for it from
important professional bodies. In a survey of American Bar Association
members, 98% of those surveyed said that such a convention would be
useful, and 70% said it would make them more likely to use litigation
rather than arbitration as their chosen means of dispute resolution.3
Thus, the first hurdle for potential litigants is the possibility that they
might face protracted and expensive proceedings over which court should
hear the case even if there is a choice of jurisdiction clause. Understandably,
these problems become even more protracted where the parties do not have
such a clause in their agreement.
S E RV I C E O F P R O C E S S
The provisions of the Convention on Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters 1965 (Hague Convention) will govern the procedure for the service of proceedings and other
documents by a party from outside of the EU on a party who is resident in
an EU member state provided that both states are signatories to the convention. Under the provisions of the Hague convention, countries designate
central authorities who will be responsible for the service of documents and
then producing a certificate to provide evidence of such service. However,
2
See N. Hatzimihail and A. Nuyts, Judicial Cooperation between the United States and Europe
in Civil and Commercial Matters: An Overview of the Issues in A. Nuyts and N. Watte (eds.),
International Civil Litigation, Bruyant, Brussels, 2005, p. 18.
Survey of ABA practitioners by the ABA Working Group on the Hague Convention on Choice of
Court Agreements as reported in L. Tait Choice of Court Clauses and Third Countries from a US
Perspective in Nuyts and Watte (eds.), ibid., p. 305.
the convention is flexible in that it also allows for service through consular
offices provided that the state in which the service is to be effected has not
objected to this alternative.
There are only some 60 states that are parties to the Hague Convention,
including all states of the EU other than Malta. If a party from a state that
is not a member of the convention wishes to have a document served on a
party in the EU, then it is necessary to have regard to any treaty that exists
between that state and the EU member country concerning the service of
judicial documents. Australia, for example, is not a member of the Hague
Convention and, accordingly, service of documents will be governed by
the particular arrangements in place between the Australian government
and the relevant EU member state. As each bilateral agreement is likely
to involve slightly different processes, it is not possible here to deal with
all possibilities.4 The more significant matter is to note the need to have
regard to the bilateral arrangements.
On the other hand, where both parties are from EU member states,
service of documents within the EU internally is governed by Regulation
1393/2007/EC5 (the Service Regulation). As one commentator has put
it, the main difference between the Hague Convention and the Service
Regulation is that the Service Regulation offers a speedier procedure.6
C O U RT P R O C E D U R E I N P R E - T R I A L A N D
T R I A L S TA G E S
There are major differences in the way court proceedings at the pre-trial
and trial stages are conducted between legal systems that have a common
law origin and those that have a civil law origin. These differences are
perhaps most apparent in procedure relating to discovery of documents
and evidence gathering. Each of these is discussed below.
In common law systems (UK, USA, Australia), it is a procedural requirement that each party reveal to the other the essential documents on which
they will be relying to prove their case. In civil law systems, however, no
such formal requirement exists and it is a matter for the judge to decide
if a party should be able to have access to essential documents relied on
4
5
6
For information on Australias treaties with individual countries, see <http://www.ag.gov.au/www/

agd/agd.nsf/Page/Internationalcivilprocedure ServiceofAustraliancourtprocessabroad-generalinformation>.
[2007] OJ L324/9.
J. Forner Service of Judicial Documents within Europe and in Third States (Regulation 1348/2000)
and the 1965 Hague Convention in International Civil Litigation in Europe and Relations with
Third States in Nuyts and Watte (eds.), op. cit., p. 407.
213
214
by the other side if they refuse to reveal them. However, in practice, it is

commonplace for each party to include copies of documents upon which
they rely in the pleadings that they file with the court.
This difference has its roots in the role of the court under each system.
In common law systems, the court leaves it up to the parties to gather
the necessary evidence and then present it to the court. The court will
decide the case based on the evidence that the parties put before it. In
civil law systems, the court itself takes the primary role in deciding what
evidence is necessary to decide the case. For example, under the German
system, the court itself can require witnesses to be called, experts to attend
to give evidence, documents to be produced and allow examination of the
witnesses by the parties.7 Because of these differences, civil law systems tend
to hold a number of subsequent hearings to decide the case. In common
law systems, some pre-trial applications may be needed but, by and large,
the main trial is one event which can last for a day, a week or several
months.
The next question concerns the actual process by which the evidence
is gathered. Within the EU, Regulation 1206/2001/EC8 provides mechanisms for the cooperation between the courts of member states in the
taking of evidence in other member states. This provides for transmission
of requests direct from court to court, specified time limits within which
the request must be acted upon and for courts to request a particular
procedure for the obtaining of the evidence. In addition, courts from one
member state of the EU can travel to another member state to take evidence
directly.
However, the matter of evidence gathering in non-member states is subject to the Convention on the Taking of Evidence Abroad in Civil and
Commercial Matters 1970. Almost all EU member states are signatories
to this convention as are a number of other countries including Australia,
China and the US but not Canada or Japan. This convention allows authorities in different countries to cooperate in taking evidence and forwarding
it on to the court in the requesting country where the proceedings are taking place. The procedure under the convention is somewhat cumbersome.
The court wanting the evidence must transmit the request to the central
authority nominated by the state under the convention in the state where
the evidence is to be gathered. The central authority will then transmit
that request to an appropriate body to gather the evidence. The evidence
7
8
See T. Taylor and N. Cooper, European Litigation Handbook, Sweet and Maxwell, London, 1995,
Ch 4.
[2001] OJ L174/1.
itself usually takes the form of a sworn statement that is, a statement
sworn as the truth by the person giving the evidence in front of a person
authorised by the state as being able to take such statements (a commissioner for affidavits for example). The authority taking the evidence should
use procedures that are in conformity with the evidence laws of the court
requesting it.
Needless to say, if a party from a non-EU member state wishes to obtain
evidence from a party that is within the EU, it will reduce costs considerably
if the evidence is able to be taken in the EU country. However a number of
problems exist. First, the procedure under the convention can move very
slowly depending on the country concerned and the degree to which central
authorities wish to cooperate. Second, evidence given by way of written
testimony has the defect that it does not allow for cross-examination of
the persons giving the testimony to test the statements made. In addition,
as noted above, a party from outside of the EU who wishes to obtain
discovery of documents from a party within the EU may run up against
difficulties if the request is directed to a civil law country. It may not be
honoured because of differences of opinion about the rights of parties to
pre-trial discovery. Further, if the party is from a state that is not a signatory
to the convention, then it will be necessary to have regard to any bilateral
arrangements that exist between that state and the EU member country
concerned.
Accordingly, parties from common law non-EU member states might
have some difficulty with the differences in pre-trial discovery matters as
well as in the procedure of evidence gathering. This makes the decision to
litigate all the more problematic.
C H O I C E O F L AW
It is usual for parties to agree on a choice of law clause in their initial
agreement. Such a clause nominates the substantive law that the court
hearing the matter will apply in resolving the dispute. Generally, courts
will give effect to parties choice of law clauses. However, if the law that the
parties have chosen is not the law of the country where the court hearing
the dispute is located, significant costs might be incurred in informing the
court of the contents of the law governing the dispute. For that reason, it
is usual to have the choice of law clause and choice of jurisdiction clause
aligned so that, for example, if the courts of the UK are to hear the dispute,
then the choice of law should also be UK law. However, as noted above, the
success of such a strategy will depend on the actual choice of jurisdiction
215
216
clause being upheld if it is challenged by the other party in the ways

mentioned earlier. In addition, a court may not apply the parties choice of
law clause in all instances because there might be mandatory laws affecting
the case. For example, it was noted in Chapter 6 that if an action is brought
against an agent in an EU country, then the courts are likely to apply the
EU directive on agency.
ENFORCEMENT
As with service of process and taking evidence, the European institutions
have used their powers under the treaty to bring into effect a regulation
on the enforcement of judgements within the EU.9 However, judgements
rendered in an EU member state court that are to be enforced in a third state
or vice versa still need to rely on the bilateral agreements entered into by EU
member states with third states. Thus, each bilateral agreement will need to
be consulted to determine the exact mechanisms by which judgements are
to be enforced, and the possible grounds upon which a defendant against
whom they are to be enforced can challenge the enforcement proceedings.
Once again, the possibility of challenge at the enforcement stage makes
international litigation a risky method for the resolution of international
disputes.
M AT T E R S T O C O N S I D E R I N A N
I N T E R N AT I O N A L A R B I T R AT I O N
As noted above, litigation is fraught with difficulties both at the time of
inserting a dispute resolution clause into a contract and then taking court
action should an actual dispute arise. Arbitration has become a well-used
alternative not only because it tends to be speedier and more private than
court action but also because it may be easier for parties to agree at the
time of contract about a suitable arbitration clause and arbitral institution.
Arbitration is seen as a less threatening possibility than court proceedings
and arbitral institutions are completely independent of the state in many
countries. This reduces fears a party might have that a foreign court might
have a bias against foreign litigants bringing actions before it. However,
arbitration does have its limitations, as will be discussed below.
A number of issues arise for consideration if arbitration is to be used to
resolve disputes. These include:
9
Regulation 805/2004 EEC [2004] OJ L143/15 (European Enforcement Order).
r the selection of an arbitral institution either at the time that the contract
r
r
r
r
r
is entered into or, alternatively, when a dispute arises

how an arbitration is commenced
how the arbitrators are appointed
the preliminary steps that the tribunal takes
establishing the facts and the hearing itself
the award and costs.
SELECTION OF AN ARBITRAL INSTITUTION

There are many institutions in the EU that have wide experience in hearing
international arbitration claims. Some of the better known of these include
the London Court of International Arbitration, the Arbitration Institute of
the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce, and the International Chamber of
Commerce (ICC) International Court of Arbitration with its headquarters
in Paris.
Many considerations influence the parties choice of an institution,
including the parties own geographic locations, the place where the contract is being performed, the place where the institution can conduct a
hearing, the language of the hearing and, perhaps most significantly, the
rules of the institution itself and how well suited these are to the parties
own views of how they see an arbitration being conducted should the need
arise. Some institutions are more flexible than others in each of these matters. Parties therefore need to decide at the outset what they expect out of
a potential arbitration and which institution is most likely to meet those
expectations.
Case study
An arbitral institution
The ICC International Court of Arbitration (ICC Court) was founded in
1923. Its primary role is to oversee the work of individual arbitration
tribunals (referred to as Arbitral Tribunals) that hear disputes pursuant
to the rules of procedure of the ICC. There have been over 14 000 arbitrations conducted by arbitration tribunals under ICC procedures since
its foundation. There are three important bodies which make up the ICC
court system. First, there are the national committees. Then, there is the
217
218
court itself, the ICC Court. Finally, there is a secretariat which is a full-time
body located in Paris that provides services to the court and arbitrators.
While the ICC is headquartered in Paris, it has branches in over
90 countries of the world making it a truly international organisation.
These national committees elect representatives to the governing body
of the ICC, the World Council. In addition, the national committees nominate persons to be members of the ICC Court. They are then formally
approved by the World Council. In 2005, there were some 124 members
of the court coming from 86 countries.10
The ICC Court is not a court in the usual sense in which that word is
used but an administrative body consisting of a chairperson, several vicechairpersons and representatives from each of the national committees.
The court performs an important supervisory role in ICC arbitrations as
will become clear in the discussion later in this chapter. To carry this out
effectively, it delegates much of the work to three member committees
that meet several times a month to deal with matters that are referred
to the court and that are delegated to the particular committee by the
court. The court has its own internal rules of procedure for the delegation of these functions to committees including the number of members
on the committee and the types of decisions that can be made. Members
of the court are all legal professionals. To preserve the independence of
the court, they are not permitted to serve as arbitrators on any ICC
arbitration. They also receive no remuneration from the ICC or national
committees for their work and they must also be independent of the
national committees.
The ICC Secretariat plays an important role in the day-to-day administration of arbitrations. It is the secretariat that receives the request
for arbitration and deals with the forwarding of documents and
files to the court and to arbitration panels that are dealing with
each particular case. The secretariat has a full-time staff of over
50 persons.11
The ICC Court publishes statistics of arbitrations each year. The number of cases filed with the court each year has increased steadily over the
past two decades, from around 250 per year during the 1980s to over
550 per year every year since 2000. The truly international nature of the
court is evidenced by statistics for 200612 which show that the parties in
10
11
12
See Y. Derains and E. Schwartz, A Guide to the ICC Rules of Arbitration, Kluwer Law, Netherlands,
2005, p. 12.
Ibid., p. 25.
See 2006 Statistical Report (2007) 1 ICC International Court of Arbitration Bulletin 516.
the 593 new cases filed in that year came from 125 separate countries.
European parties accounted for 53% of the total followed by 25% from
the Americas and 17% from Asia.13 Nearly 50% of the cases involved
amounts between US$1 million and US$50 million.14
The following discussion will illustrate the arbitration process by using the
ICC Court procedure as an example.
C O M M E N C I N G A N A R B I T R AT I O N
Arbitration before the ICC Court is commenced by the person wanting
the arbitration (the claimant) making a formal request for arbitration to
the ICC Secretariat. There are designated matters as to what the request
must contain. The secretariat then sends a copy of the request to the other
party (the respondent). There are prescribed means by which notices have
to be sent. The respondent then files an answer to the request with the
secretariat.
If the respondent simply ignores the request, the matter goes to the ICC
Court to decide if there is in fact an agreement to arbitrate. If so, then it
can decide that the arbitration should proceed regardless of the failure of
the respondent to respond to the request for arbitration by the claimant.
A P P O I N T M E N T O F T H E A R B I T R AT O R S
The court itself supervises the process of appointment of arbitrators. One
of the advantages of the ICC arbitration process is that arbitrations can
be conducted in almost any location throughout the world and arbitrators
appointed from almost anywhere in the world. In 2006, 949 arbitrators
were appointed. Of these, 689 were appointed by the parties and 239
by the court. Arbitrators came from 71 different countries in 2006, with
nearly 60% coming from EU member countries including Switzerland. The
types of cases were wide-ranging. For example, 25% were sale and purchase
agreements; 17% were cases related to business structure (joint ventures,
share transfers and others); and 8% were intellectual property cases.15
The court will appoint only one arbitrator unless the parties have
requested a panel of three. In about 45% of arbitral appointments in
2006, a sole arbitrator was appointed. The remainder were panels of three
13
14
15
Ibid., pp. 67.

Ibid, p. 14.
Ibid., p. 11.
219
220
arbitrators. Approximately three-quarters of sole arbitrators were appointed

by the court after consultation with the relevant national committee. In
three-party panels, over 95% of co-arbitrators were nominated by the
parties themselves while the chairperson of the Arbitral Tribunal was nominated by the co-arbitrators approximately 57% of the time, appointed by
the court 34% of the time and nominated by the parties themselves in
less than 5% of cases.16 This shows that while the parties readily agree to
appoint one member of the panel each, it requires the intervention of the
court or the other two arbitrators to select the chairperson.
In 2006, there were only 27 cases where an arbitrator nominated by
a party was not confirmed by the court.17 Further, there were only 18
cases where the appointment of an arbitrator was challenged and only
two of these were successful.18 The decision of the court will be final on
matters of appointment of arbitrators, challenges to a particular arbitrator
or replacement of an arbitrator. In appointing arbitrators, the court takes
into account the nationality of the parties, the residence of the parties
and the place where the parties might have nominated for the conduct
of the arbitration. The court can draw on the extensive resources of the
national committees of arbitration and their lists of arbitrators to decide
an appropriate panel or single arbitrator, as the case may be. Where there
is to be a single arbitrator, that person will usually come from a country
other than the country of nationality of the parties. This also applies to
the chairperson of the panel. The court also decides on the place where the
arbitration will occur if the parties have not come to an agreement on this.
P R E L I M I N A RY S T E P S
After appointment issues are settled, the secretariat transmits the file containing the request and answer and other documents to the Arbitral Tribunal. The Arbitral Tribunal can conduct a hearing at any location provided that the parties agree otherwise, it will take place in the location
nominated by the court. The tribunal will also determine the language
of the hearing in the absence of agreement between the parties. Similarly,
the tribunal will also decide which law will apply to the dispute before
it if the parties have not chosen the law of the agreement. In an overwhelming 87% of cases in 2006, parties to the relevant contracts had a
16
17
18
Ibid., p. 9.
Ibid., p. 8.
Ibid., p. 9.
choice of law clause in their agreement,19 and in 86% of cases, the parties
themselves decided where their arbitration would be conducted,20 thereby
avoiding the complexities referred to above regarding choice of jurisdiction
in litigation matters.
The Arbitral Tribunal (single member or panel) may initially be called
upon to decide if it has jurisdiction to hear the case should the respondent
object to the jurisdiction of the ICC. The tribunal has the power to rule
on whether it has jurisdiction. If the respondent claims that there is no
agreement to arbitrate, the ICC Court has the power to decide if, prima
facie, there is such an agreement. It is then up to the tribunal to decide on
its jurisdiction. If, however, the ICC Court comes to the conclusion that
there is no agreement to arbitrate, it notifies the parties that the arbitration
cannot proceed. There is a provision that such a decision by the ICC Court
can be referred to any court having jurisdiction. This would usually be the
courts of the country where the arbitration is being conducted.
The Arbitral Tribunal is then required to draw up the terms of reference
for the arbitration. These must contain a number of specified matters and
must be signed by the parties. This is a useful procedure because it makes
it difficult for a party to argue later that some issues were not covered if
they have already signed the terms of reference.
In consultation with the parties, the tribunal draws up a timetable for
the conduct of the proceedings and the dates by which the various steps
should occur. The tribunal also notifies the ICC Court of this timetable.
E S TA B L I S H I N G T H E FA C T S A N D
THE HEARING
The Arbitral Tribunal then sets about establishing the facts. It is frequently
the case that much of the evidence that the tribunal will consider in making
its decision is in documentary form including the original submission of
the parties. The tribunal will also hear from the parties if they so request. In
addition, the rules of the ICC provide for the summoning of witnesses by
the tribunal and hearing the experts appointed by the parties. The tribunal
can summon its own experts after consultation with the parties.
There is no requirement for a formal hearing unless one of the parties
requests it. The parties are entitled to legal representation. The tribunal
itself decides at what point the hearing is concluded.
19
20
Ibid., p. 11.
Ibid., p. 12.
221
222
T H E AWA R D A N D C O S T S
The tribunal must give a decision (an award) within six months of the
conclusion of the hearing. The ICC Court can extend this time limit
if need be. The tribunal is also empowered to give a consent award if
the parties reach a settlement during the proceedings. The award is only
available to the parties thus preserving the confidentiality of the dispute.
Awards are published in very few cases and then only with the consent of
the parties.
The court must approve each award and is active in its role in ensuring
that awards are rendered in a form that minimises the risk of challenge in
a court of law. The court is very active in fulfilling this part of its work. In
2006, the court approved 293 awards but in only 45 of these did it make
no comments about either the substance of the award or the form of it.21
One of the major disadvantages with arbitral proceedings are the costs
involved. Unlike court proceedings, the arbitrators fees will have to be met
by the parties. Arbitrators are highly skilled professionals in their various
fields and accordingly their time is very expensive. The claimant is required
to give security for any costs of the arbitration before it commences. Further,
after the terms of reference are drawn up, an advance of costs is payable by
each party.
The award itself will usually contain a decision as to how the total costs
of the arbitration will be borne between the parties. These costs can be
reviewed and fixed by the court of international arbitration if need be.
ENFORCEMENT
One of the advantages of international arbitration is that there is an international convention signed by most countries of the world pursuant to
which countries agree to enforce arbitral awards from other member countries arbitral institutions. This is the Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 1958 (New York Convention).
All of the EU member states are signatories to this convention. Thus, an
award against a party from the EU can be enforced by the courts in the
relevant EU country. There are limited grounds that a court can refuse to
enforce an award under the convention. These include an invalid arbitration agreement under the law of the country where the arbitration took
place; insufficient notice or inability of the losing party to present their
case; the award was outside of the proper scope of the arbitration; the
21
Ibid., p. 13.
arbitration was not conducted in accordance with the rules; the award
is not binding on the parties; the subject matter is not capable of being
subjected to arbitration; or it is against public policy to enforce the award.
It can be argued that the degree of supervision that the ICC Court exercises over the arbitration process should minimise the possibility of a party
using many of these grounds in an attempt to block enforcement of the
award.
M E D I AT I O N O F I N T E R N AT I O N A L
COMMERCIAL DISPUTES
Mediation involves a neutral third party attempting to find a compromise
between parties who are in dispute. Due to the high costs of arbitration and
procedural and other difficulties with litigation, mediation is increasingly
a first option employed by parties in an attempt to negotiate a compromise. Most European countries have institutions that provide mediation
services.22 The ICC also provides conciliation and mediation services in
addition to its more well-known arbitration service.
As with arbitration, each mediation body has its own set of rules of
procedure. However, these tend to be fairly short given the flexible and
more informal nature of mediation. The United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) has adopted the Model Law on
International Commercial Conciliation 200223 which states may adopt to
govern conciliation in international commercial matters.
In addition, in order to encourage confidence in mediation as a viable
method for dispute resolution, most institutions require their mediators
to abide by a code of conduct. There is a standard European code, the
European Code of Conduct for Mediators.24 Some institutions also have
their own codes. In terms of formal regulation of mediation, there is an EUlevel directive (the mediation directive)25 requiring member states to take
a number of steps that will promote the use of mediation as an accepted
method for resolving international commercial disputes. The extensive
preamble to the directive makes it clear that the European institutions
consider mediation to be an effective and a relatively inexpensive method
for dispute resolution.
22
23
24
25
For a list see <http://www.hg.org/arbitration-mediation-associations-europe.html>.

At <http://www.uncitral.org/pdf/english/texts/arbitration/ml-conc/ml-conc-e.pdf >.
At <http://ec.europa.eu/civiljustice/adr/adr ec code conduct en.pdf >.
Directive 2008/52/EC [2008] OJ L136/3.
223
224
r
r
r
r
r
There are a number of issues that arise in mediation. These are:

commencing a mediation and selecting a mediator
procedure that the mediator adopts pre-hearing
the mediation hearing
the settlement agreement and its enforcement
costs.
C O M M E N C I N G A M E D I AT I O N
There are a number of reasons why parties to a commercial dispute might

attempt to resolve the matter through mediation. There may be a provision
in their agreement that requires mediation as a first step in the resolution
of disputes. Alternatively, while they may have an arbitration clause in
their agreement, they may have looked at the arbitration alternative and
decided that mediation might be a more cost-effective way of dealing
with the matter as a first option. They may have been recommended to
use mediation by their legal advisers. If court proceedings have begun,
it is possible that the court might have ordered the parties to undergo
mediation before proceeding further or the parties themselves might have
decided to try mediation rather than continuing down the litigation route.
In these cases, court proceedings are stayed to await the outcome of
mediation. If it is unsuccessful, then the parties will resume their court
action.
The first step in mediation is to decide which institution will be most
appropriate if this has not been provided for in the parties contract. As
noted, there are many available institutions and, as with arbitration, much
will depend on the convenience of the parties as well as the reputation,
rules of procedure and costs of the institution chosen.
Case study
A mediation institution
The London-based Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution (CEDR) was
established in 1990 with the support of the British Chamber of Commerce and Industry, law firms and public bodies. Its work involves not
only assisting parties in actual meditations but also training of mediators and helping resolve other conflicts within society. The branch of
the organisation that is involved in commercial mediations is known as
CEDR Solve.26 It has its own set of procedural rules for the conduct
of mediations, a draft agreement that parties enter into prior to commencing mediation and a code of conduct that all mediators must abide
by as well as draft dispute resolution clauses that can be included in a
commercial contract.
CEDR Solve has a team of administrative staff who are available for
consultation by parties contemplating mediation. The staff are able to
assist the parties to find a suitable mediator. They note on their website
that they have access to over 3000 mediators with 50 mediators readily
available for appointments to discuss mediation possibilities. As is the
case with arbitration, the mediators are not employees of CEDR Solve
but are independent persons who have trained as mediators and most
often specialise in dealing with a specific class of dispute. They are also
able to draw on a group of eminent persons predominantly retired
senior judges to deal with high-profile disputes.
The range of disputes that CEDR Solve deals with is apparent from
an examination of the case studies reported by two CEDR mediators in
a general work on mediation.27 Some examples include cases dealing
with construction, energy projects, financial services, franchises, insurance, intellectual property, international trade and distribution arrangements, joint ventures, shipping, professional services, supply of goods
and telecommunications. The amounts involved range from as little
as US$250 000 to over US$400 million. Frequently, several million dollars is involved in the dispute between the parties, thereby belying the
view that mediation is only suitable when the amount involved is small.
CEDR Solve reports a settlement rate of 7580% in mediations conducted
through the organisation.28
The following discussion uses the CEDR procedure to illustrate how the
mediation process works in practice.
T H E M E D I AT I O N P R O C E S S U P T O T H E
M E D I AT I O N H E A R I N G
Once the parties have agreed on a suitable mediator taking into account
the mediators expertise, the nature of the matter and what is at stake,
26
27
28
See <http://www.cedr.com/CEDR Solve/>.

E. Carroll and K. Mackie, International Mediation: The Art of Business Diplomacy, 2nd edn., Kluwer
Law International, Netherlands, 2006.
See http://www.cedr.com/CEDR Solve>.
225
226
then the mediator will contact the parties with a draft mediation
agreement. The CEDR Solve draft agreement will typically contain clauses
setting out the following:
r the names of the parties and of the mediator
r a brief description of the dispute
r a short statement indicating the parties assent to mediation as an
attempt to settle the matter
r that the person signing on behalf of each party has authority from their
organisation to bind the organisation
r that the mediator is independent of the parties
r that the mediation proceedings are to be kept confidential including not
only communications during the mediation process but any settlement
agreement
r that no outcome of the mediation is binding until a settlement agreement has been signed
r that any question regarding the validity of the settlement agreement is
to be decided by English courts
r that the parties do not relinquish their rights to resort to litigation if the
mediation fails29
r that the parties agree not to call the mediator as witness in any
court proceedings should the mediation fail and the parties resort to
litigation30
r that the mediators and CEDR Solve will not accept any legal liability
for any matter concerning the mediation and its proceedings.
The parties will be required to sign this agreement at the commencement
of the mediation hearing.
After the agreement is finalised, the mediator will then contact the parties
to organise a suitable date and venue for the actual mediation hearing. It
is usual in CEDR Solve mediations for there to be a lead time during
which the parties will prepare a short summary of their case and gather
relevant documents prior to there being an actual mediation hearing. The
mediator will also need to become familiar with the parties cases and may
hold preliminary discussions with each of them. The mediator may reveal
the parties case summaries and documents to the other side provided they
consent to this. The lead time will vary according to the nature of the
matter and the convenience of the parties as well as of the mediator. A
29
30
Article 8 of the mediation directive requires member states to provide that parties who use mediation
should not be prevented from taking court proceedings if the mediation fails.
Article 7 of the mediation directive requires member states to exempt mediators from being called
as a witness if litigation ensues.
review of the case studies mentioned earlier suggests that the lead time can
vary from a few weeks to several months with a common lead time being
around two to four months.
T H E M E D I AT I O N H E A R I N G
The mediation hearing will typically take place over one or two days.
It is important that the parties each send along a representative who is
adequately prepared, is able to negotiate on their behalf, will stay for the
entire length of the hearing and is authorised to enter into any settlement
agreement. Experienced mediators have noted that the failure of the parties
to do this is a frequent cause of the failure of mediation.31
At the hearing, the parties must sign the mediation agreement that was
forwarded to them at the commencement of the process. The mediator
is then likely to talk to the parties separately, at first, and then hold a
joint meeting. They may then hold more separate and joint meetings in
an attempt to see if a compromise is possible. During the whole process,
including the hearing and the lead-up to it, the mediator will be bound by
the CEDR Solve Code of Conduct for Mediators.32
The code requires mediators to act fairly, independently and impartially.
They must disclose any possible conflict of interest that they may have
including a prior business relationship with one of the parties, a financial
interest in the outcome, or if they have prior confidential information
about one of the parties. The mediator must withdraw if requested to
do so by one of the parties because of an alleged breach of the code of
conduct. Alternatively, the mediator themselves can decide to withdraw if
the parties act in breach of the mediation agreement or act unconscionably
or if the mediator forms the view that a settlement is not going to be
possible. There is a provision in the code that requires a mediator not to
unnecessarily prolong the mediation process, thereby making it incumbent
upon the mediator to end the mediation if it is apparent a settlement will
not be able to be agreed upon.
31
32
Carroll and Mackie, op. cit., p. 63.

The mediation directive requires member states to ensure that mediators are bound by codes of
conduct. This directive must be implemented in the UK and, accordingly, CEDR Solve will have
to abide by any provisions that affect its work. Having a code of conduct already in place means
the CEDR already complies with this aspect of the directive.
227
228
THE SETTLEMENT AGREEMENT AND

ITS ENFORCEMENT
It is usual for the legal advisers for each party to draw up the terms of
the agreed settlement for the parties to sign. If the matter is already the
subject of court proceedings, it may be necessary to draw this up in a form
required by the court where the proceedings have been stayed awaiting
the outcome of the mediation. The court will then formally sanction the
agreement entered into by the parties.
Mediation is often criticised because of the problem of enforcement.
Despite this, some argue that because the parties have themselves arrived at
a resolution of their problems, then they are not likely to later attempt to
resile from their agreement. However, enforcement is enough of a concern
for the EU mediation directive33 to require EU member states to ensure
that there are mechanisms in place whereby if one party to a mediation
requests that the settlement agreement be made enforceable, then they
should be able to have it formally sanctioned by a court and presumably
subject to the same enforcement action as any other court judgements.
As noted, if litigation is already in train then it will be necessary for the
parties to obtain the courts sanction for any agreement to settle. This
provision extends to any settlement at all from a mediation that a party to
the mediation wants sanctioned by the court.
COSTS
The CEDR Solve Code of Conduct for mediators requires mediators to
notify the parties of the costs of mediation at the outset. The parties will
generally share the cost of the mediation equally. However, costs appear
to be reasonable. A review of the case studies mentioned earlier reveals
that the costs do not depend on the amount involved. Mediation costs
in a US$314 million claim only amounted to some US$10 000 and in
a US$460 million claim to only US$8000. On the other hand, smaller
claims can be equally as expensive depending on the amount of time that
the mediator is required to put into the matter. However, these figures do
not include each partys lawyers fees.
33
Article 6.
Index
Accodim Sarl v Establissements Rabaud [1992]

ECC 82 125
accreditation 702
hormone growth promotants (HGPs) 71
acquisitions 175, 1912
applicability of company law 192
community dimension 191
and competition law 192
and EU competition law 191
European Commission sanctions of 191
and individual country laws 1912
subject to specific licensing 192
advertising 122, 1712
bait advertising 171
and franchisees 164
unsubstantiated claims 172
advertorials 1712
after-sales service, language of 171
agency (EU representation) 108
advertising and promotion obligations 122
agents basic obligations 118
applicable law 1289
appointing an agent 11529
characteristic of genuine agency
agreements 130
characteristics of a commercial agent 116
Commercial Agency Directive 109, 11529
commission 11921
compensation for termination 1268
confidentiality 122
delegation 123
dispute resolution 129
distribution relationships versus
agency 1313
duration of the agency agreement 123
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints 1301
indemnity 126
legal cases concerning definition of

commercial agents 11617
no competition 1223
parties to the agreement 11517
principals basic obligations 11819
reporting requirements 1212
restraint of trade and agency termination
128
and sales 108
termination of the agency agreement 1238
territory and products 119
aggressive practices 170
aggressive marketing strategies 172
agreements
anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard
measures 836
bilateral agreements 867, 216
choice of jurisdiction and choice of forum
clauses 21012
choice of law clauses 21516
customs cooperation agreements 87
distribution agreements 13141
distribution relationships (EU
representation) 1089
European Economic Area agreement 88
free trade agreements 4, 86, 87, 89
hardcore restrictions (agreements) 1389,
1623
international agreements 1011
multilateral agreements 86, 889,
110
mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) 74,
778, 87
preferential arrangements 86, 90
Schengen Agreement 13
settlement agreement and enforcement 13
vertical agreements 12930
see also EU representation
229
230
INDEX
agricultural products 6872
and food safety standards 6970
air transport 479, 99
Montreal Convention 489
Allium SA v Alfin Incorporated [2001] ECC
35 1289
AMB Imballagi Plastici v Pacflex Limited [2003]
ECC 117
anti-dumping 834, 86
imposition of anti-dumping duties 856
investigations into 845
statistics 845
AQIS
see Australian Quarantine and Inspection
Service
arbitral institutions 21719
case study 21719
Arbitral Tribunal 2201
arbitration 2089, 223
international arbitration 21623
statistics regarding arbitrator
appointment 21920
terms of reference 221
assets 189
ATA Carnet system 68
Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS) 702
bait advertising 171
banks
issue of letters of credit 934
and payment against documents 979
and reimbursement of letters of credit 95
rejection of letters of credit 957
Bartercard network [case study] 147
bilateral agreements 867, 216
bill of lading 39, 427, 57
combined transport bill of lading 40
FIATA bill of lading 46
forwarders bill of lading 40
Blanc Canet v Europecar [2005] ECC 34 116
block exemption regulation 12931, 1345
hardcore restrictions 1389, 1623
and market share 1378
board of directors 180
branch (company) 174, 1848
accounts 186
case study 1868
disclosure 1856
procedural requirements 1845
Brussels Regulation (44/2001/EEC) 212
Budapest Convention on the Carriage of Goods
by Inland Waterways (CMNI
Convention) 568
features 578
similarities with CIM Rules and CMR

Convention 57
bulk freight 39
business
and central freedoms 24, 63
dispute resolution in international business
transactions 20828
establishing a permanent presence in the
EU 173207
EU laws affecting the international
businessperson 1020
European Commission and advantage to local
businesses 1778
existing businesses acquisitions and
mergers 175, 1912
freedom of establishment of business
presence 2, 3, 12
incentives to establish 175
licences and permits 199202
service oriented businesses 200
see also contracts; international business
business licence 175, 199202
C88
see Single Administrative Document
capital
freedom of movement 23, 12, 63, 80
and private limited companies 17980
and public companies 18890
registration process and capital of a European
Company 193
capital directive 18890
carriers
and claims against 56
liability for loss or damage to goods 40,
457, 49, 51, 52, 55, 58, 59
Cassis de Dijon case 79
CE marking system (Conformite
Europienne) 736
case study recreational craft (CE marking
example) 746
CEDR
see Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution
CEDR Solve Code of Conduct 227,
228
Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution
(CEDR) 2247
certificates of origin (goods) 90
choice of jurisdiction and choice of forum
clauses 21012
choice of law clause 21516
CIM Rules
see Uniform Rules for the International
Carriage of Goods by Rail
CISG
see Convention on the International Sale of
Goods of 1980
INDEX
civil law 21314
CMNI Convention
see Budapest Convention on the Carriage of
Goods by Inland Waterways
CMR Convention 502
CIM Rules versus CMR Convention 536
Code of Ethics (franchising) 1634
combined transport bill of lading 40
Commercial Agency Directive (Directive
86/653/EEC) 109, 11518
advertising and promotion obligations 122
agents basic obligations 118
Articles 1 and 2 characteristics of a
commercial agent 116
Article 4 principals basic
obligations 11819
Article 6 11920
Article 7 120
Articles 8 and 9 120
Articles 10 and 11 89
Article 12 121
Article 15 period of notice 124
Article 16 breach 124
Article 17(3) 1267
Articles 17 and 18 termination 126, 128
Article 19 128
Article 20 128
commission (Articles 612) 11921
compensation for agency termination
1268
confidentiality 122
delegation 123
duration of the agency agreement 123
indemnity 126
legal cases concerning breaches leading to
termination 1246
legal cases concerning definition of
commercial agents 11617
legal cases concerning non-application of the
Commercial Agency Directive 1289
minimum sales target 121
no competition 1223
reporting requirements 1212
128
termination of the agency agreement 1236
territory and products 119
commission 11921
commissioners 8
Committee of the Regions 4, 9
opinions, provision of 9
Common Customs Tariff 88
common law 21314
Community Designs Regulation 157
community trade mark 151
Community Trade Mark Bulletin 153
Community Trade Mark Regulation

153
community transit 67
companies
board of directors 180
branch structure 1845, 188
business licence 175
contracts and identity of the parties 223
establishing a branch of a parent
company 174, 1848
European Company 1745, 1936
incorporation 1803
private limited companies 1734, 17980,
1814, 1969
public companies 174, 18890
service companies 185
shelf companies 180
company law
applicability of 192
minimum requirements and obligations of
private limited companies 180
company-owned outlets (franchise) 1467
compensation 1268
see also indemnity
competition 11011, 13940
agents and no competition 1223
competitive and segmented markets 115
EC Treaty Article 81 restriction of
competition 129
non-compete arrangements 13940
and vertical agreements 12930
competition law
and agency agreements 12931
EU competition law 13341, 1613,
191
mergers and acquisitions 192
vertical agreements and block exemption
regulation 12931
confidentiality 122
confidential information and franchise
agreements 160
consignment notes 502, 545, 57
containers 412, 44
contract of charter 39
contracts
choice of jurisdiction and of forum
clauses 21012
and clauses nominating dispute resolution
option 208
contract of charter 39
description of goods 236
forward exchange contracts 106
franchise arrangements and pre-contract
disclosure 15961
identity of the parties 223
inspection of goods 302
231
232
INDEX
contracts (cont.)
law that will apply to the contract 334
modifications to contracts of carriage 55
obligations if unforeseen events make
performance impossible 33
price and method of payment 32
retention of title in the goods by the seller
until paid 32
and sale of goods to an EU buyer 2134
terms and conditions 212
time and place for delivery of goods 267
transport of goods 2730
type of dispute resolution mechanism 34
Convention on International Carriage of Goods
by Rail (COTIF) 53
Convention on the International Sale of Goods
of 1980 (CISG) 235, 26, 302, 334, 51
Article 6 32
Article 33 26
Article 35 245
Article 38(1) 301
Article 39 31
Article 55 32
Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards
1958 (New York Convention) 222
Convention on Service Abroad of Judicial and
Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or
Commercial Matters 1965 (Hague
Convention) 213
Convention on the Taking of Evidence Abroad
in Civil and Commercial Matters
1970 21415
Cooper v Pure Fishing (UK) Limited [2005] ECC
6 1256
COTIF
see Convention on International Carriage of
Goods by Rail
Council of the European Union 4, 67
countervailing 836
Court of Auditors 12
court proceedings 21314
CPC
see customs procedure code
credit risk insurance 92, 95, 99
case study 1014
excess 1001
level of protection 103
currency
conversion 189
currency fluctuations against the euro 1056
currency hedging techniques 1067
the euro 1056
customs agent 635, 83
and temporary importation relief from
duty 67
customs cooperation agreements 87

Customs Handling of Import and Export
Freight (CHIEF) system 66
customs law 6290
measures 836
EU customs entry procedure 638
EU-wide restrictions on entry of
goods 6876
individual country restrictions on the import
of goods 7683
UK customs procedures 66
World Customs Organization (WCO)
62
customs procedure code (CPC) 65
decisions 17
designs
applications by professional
representatives 158
Community Designs Regulation 157
individual character registration
requirement 157
infringement 159
novelty registration requirement 158
protection 1579
registration procedure 158
direct franchising 1456
Directive 77/91/EEC
see capital directive
Directive 86/653/EEC
see Commercial Agency Directive
Directive 2006/68/EEC 189
directives 17, 1834
capital directive 18890
disclosure directive 23, 1834
mediation directive 15, 17, 1819
see also Commercial Agency Directive
disclosure
and branches 1856
disclosure laws 15960, 161, 1834
disclosure directive 23, 1834
discrimination (against imports) 79
dispute resolution 129, 132
arbitration 2089
Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution
(CEDR) 2247
and contracts for sale of goods 34
in international business transactions
20828
see also litigation; mediation
distribution agreements 13141
benefits to restrictive agreements 136
clauses limiting territory 1312
effect of EU competition law 13541
and hardcore restrictions 1389
INDEX
and non-compete arrangements 13940
territorial restrictions 1389
distribution relationships (EU
representation) 1089
case study distributors 11215
common restrictive distribution
arrangements 1345
distribution relationships versus
agency 1313
financial and management commitment
114
financial strength and logistics capability of
distributors 111
need for a successful distributor 11213
open account transactions 100
and sales 1089
selective distribution 1345, 137, 162
documentary collection 979
Doha trade agenda 89
door-to-door transport 40
options for the exporter 40
see also freight forwarders
DSR Senator Agency v Maritime Union Sud Oest
[2003] ECC 27 126
duty 66
EC Declaration of Compliance 73
EC Treaty 12, 3, 5, 7, 1112, 1317, 77,
175
amendments/changes to 5, 14
Article 28 and selling arrangements
80
Article 30 and restrictions on imports
801
Article 43 1767
Article 81 129, 131, 1358
Article 82 1401
Article 87 2023
enforcement of the right to
establishment 1778
and regulations 1317
restrictions on goods from other member
states 78
right of establishment provision
(freedom) 1768
role of ECJ in treaty provision
interpretation 10
and state aid 2023
ECB
see European Central Bank
ECJ
see European Court of Justice
economic behaviour (distortion of ) 170
Economic and Social Committee 4, 9
law making role 9
opinions provision of 9
employee participation directive 194

enactment (legislation) 1415, 1617
EPC
see European Patent Convention
EPO
see European Patent Office
establishment (of business presence/service
provision) 2, 3, 12
ethics 1634
EU
see European Union
EU competition law 13341, 1613, 191
common restrictive distribution
arrangements 1345
effect on distribution agreements 13541
EU Product Liability Directive 133, 134, 1689
EU representatives 10841
agents 108
business capability of 111
and competitiveness 11011
distributors 108
exporters and market research 110
financial strength and logistics capability
of 111
provision of logistical advice and
assistance 110
reasons for appointment for the EU
market 10911
reputation of 111
selection of 11115
EU Treaty 1213
aspects 13
Article 25 and taxes and charges 812
Article 90 and taxes 823
common foreign policy position 13
right of establishment and persons outside the
EU 178
EU Unfair Commercial Practices
Directive 16972
aggressive practices 170, 172
black list of practices 16972
criteria to identify unfair practices
1701
material distortion of economic
behaviour 170
misleading practices 16970
professional diligence 170
EU Vendor Declaration 71
euro 1056
currency fluctuations against 1056
Europa website 70, 177
anti-subsidy and safeguard measures
84
and bilateral agreements 86
European Central Bank (ECB) 12
European Code of Conduct for Mediators
223
233
234
INDEX
European Commission (the Commission) 4,
89
and advantage to local businesses 1778
and anti-dumping complaints 84
case study the mediation directive 1819
and decisions 17
enforcement of the right to establishment by
IP 1778
and European Court of Justice 89
and harmonised rules 77
and internal transport diversification 378
law making role 8
and legislative procedure 14
minimum standards 81
opinions, recommendations and
guidelines 18
policing state aid 2035
relevant market definition 1378
sanctions of mergers and acquisitions 191
and state aid exemptions 2025
and vehicle inspections 177
European Company (Societas
Europeanas) 1745, 1936
employee participation 194
and EU directives 194
European Private Company 1969
governance organs of 1934
registration process and capital 193
statistics 195
and taxation 1956
uptake of the European Company
concept 195
European Company Statute 1935
European Council 46
European Court of Justice (ECJ) 4, 810, 13,
1778
measures restricting imports 789
role of 10
upholding principle of mutual recognition of
standards 80
European Economic Area agreement 88
European Food Safety Authority 70
European Franchise Federation 163
European Parliament 4, 78
and the formation of European Private
Company (SPE) statute 1969
oversight of the European Commission 9
SPE statute recommendations 1978
voting 78
European Patent Convention (EPC) 154
European Patent Office (EPO) 155
national phase of patent application 157
European Private Company (SPE)
statute 1969
European Parliament
recommendations 1978
scope 1967
European Railway Agency 38
European Union (EU)
measures 836
barriers to imports of goods from other EU
member states 7881
case study exporting beef to the EU 702
CE marking system (Conformite Europienne)
for manufactured goods 736
competition law and distribution
agreements 13341
currency of 1056
customs entry procedure 638
customs law and procedure 6290
directive on single member companies 184
dispute resolution and EU firms 20828
establishing a branch of a parent
company 174
establishing a permanent presence
in 173207
EU Treaty 1213, 813
Directive 16972
EU-wide restrictions on entry of
goods 6876
European Company (Societas
Europeanas) 1745
existing businesses acquisitions and
mergers 175, 1912
and free trade agreements 4, 89
and law making 120
laws 1020
market and franchising
arrangements 14272
membership 2, 4
multilateral free trade agreements
negotiation 89
need for an exporter representative in the
EU 11314
objectives 12
origins 12
persons outside the EU and right of
establishment provision 178
ports 367
power of 1213
private limited companies 1734, 17980,
1814, 1969
Product Liability Directive 1689
and registration of a community trade
mark 151
report on anti-dumping, anti-subsidy and
safeguard measures 834
INDEX
role in law making 410
sales and EU representatives 10841
standards for categories of manufactured
goods 73
state aid to industry 2025, 2067
Trade Mark courts 153
transport systems 3643
and treaties 12
evidence 21415
Convention on the Taking of Evidence
Abroad in Civil and Commercial Matters
1970 21415
Exbanor SA v Patrigeon [2005] ECC 35 128
exclusive customer allocation 137
exclusive distribution arrangements 162
exclusive distributorship 134, 137
exclusive supply arrangement 135
export
Australias beef quota 72
Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
(AQIS) 702
and buyer default 99
and buyer documentary rejection 99
case study exporting beef to the EU
702
certificates of origin (goods) 90
credit risk insurance issues 1001
EU transport systems 3643
export clearance systems 623
exporter payment methods 91105
exporters and currency hedging
techniques 1067
exporters and letters of credit rejection 957
exporters and market research 110
and factoring firms 1045
food safety standards 6972
foreign exchange risk 1057
freight (to Europe) 27
general valuation statement 66
harmonisation 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 169,
185, 197
778, 87
need for an exporter representative in the
EU 11314
obligations imposed on exporters by
incoterms 267
on-the-ground resources available 102
options for door-to-door transport 40
payment methods survey results 99
and risk 25, 268, 32, 1013
selection of an agent or distributor 11115
Single Administrative Document (C88) 65,
66
T1 procedure 67
(TURN) 64
factoring 1045
advantages and potential problems for the
exporter 1045
Factors Chain International 104
FIATA bill of lading 46
food safety standards 6970
case study exporting beef to the EU 702
see also harmonisation
franchise agreement 160, 163, 1648
intellectual property rights 165
restraint of trade 168
royalties 165, 166
running the business 1656
suppliers and pricing 166
term of the agreement and renewal 167
termination 1678
territory 166
transfer 167
franchise arrangements
aggressive practices 170, 172
and black list of practices 1712
case study franchising into the EU
market 147
and confidential information 160
direct franchising 1456
duty of disclosure 161
entering the EU market via 14272
Directive 16972
European Code of Ethics for
franchising 1634
the franchise agreement 160, 1648
franchise destinations (survey) 143
franchiser and franchisor obligations
164
intellectual property 142, 1509, 1623,
165
joint venture 146
master franchise 1445
matters for consideration prior to
entering 15064
and misleading practices 16970
100% direct company-owned outlets
and 100% indirect ownership 1467
operation of the franchise 16872
pre-contract disclosure 15961
product liability 1689
protection of designs 1579
protection of patent 1547
protection of trade marks 1514
reasons for international expansion
(survey) 1423
registration of 161
235
236
INDEX
franchise arrangements (cont.)
statistics regarding the extent of
franchising 1434
types 1447
Franchising Australia 2008 (survey) 143, 144,
146
freedoms (central) 24, 176
and EC Treaty 12
freight
bulk freight and shipping 39
Customs Handling of Import and Export
Freight (CHIEF) system 66
to Europe 27
freight charges 47
legal issues 3840
and liability 589
rail freight 38, 536
road freight 368, 4953
see also transport
freight forwarder 40, 50, 589
case study transport of goods to the EU
using a freight forwarder 413
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
11
General Agreement for Trade in Services 11
Generalized System of Preferences (GSP)
889
goods
air transport of 479, 99
agricultural products 6872
Budapest Convention on the Carriage of
Goods by Inland Waterways (CMNI
Convention) 568
certificates of origin 90
clearance of goods 623, 67
commodity code 65
and Common Customs Tariff 88
competing products 11011, 13940
consignment notes and examination of
goods 545
contracts for sale of goods to an EU
buyer 2134
Convention on International Carriage of
Goods by Rail (COTIF) 53
Convention on the International Sale of
Goods of 1980 (CISG) 235, 26, 302,
334
description of 236
EU-wide restrictions on entry of 6876
exporter payment methods 91105

identity of the parties contracts 223
of 7683
and incoterms 267
inland waterway transport 569
inspection of goods 302
insurance of 601
international transport of 40
liability of carrier for loss or damage to
goods 40, 49, 51, 52, 55, 589
manufactured goods 736
obligations if unforeseen events make
performance impossible contracts 33
incoterms regarding delivery of
goods 267
packaging requirements 256
payment and risk minimisation 91107
pecuniary barriers to movement of
goods 813
price and method of payment 32
procedure for goods imported on a temporary
basis 678
quantitative and other technical barriers to
imports of goods 7881
rail transport of 38, 536
retention of title in the goods by the seller
until paid 32
road transport of 368, 4952, 53
sales and EU representatives 10841
sea transport of 367, 437
and standards 25, 66
time and place for delivery of 267
transport of 2730, 3543, 61
type of dispute resolution mechanism that
will be used contracts 34
Uniform Rules for the International Carriage
of goods by Rail (CIM Rules) 536
valuation of 656
see also international agreements
GSP
see Generalized System of Preferences
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints 1301, 136,
140, 1612
franchising market share 163
Hague Conference on Private International
Law 212
Hague Convention 213
Hague-Visby Rules 39, 40, 437, 49, 58
Article 3 445
Article 4 456
other provisions 467
hardcore restrictions (agreements) 1389,
1623
INDEX
harmonisation 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 80, 169, 185,
197
Office for the Harmonization for
International Marks (OHIM) 1514
hormone growth promotants (HGPs) 71
ICC
see International Chamber of Commerce
ICC International Court of Arbitration (ICC
Court) 21719
and the Arbitration Tribunal 221
and awards 222
conciliation and mediation services 223
summoning of witnesses 221
supervision over the arbitration process 223
import
acceptance of entry 66
discrimination against 79
EC Treaty Article 30 and restrictions on
imports 801
ECJ measures restricting imports 789
import documents 66
import duty 66
of goods 7683
minimum standards 81
pecuniary barriers 813
procedure for goods imported on a temporary
basis 678
quantitative and other technical barriers to
imports of goods 7881
Single Administrative Document (C88) 65,
66
UK customs procedures 66
valuation of goods 656
value-added tax (VAT) 66
incentives 175, 206, 207
incorporation 1803
incoterms 267
and clearance of goods 623
and insurance 60, 61
incoterms 267
and transport arrangements 39, 40, 41
indemnity 126
see also compensation
industry, state aid 2023, 2045, 2067
infringement proceedings (IP) 1778
Ingmar GB Limited v Eaton Leonard Inc [2002]
ECC 5 127, 129
inland waterway transport 569
Budapest Convention on the Carriage of
Goods by Inland Waterways (CMNI
Convention) 568
Institute Cargo Clauses 601

insurance 601, 1004
credit risk insurance 92, 95, 99, 1004
and incoterms 60, 61
Integrated Tariff of the United Kingdom 65
intellectual property rights (IPRs) 142, 1623,
165
assignment of 1623
registration of 1509
World Intellectual Property
Organization 157
internal transport 368
and the European Commission 378
short sea shipping 378
international arbitration 21623
appointment of arbitrators 21920
the award and costs 222
commencing arbitration 219
enforcement 2223
establishing the facts and the hearing 221
preliminary steps 2201
selection of an arbitral institution 21719
international business
Convention on the International Sale of
Goods of 1980 (CISG) 235, 26, 302,
334
EU laws affecting the international
businessperson 1020
International Chamber of Commerce
(ICC) 267
international conventions (transport) 4359
International Road Transport Union 50
international transport 40
inventions (and patent) 1545
investment incentives 2067
cash incentives 206
labour incentives 207
loans 206
R&D incentives 207
IP
see infringement proceedings
joint venture 146
judges 910
jurisdiction clauses (contracts) 21012
Brussels Regulation (44/2001/EEC) 212
King v Tunnock Limited [2001] ECC 6 127
Laboratoires Arkopharma SA v Gravier [2003]
ECC 33 1245
legislation
basic company statutes 179
civil law 21314
co-decision procedure 1415
common law 21314
237
238
INDEX
legislation (cont.)
competition law 12931
customs law 6290
disclosure laws 15961, 1834
enactment 1415, 1617
EU legislation 1020
interpretive role of ECJ 10
legal and procedural considerations in
forming a private company 17984
legal issues and freight classes 3840
regulatory requirements for establishing
private limited companies 1834
relating to private company
establishment 173
representative role of Economic and Social
Committee 9
role of EU in law making 410
role of European Commission in law
making 8
liability of carrier for loss or damage to
goods 40, 49, 51, 52, 55, 589
see also statutes
letters of credit 917
buyer obligation to pay 97
enforceability of 94
issue by banks 934
procedure 923
rejection of 957
risk 957
statistics 912
variations 94
versus payment against documents 989
liability
of the carrier for loss or damage 457, 49,
51, 52, 55, 58, 59
EU Product Liability Directive 133, 1689
and freight forwarders 589
SPE statute recommendations regarding
liability of directors 197
licences 175, 199202
case study 2002
Lisbon Treaty 56, 8, 9, 12
and legislative enactment 1415, 1617
litigation 34, 208
against parties from EU member
states 20916
choice of law 21516
court procedure in pre-trial and trial
stages 21315
enforcement 216
evidence gathering 21415
initiating proceedings 21012
service of process 21213
Lonsdale v Howard and Hallem [2007] UKHL
32 127
manufactured goods 736

CE marking system (Conformite
Europienne) 736
standards for categories of manufactured
goods 73
market research 110
markets
EU market and franchising
arrangements 14272
franchising market share 163
market share and block exemption
regulation 1378
relevant market definition 1378
representatives for EU market 10911
single market objective 12, 80, 110, 169,
176, 199
single market and restrictions on goods 78
master franchise 1445
mediation 209, 223
case study 2245
CEDR Solve 2257
commencing mediation 2245
costs 228
enforcement 228
frequent cause of mediation failure 227
of international commercial disputes 2238
mediation hearing 227
process 2257
reasons for choosing 224
settlement agreement and enforcement 228
mediation directive 15, 17
case study the mediation directive 1819
Mercantile International Group PLC v Chuan
Soon Huat Industrial Group Limited [2003]
ECC 28 117
mergers 175, 1912
applicability of company law 192
community dimension 191
European Commission sanctions of 191
misleading practices 16970
Model Law on International Commercial
Conciliation 2002 223
Montreal Convention 489
Articles 5 and 7 48
Article 11 489
Article 18 49
multilateral agreements 86, 889, 110
multimodal transport 59
778, 87
Regulations 764/2008 and 765/2008 778,
80
upholding principle of mutual recognition of
standards 80
INDEX
NAFTA
see North American Free Trade Agreement
New York Convention 222
non-compete arrangements 13940
non-compete clauses 162
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) 88
Office for the Harmonization for International
Marks (OHIM) 1514
application for design registration 158
appointing a trade mark representative 152
electronic applications for a trade mark 152
objections to a trade mark 153
priority of applications 152
OHIM
see Office for the Harmonization for
International Marks
open account transactions 1005
factoring 1045
risk 100
ownership 1467, 167
Paris Convention (Article 4) 152, 155
patent
EPO and national phase of patent
application 157
European patent criteria 1545
European patent procedure 155
exclusions from patentability 155
PCT facilitation of patent procedure 1557
protection 1547
registration 154
Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 154
facilitating patent procedure 1557
payment against documents 979
procedure 98
risk 99
survey results 99
versus letters of credit 989
PCT
see Patent Cooperation Treaty
pecuniary barriers (movement of goods)
813
permits 199202
persons (freedom of movement) 2, 3, 12
PIC
see Property Identification Code number
ports (EU) 367
pre-contract disclosure 15961
extent of information disclosure 15960
preferential arrangements 8690
groups 86
pre-payment (of goods) 91
private limited companies 1734, 180
capital and share value 17980
case study 1813

European Private Company 1969
legal and procedural considerations in
forming a private company 17984
regulatory requirements for
establishing 1834
professional diligence 170
Property Identification Code number (PIC) 71
proportionality 13
quota 689
Australias beef quota 72
tariff quota system 689, 76
rail transport 38, 536
Convention on International Carriage of
Goods by Rail (COTIF) 53
European Railway Agency 38
Uniform Rules for the International Carriage
of Goods by Rail (CIM Rules) 536
ratification (treaty) 6, 12
Re an Agreement to Exclude an Agents Right to
Compensation [1992] EEC 238 125
Regulation 1393/2007/EC 213
regulations 1317
direct effect of 1314
directives versus regulations 17
enactment 1417
revolving credit 94
right of establishment provision (of
freedom) 1768
right to national treatment 176
risk
and agency agreements 130
credit risk insurance 92, 95, 99, 1004
for the exporter 25, 268, 32, 1013
goods sales payment and risk
minimisation 91107
Institute Cargo Clauses 601
risk mitigation 1013
risk regarding letters of credit 957
risk regarding open account transactions
100
risk regarding payment against documents
99
road transport 368, 4953
CMR Convention 502
consignment notes 502
International Road Transport Union 50
royalties 165, 166
safeguard measures (imported goods) 836
Scandia Diffusion Sarl v Sopenkorpi [1990] ECC
159 125
239
240
INDEX
sea transport 367, 437
Hague-Visby Rules and bills of lading 437
selective distribution 1345, 137, 162
and hardcore restrictions 139
service companies 185
service of process (Hague Convention) 21213
service oriented businesses 200
Service Regulation (Regulation
1393/2007/EC) 213
shares
and public companies 18990
shareholders meetings 180
shelf companies 180
shipping
and the bill of lading 39
containers 412, 44
Hague-Visby Rules 39, 40, 437, 49, 58
short sea shipping 378
Single Administrative Document (C88) 65, 66
single branding 134, 137
single market policy (EU objective) 12, 110,
169, 176
and European Private Company
proposal 199
promotion of 80
restrictions on goods from other member
states 78
Smith v Reliance Water Control [2004] ECC
38 11617
Societas Europeanas
see European Company
standards, sale of goods to an EU buyer
25
state aid (to industry) 2025, 207
case study incentives 2067
categories and eligibility 2045
and the EC Treaty 2023
exemptions 2025
prohibition of 202
statutes
European Company Statute 1935
European Private Company (SPE)
statute 1969
lodgement 180
subsidiarity 1213
supermarket chains 11213
and financial and management commitment
of distributors 114
transport and production costs 114
tariffs
and agricultural products 6872
commodity code 65
Common Customs Tariff 88
Integrated Tariff of the United Kingdom

65
and international agreements 11
taxation/taxes
and the European Company 1956
and the EU Treaty 813
taxes and charges on goods 813
territorial restrictions (agreements) 1389
TIR Convention
see Transit International Routier Convention
title, retention of 32
T1 (transit) procedure 67
trade
and distribution agreements 1356
Doha trade agenda 89
franchise agreements and restraint of
trade 168
and international agreements 11
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) 88
128
(TURN) 64
United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law (UNCITRAL) 223
trade marks 150, 151
infringement 153
objections to 153
protection by registration 1514
registration refusal 153
unauthorised use of 171
Traders Unique Reference Number (TURN)
64
transferable letter of credit 95
Transit Accompanying Document 67
Transit International Routier Convention (TIR
Convention) 67
transport
air transport 479
case study transport of goods to the EU
using a freight forwarder 413
door-to-door transport 40
EU transport systems 3643
of goods to an EU buyer 3561
and incoterms 267
inland waterway transport 568, 59
and insurance 601
internal transport 368
international conventions 4359
International Road Transport Union
50
international transport 40
multimodal transport 59
INDEX
rail transport 38, 536
road transport 368, 4953
sea transport 367, 437
see also freight
treaty 12
EC Treaty 12, 3, 5, 7, 1112, 1317, 77,
175
EU legislation 1020
EU Treaty 1213, 813
Lisbon Treaty 56, 8, 9, 12, 1415, 1617
Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 154,
1557
ratification (treaty) 6, 12
role of ECJ in Treaty provision
interpretation 10
Treaty Establishing the European Community
see EC Treaty
Treaty on the European Union
see EU Treaty
TURN
see Traders Unique Reference Number
type examination certificate 75
UCP 600 934
and dishonour of letters of credit
97
and electronic document submission
97
UNCITRAL
see United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law
Uniform Customs and Practices for
Documentary Credits 93
Uniform Rules for Collections 99
Uniform Rules for the International Carriage of
Goods by Rail (CIM Rules) 536
CIM Rules versus CMR Convention 536
United Nations Commission on International

Trade Law (UNCITRAL) 223
valuation 656
vehicle inspections 177
vertical agreements 12930, 162
and block exemption regulation 12931
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints 1301
vertical restraints 1612
voting 78
majority voting and legislative procedure 15,
16
WCO
see World Customs Organization
wholly owned subsidiary (franchise)
1467
WIPO
see World Intellectual Property Organization
works council 180
World Customs Organization (WCO) 62
commodity code 65
World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) 157
PCT procedure 157
World Trade Organization (WTO)
administration of international
agreements 11
measures 836
Generalized System of Preferences
(GSP) 889
WTO
see World Trade Organization
241

International Trade Law

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Trade Law

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Trade Law

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What topics does the book cover regarding international business transactions with the EU?

What topics does the book cover regarding international business transactions with the EU?

What case studies does the book use and for what purpose?

What case studies does the book use and for what purpose?

This page intentionally left blank

European Union Law for

direct export transactions to the EU

European Union Law

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

List of figures and tables

Chapter 1: EU institutions and law making

EU institutions and their role in law making

Chapter 2: Contracts for the sale of goods to an EU buyer

The identity of the parties

Time and place for delivery

Retention of title in the goods by the seller until paid

The law that will apply to the contract

International conventions governing air transport of goods

International conventions governing road transport of goods

International conventions governing rail transport of goods

Individual country restrictions on the import of goods

Chapter 5: Payment and risk management in

Foreign exchange risk

Chapter 6: Sales to the EU using an EU representative

Chapter 7: Entering the EU market via franchising

Types of franchise arrangements

Chapter 8: Establishing a permanent presence in the EU

The European Company

A private European company?

State aid to industry

Chapter 9: Resolving a dispute with an EU firm

Litigation against parties from EU member states

Matters to consider in an international arbitration

Figures and tables

Figure 4.1 Flow chart of import procedure (UK)

Figure 5.1 Flow chart for simple letter of credit procedure

Figure 5.2 Flow chart for documentary collection procedure

Figure 7.1 Flow chart of patent application procedure in the EPO

Place of delivery, passing of risk and transport costs under

Ranking of EU ports by gross weight of goods handled and

Top 10 discrepancies leading to rejection of letters of credit

Franchising in various European countries

State aid and eligible firms

The process involved in making a directive the mediation

Exporting beef to the EU regulatory considerations

An example of CE marking recreational craft

Credit risk insurance

Using a distributor to sell into the EU market

Franchising into the EU market

Establishing a private company in Estonia

Establishing a branch in Sweden

Business licences in Luxembourg

Investment incentives in Germany

HIS BOOK IS written for small and medium exporters, their

Chapters 25 of the book deal with matters that need to be considered

and a branch using individual countries procedures as examples. The

Australian Quarantine Inspection Service