E-LEARNING COURSE MODULE 1

GREEN ECONOMY & TRADE

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 1

Copyright © United Nations Institute for Training and Research, 2016, on behalf of PAGE

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Course authors
Jorge E. Viñuales, University of Cambridge, Harold Samuel Professor of Law and Environmental Policy
Director, Cambridge Centre for Environment, Energy and Natural Resource Governance (C-EENRG)

Contributors
Giuliano Montanari, Maya Valcheva, Amrei Horstbrink (UNITAR), Lennart Kuntze, Taylor Clayton, Anja von
Moltke (UN Environment), Gregg Cornelius, Bolormaa Tumurchudur-Klok, Olga Strietska-Ilina (ILO).

Citation
PAGE (2016), Green Economy and Trade E-Learning Course, Module 1

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 Perceived tensions
between trade and
the transition to
1 The evolution of the trade and an inclusive green
environment nexus economy

PAGE 7 PAGE 15

1.1 Overview 8 2.1. Overview 15

1.2. Trade and trade governance over time 9 2.2. Green Protectionism 16

1.3. Environmental governance over time 11 2.3. Loss of competitiveness 16

1.4. The transition to an Inclusive Green Economy 14 2.4. Conditionality of financing 17

2.5. Exacerbation of inequalities 18

3 Exploring synergies between trade 4 Trade and
and the transition to an inclusive green environment nexus:
economy a future outlook

PAGE 19 PAGE 25

3.1 Overview 19 4.1. Overview 25

3.2. Increased access to foreign markets for EGS

20 4.2. Emerging trends
in the trade and
environment nexus 26
3.3. Increased resource efficiency through trade 21

Key Learning Points 29

3.4. Additional opportunities to access finance and technology 22

Resources 30
3.5. Poverty eradication
23
ACRONYMS

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, China
CETA Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement
EGA Environmental Goods Agreement
EGS Environmental goods and services
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FSC Forest Stewardship Council
FTA Free trade agreement
GATT General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade
GCF Green Climate Fund
GDP Gross domestic product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GVC Global value chain
ICTSD International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development
IGE Inclusive green economy
IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development
ITC International Trade Center
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
MFN Most-favoured-nation
ODA Official development assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PPM Production processes and methods
PV Photovoltaic
RE Renewable energy
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNFSS United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
VSS Voluntary sustainability standards
WTO World Trade Organisation
WWII Second World War

 
 © World Bank/Arne Hoel

MODULE 1: THE TRADE AND

ENVIRONMENT NEXUS: KEY CONCEPTS,
DEVELOPMENTS AND TRENDS
Overall learning objectives:

― Discuss the main historical phases in the development of both trade

and environmental governance
― Identify the main perceived challenges arising from trade liberalisation
for the transition to an inclusive green economy
― Identify the main potential benefits of trade liberalisation for a
transition to an inclusive green economy
― Assess the current trends illustrating the connection between trade
and green economy

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 6

 1

THE EVOLUTION OF THE TRADE

AND ENVIRONMENT NEXUS

1.1 Overview

Trade among organised societies has been a major activity in

human history, intensifying over time, as a result not only of better
transportation and communication systems but also of more conducive
international frameworks facilitating trade.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 7

 In addition, trade can have important social effects,
including effects on job creation, working conditions,
poverty reduction or inequality.

The connection between trade flows and the governance that shapes the trade and environment
environment is a complex and multifaceted one. As a nexus.
general matter, the increase in production driven by
the greater demand from foreign markets can lead to In order to understand this nexus and its evolution,
a higher environmental footprint whether in the form it is therefore important to become familiar with
of increased usage of natural resources (e.g. timber, how trade flows and environmental protection are
fisheries, land for agriculture, fossil energy resources), organised in the current international system. The
higher levels of energy consumption for production current multilateral system of trade governance
processes and transportation or higher levels of dates back to the global re-organisation following
pollution and waste arising from deficient production the Second World War (WWII), with the adoption in
processes and over-consumption. 1947 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT). The system was significantly strengthened
In addition, trade can have important social effects, after the end of the Cold War, with the Uruguay
including effects on job creation, working conditions, negotiation round leading to the establishment in
poverty reduction or inequality. However, the 1994 of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). It
environmental and social footprint varies depending was also at this time that the connection between
on different parameters, including what is traded (i.e. trade and environmental governance became more
the types of goods and services), how it is traded (i.e. solidly recognised and established. Although the
terms and processes), how goods and services traded inception of modern international environmental
are produced, how benefits are distributed, and how law dates back to the Stockholm Conference on
the waste is managed. the Human Environment, held in 1972, it was the
Rio Conference on Environment and Development,
Conversely, environmental protection can have an held in 1992, with its mainstreaming of the
impact on trade flows, whether by regulating access concept of sustainable development, that placed the
to markets for certain products, or by providing connection between trade and the environment
competitive advantages/disadvantages to producers on the agenda of negotiators and policymakers.
of certain goods. Through these and other channels,
environmental protection can also affect employment Shortly thereafter, the Marrakesh Agreement
as well as growth and development. Once again, all establishing the WTO expressly identified, in its
these aspects are highly dependent upon the specific preamble, the objective of ‘expanding the production

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 8

 of and trade in goods and services, while allowing for the international level. It then introduces the IGE
the optimal use of the world’s resources in accordance concept as a conceptual tool aimed at solving
with the objective of sustainable development, seeking potential tensions. Finally, it discusses the different
both to protect and preserve the environment’. 1
aspects of the trade and environment nexus from
the perspective of the perceived tensions but also
The interactions between trade and environmental
the potential synergies between them.
protection have been apparent in the international
agenda ever since, including in the 2001 Doha
1.2 Trade and Governance Over Time
Ministerial Declaration (Doha Declaration), which
launched the Doha trade negotiation round, and with
Since 1980 the financial volume of global trade
the mainstreaming of the inclusive green economy
has multiplied by a factor of five to a value of US$
(IGE) concept after the 2008 world economic crisis,
18.95 trillion in 2014 (WTO 2015, 3). Two important
as an approach combining social development,
aspects of this global trend are its relationship with
economic development and environmental
economic growth as well as the importance of
protection. Trade is now a key component of the
global value chains. Other aspects include the rise
implementation strategy envisioned in the outcome
of South-South trade as well as of trade in services.
document of the 2012 Rio Summit (Rio+20) (see
This is covered later in this Module and in Module 2.
Box 1), and more recently in the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, particularly in Sustainable
Regarding the first aspect, more trade is clearly
Development Goal (SDG) 17.
correlated with more growth, both in developed and
– empirically – even more in developing countries;
The following lessons provide more detail on
in the latter case, this is likely a result of natural
the evolution of the relationship between trade
resource exports. Figure 1 shows the link between
and environmental protection and its expression
global trade in goods and economic growth,
through the IGE concept. The Module first provides
measured in terms of gross domestic product (GDP)
an overview of the general evolution of the trade
in the period from 2007 to 2016.
and environment terms, and their governance at

BOX 1: RIO+20 – A TURNING POINT?

Twenty years after the introduction of the concept of sustainable development at the Rio Conference on
Environment and Development, another major conference was held in Rio de Janeiro. At this occasion,
Heads of State and Government reaffirmed the need to transition to an inclusive green economy and
highlighted, in the outcome document of the conference – The future we want (2012) – the role that trade
policy can play in this transition:

‘We reaffirm that international trade is an engine for development and sustained economic growth, and also reaffirm
the critical role that a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system,
as well as meaningful trade liberalization, can play in stimulating economic growth and development worldwide,
thereby benefiting all countries at all stages of development as they advance towards sustainable development’
(paragraph 281)

1
Click here to access the Agreement text.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 9

 Figure 1: Growth in volume of world merchandise trade and GDP (2007-2016)

15
Average trade growth
10 1990 - 2014

0
World trade volume (avg.
-5 Average GDP growth exports and imports)
-10 1990 - 2014 World real GDP at market
exchange rates
-15
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015P 2016P

Annual percentage change. Figures for 2015 and Importantly, the link between trade and GDP
2016 are projections. Trade refers to the average of (specifically, the share of exports to GDP) seems
exports and imports. (WTO 2015, 2) stronger in developing countries. Figure 2 shows the
export-to-GDP ratio for the world and for different
regions.
Figure 2: Exports-to-GDP ratio (1989-2011)

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

S u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a ( d e ve l o p i n g o n l y ) Wo r l d OECD members
A s i a Pa c i f i c ( d e ve l o p i n g o n l y ) Latin America and the Caribbean

(UNEP 2013, 33)

The global expansion of free trade and the rise of percent (902 million people) to 9.6 percent (702
the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China) has million people) of the global population (World Bank
had a major positive effect on poverty reduction. 2015). However, the benefits of growth have mostly
Between 1990 and 2010 the percentage of the been unevenly distributed, with inequality measures
global population living in extreme poverty (on suggesting that the wealthiest 20 percent earn over
US$ 1.25 a day) has been halved to 21 percent 70 percent of the global income, with even higher
(UNEP/IISD 2014, 1). A revised projection concentrations for the wealthiest hundred people,
published by the World Bank and based on an who are estimated to hold some 50 percent of
adjusted poverty line (US$ 1.90 a day) suggests global wealth (UNEP/IISD 2014, 1). Moreover, as
that between 2012 and 2015 the number of discussed in the following section, growth has had
people living below the line has fallen from 12.8 significant impacts on the environment.)

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 10

 The second feature of global trade has been its or regional nature (called, for simplicity, free trade
increasing integration in global value chains (GVCs). agreements or FTAs) tended to develop after the
The concept of GVCs refers to the fact that ‘[n] failure of the WTO Ministerial Conference in Seattle,
ational economies are increasingly interconnected in 1999 (Lester, Mercurio, Bartels 2016, 3). Free trade
in an economic structure (…) where all the elements agreements, including the so-called ‘mega-regional’
needed to produce a final good or service – agreements, which liberalise trade and investment
production of inputs, design, assembly, management, between large trading blocks, are becoming more and
marketing, savings for investment – may be sourced more important in trade governance, and they will be
from around the globe in a system held together discussed in Module 4 alongside the WTO system.
by powerful communications and information
technologies’ (UNEP/IISD 2014, 1). The rationale of 1.3 Environmental Governance Over
the concept of GVCs is to ‘unbundle’ or disaggregate Time
stages of production of a given good or service and
let countries and/or firms that have a comparative The modern inception of the environmental
advantage on a given stage specialize. The movement at the international level dates back to the
contribution of least-developed countries to GVCs Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment,
has so far consisted mainly of natural resources and held in 1972. Before Stockholm, environmental
raw materials. This has a number of consequences, concerns were marginal and mainly took the form
such as their increased vulnerability to a fall in of either nature conservation conventions (e.g. the
commodity prices, but also presents opportunities, 1940 Western Hemisphere Convention) or treaties
as further discussed in Module 3A in connection with managing biological resources (e.g. the 1946
sustainable agriculture. Whaling Convention).

Trade governance has both induced and reflected In the aftermath of WWII, a major focus of global
these trends. The creation of the WTO in 1994 governance was the decolonisation of former
strongly encouraged global trade.2 In parallel to the colonies, with their ensuing claims over their natural
global trade system, another model of a bilateral resources.

2
An overview of the structure and operation of the WTO is provided in Module 4.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 11

 This shift in the focus of international action from recognition to actual
implementation is an important trend.

What we now call the ‘environment’ was, in fact, mainstreamed through the efforts of the World
perceived by countries around the world, particularly Commission on Environment and Development
developing and newly independent countries as a (1983-1987) (often called the Brundtland Commission
‘natural resource’ to be exploited to the benefit of after its president) precisely to align the two sets of
their people. The UN General Assembly adopted, in logic. Sustainable development was introduced as the
1962, an important resolution entitled ‘Permanent overarching conceptual synthesis of environmental
Sovereignty over Natural Resources’ (Res. 1803) protection and socio-economic development at the
which crystallised this understanding. It is in this Rio Conference on Environment and Development
context that one must situate the attempts by (1992) and spelt out in both the Rio Declaration and
developed countries to bring environmental the ambitious action plan ‘Agenda 21’.
concerns, mostly pollution of the marine
environment and transboundary air pollution (e.g. Over the years, the focus of international efforts
acid rain) resulting from this exploitative mindset, has moved from recognition of the need to
to the international arena. That was done at the protect the environment, to reconciliation of
aforementioned Stockholm Conference, which environmental protection and socio-economic
brought environmental concerns under the remit development, to the development of adequate
of the United Nations, mostly through the creation environmental instruments, to – more recently –
of the United Nations Environment Programme actual implementation of existing regulations. After
(UNEP). the 2002 Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable
Development, and even more after Rio+20, the
However, the logics of development and focus has been on implementation, with broad
environmental protection were not perceived by but integrated and widely accepted Sustainable
developing countries to be aligned. What can be Development Goals to guide future efforts towards
called the environment-development equation has balancing prosperity and environmental protection.
ever since underpinned international negotiations Importantly, SDGs rely on trade policy as a key means
on environmental matters (Viñuales 2013). The of implementation, as stated in SDG 17 (UNEP 2015).
concept of sustainable development was, in fact,

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 12

 © World Bank/Curt Carnemark

This shift in the focus of international action from or mobility will not disappear – yet rather will
recognition to actual implementation is an important increase, in line with forecasted global population
trend. Conventional patterns of growth and growth – the world needs to meet them through a
development have left a profound environmental fundamentally different approach.
footprint, including massive pollution of the oceans,
major losses in biodiversity, serious degradation of Current policy efforts, mostly conducted under
air quality in many major cities and adverse global the banners of sustainable development and
phenomena such as the depletion of the ozone IGE, aim at increasing the resource efficiency of
layer and climate change (see generally UNEP, human activities (i.e. deriving more from less)
Global Environment Outlook 5, 2012). and, potentially, at ‘decoupling’ growth from
environmental degradation, whether measured
The civilizational challenge posed by climate change in terms of greenhouse gas emissions or through
is mainly driven by human emissions from fossil fuel other indicators relating to land, water or air quality.
combustion, deforestation and agricultural activities.
As basic needs such as food, heating, electricity

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 13

 1.4 The Transition of an Inclusive As explained by UNEP’s former Executive Director,
Green Economy Achim Steiner:

The core strength of the sustainable development ‘An Inclusive Green Economy has evolved from earlier
paradigm, namely its ability to incorporate widely work on Green Economy. In its simplest expression,
different concerns and policies within a single such an economy is low carbon, efficient and clean
programmatic concept, is also its main challenge, in production, but also inclusive in consumption and
to the extent that its implementation requires more outcomes, based on sharing, circularity, collaboration,
specific guidance. By way of illustration, it is unclear solidarity, resilience, opportunity, and interdependence.
whether the development of genetically modified It is focused on expanding options and choices for
organisms could be seen as ‘sustainable’; some use national economies, using targeted and appropriate
far less water than conventional produce and can fiscal and social protection policies, and backed up
be grown in less fertile areas. Yet, they introduce by strong institutions that are specifically geared
an unknown form of life into the environment and to safeguarding social and ecological floors. And it
fall foul of the principles of sustainable agriculture. recognizes that there are many and diverse pathways
Hence, more specific guidance seems desirable. to environmental sustainability’ (UNEP 2015b, 6).

The IGE concept can be seen as a tool to implement In a global economic system largely shaped by
sustainable development, in which the environment- global value chains, many opportunities arising
development equation is solved through a focus from the transition to an IGE rely on trade. Trade
on real opportunities (discussed in Modules 2, policy, if appropriately used, can be a powerful
3A and 3B) arising from the need to protect the tool to promote the transition to an IGE, but this
environment. Indeed, in an IGE, the objective is requires a robust understanding of both the
not only to maintain socio-economic performance potential challenges and opportunities at the trade
while respecting the environment – as envisioned by and environment nexus. The following sections set
sustainable development – but to actually increase out to provide such understanding.
socio-economic performance by focusing on pro-
environment opportunities (Viñuales, 2012, 13).

© World Bank/Allion Kwesell

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 14

 2

PERCEIVED TENSIONS
BETWEEN TRADE AND THE
TRANSITION TO AN INCLUSIVE
GREEN ECONOMY

2.1 Overview
The potential tensions underpinning the nexus of trade and environment
have been expressed through scepticism and criticism by some developing
countries towards the role of trade liberalisation in the transition to an IGE. In
this lesson, we examine the perceived challenges that underlie this criticism.
The subsequent lesson considers the potential opportunities arising from the
trade and environment nexus, as they relate to each of the challenges discussed,
respectively.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 15

 2.2 Green Protectionism drive the transition to an IGE, such as local content
requirements, preferential financing, domestic
Concerns regarding the possibility that targets on government procurement, feed-in-
environmental regulation may become covert tariff schemes and other forms of subsidies, and
protectionism were initially voiced in early days of carbon offset measures, ‘are similar to those used in
global environmental governance. As part of the traditional industrial policy, which seek[s] to create
preparations of the 1972 Stockholm Conference, advantages for local sourcing’ (UNCTAD, 2011, 17).
the GATT Secretariat presented a study highlighting
this concern (GATT 1971). The issue of ‘green It is, therefore, not only the transition to an IGE but
protectionism’ has remained a concern, particularly also the genuine purpose of the measures used to
of developing countries, in the aftermath of the drive such a transition that matters. In this context,
Cold War. Principle 12 of the Rio Declaration the design of international trade instruments (see
(1992) re-affirmed that ‘[t]rade policy measures Module 4) could render the discriminatory (mis-)
for environmental purposes should not constitute use of environmental regulation more difficult and,
a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination hence, less likely. By way of illustration, renewable
or a disguised restriction on international trade.’ energy support schemes should avoid local content
(‘buy local’) requirements as these have protectionist
More recently, in the context of Rio+20, developing effects and are inconsistent with trade law.
countries expressed concern relating to the
2.3 Loss of competitiveness
possibility that green economy measures may
become an excuse for developed countries to
Another concern that has been aired in discussions
penalise developing country exports, on grounds
relating to the use of trade policy to promote an
of ‘environmental‘ regulation. For example, some
IGE is its impact on competitiveness. Although
of the policy instruments that could be used to
differentiation among goods and services on the
basis of their respective environmental footprint
seems legitimate and provides the rationale
for lowering the tariffs applicable to so-called
‘environmental goods and services’ (EGS), from a
political economy perspective, such differentiation
may provide a comparative advantage to those
countries – often developed countries – with a strong
positioning in these sectors. The basic notion is that
developed countries have the requisite industrial
base, human capital and framework conditions to
produce and export EGS (e.g. energy efficiency
equipment) in more competitive terms, and that
the IGE provides them with grounds to tailor the
international system to benefit their own industries.
This concern is a form of green protectionism of
domestic industries, namely by strengthening the
competitiveness in international markets.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 16

 A key challenge in this regard is agreement on the
identification of those goods and services that would qualify
as ‘environmental’ for purposes of trade facilitation rules.

In 2001, paragraph 31(iii) of the Doha Declaration 2.4. Conditionality of financing

identified EGS as an area for further trade
liberalisation. However, the negotiations at the WTO A major concern of developing countries is that
on this point (as with most other points) have been international financial assistance – or a part thereof
extremely difficult. A key challenge in this regard – may be made conditional on the adoption
is agreement on the identification of those goods of policies consistent with an IGE. International
and services that would qualify as ‘environmental’ financial assistance may take different forms,
for purposes of trade facilitation rules. Identifying including official development assistance (ODA),
certain goods and services largely amounts to loans or other assistance by international financial
identifying those countries that are better positioned institutions, as well as financial assistance from
to benefit from trade liberalisation in these sectors environment-specific funds such as the Global
or, conversely, whose industries may have to face Environmental Facility (GEF) or the recently
increased competition from foreign products. Lack established Green Climate Fund (GCF). The latter
of sufficient progress at the multilateral level has led is expected to mobilise or leverage one hundred
to narrower approaches such as the adoption of a billion US$ per year for mitigation and adaptation
list of 54 environmental goods by members of the projects in developing countries (Decision 1/COP-
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, 21, para 54).
an illustrative list proposed by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), This concern, at the root of which one finds
or the current initiative of 17 WTO members (incl. the considerations of sovereignty (e.g. the choice of
EU-28) to negotiate the adoption of an Environmental development pathway), is not directly related to
Goods Agreement (EGA). Such an EGA would trade policy. However, it is relevant for trade because
seek to eliminate tariffs on selected environmental of the potential linkages between access to finance
goods, and may eventually be expanded to cover and market access, both for the goods and services
non-tariff barriers and environmental services (see exported by fund providers (or by the organisations
further ICTSD, 2013). over which the latter exercise a significant measure
of control) as well as for foreign direct investment.
Indeed, international financing may be a key
factor in supporting green industries in developing
countries as well as much needed capacity building
operations (e.g. to understand and use ‘standards’
and thus gain access or even a competitive edge in
foreign markets).

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 17

 2.5. Exacerbation of inequalities fluctuation in the price of commodities. In addition,
as discussed in connection with concerns over green
There have been concerns relating to the possibility protectionism and competitiveness, unrestrained
that IGE-driven trade liberalisation may increase trade liberalisation can have a potentially adverse
wealth inequalities within countries favouring impact (at least temporarily) on the industries, and
intermediaries or major exporters/importers and hence the labour markets, of developing countries.
eroding the competitiveness of small and traditional
producers. The gap between the wealthiest and the This concern has recently been expressed
poorest has in fact widened both globally and at the multilaterally in SDG 10, which focuses on ‘[r]
national level. As mentioned above, the wealthiest educ[ing] inequality within and among countries’.
20 percent of the world population possess over Among the specific targets of SDG 10, reference is
70 percent of total income (UNEP/IISD 2014, 1). On made to ‘[i]mplement[ing] the principle of special
average, income inequality in developing countries and differential treatment for developing countries,
increased by 11 percent between 1990 and 2010 in particular least developed countries, in accordance
(UNDP 2013, 3). with World Trade Organization agreements’. Similarly,
the IGE concept places great emphasis on the
From a trade perspective, inequality among dimension of ‘inclusiveness’. In a recent UNEP report
countries has particularly been reflected in the that formulates several ‘design principles’ to achieve
type of segment or production stage at which an IGE, the very first principle is ‘the centrality of
many developing countries are contributing to jobs and the economy’ (UNEP 2015b, 19). This is
global value chains. Certain stages tend to focus particularly important because the transition to an
on the provision of natural resources and raw IGE should benefit all, including those that are active
materials rather than on value addition through a in sectors that will be adversely affected (e.g. fossil
more diversified portfolio of exports. Such narrow fuels). As outlined in Box 2, a green economy can
focus amplifies the exposure of such countries to only be inclusive if employment, as an enabler of
social inclusiveness, is adequately addressed.

BOX 2: EXCERPT FROM UNEP’S UNCOVERING PATHS TOWARDS AN

INCLUSIVE GREEN ECONOMY, 2015 - THE CENTRALITY OF JOBS
‘Work provides not merely the incomes we need for daily living, but meaning to our lives, social inclusion
and self-respect. It is no surprise therefore that the largest concerns in any economy are around the very
real risks of job losses and how to overcome them. Whilst social security and income support schemes
can and do help, the only lasting solutions are new jobs, the so-named ‘green and decent jobs’ that the
new economic model will generate. The good news is that new job opportunities in an inclu¬sive green
economy are significant, but they need to be identified early, and the education and skills training needed
to fill them ought to be an early priority for any state engaging in such a transition.’

In designing appropriate policies for the transition to transition to an IGE creates many opportunities, and
an IGE, it is important to keep in mind these different appropriately designed trade policies can provide a
concerns. At the same time, as discussed next, the powerful tool to harness them.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 18

 3

EXPLORING SYNERGIES
BETWEEN TRADE AND THE
TRANSITION TO AN INCLUSIVE
GREEN ECONOMY

3.1 Overview

Each of the perceived challenges discussed in the previous lesson

harbours, on closer inspection, a potential opportunity arising from the
transition to an IGE. This lesson discusses four main opportunities.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 19

 3.2 Increased access to foreign Progress on this front has been difficult at a WTO-
markets for EGS wide (multilateral) level, despite the fact that the
Doha Declaration specifically called for the ‘reduction
A major argument regarding the relevance of or, as appropriate, elimination of tariff and non-
trade liberalisation for the green economy is the tariff barriers to environmental goods and services’
creation or increased access to foreign markets for (paragraph 31(iii)). As noted earlier, at a ‘plurilateral’
environmental goods and services, including those level (i.e. among a sub-set of WTO members), a list of
produced in developing countries. This argument 54 environmental goods was indeed agreed in 2012
is, in fact, the reverse of the green protectionism among the 21 member countries of APEC, which
argument. includes both developed (e.g. Australia, Canada,
Japan, United States) and developing countries (e.g.
EGS have been characterised as ‘goods and services China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam). In January
to measure, prevent, limit, minimise or correct 2016, members of APEC implemented their initial
environmental damage to water, air and soil as well pledge to cut tariffs for the environmental goods
as problems related to waste, noise and ecosystems’ included in the list to 5 percent or below.
(OECD 2005). However, whereas it may be possible
to define conceptually what is understood by EGS, Using both the OECD and APEC characterisation
in practice there has been significant disagreement of environmental goods, Figure 4 shows that the
as to what should and what should not qualify as exports of such goods increased in the period 2001-
EGS. This disagreement has led to different proposed 2007, including exports from developing countries,
lists of EGS. although the environmental goods market showed
a lower growth rate than overall trade in goods.

Figure 4: Growth in trade of environmental goods (2001-2007), US$ million

900,000

750,000

600,000

450,000

300,000

150,000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

World Developed Countries Developing Countries LDCs

(UNEP 2013, 37)

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 20

 If one looks more closely at South-South trade in
some selected EGS, it appears that it has grown BOX 3: TOWARDS AN
faster (29.4 percent per year on average) than
ENVIRONMENTAL GOODS
global trade (excluding intra-EU trade) in the same
segments (26.7 percent) (UNEP 2014, 6). Developing AGREEMENT
countries have moved from being net importers to
become net exporters of certain renewable energy Since July 2014, a group of WTO members has
goods (particularly, solar panels). Figure 5 shows conducted negotiations towards the adoption of
this trend over the period 2004-2012. an Environmental Goods Agreement. The goal
of these negotiations is to remove barriers to
trade on certain goods (e.g. wind turbines, solar
Figure 5: Developing country balance of trade
panels, carbon dioxide scrubbers, recycling
in selected renewable energy products (US$
machinery, etc.) that are of particular importance
millions)
for environmental protection and climate action.
The identification of relevant environmental
Developing country exports Developing country imports Balance of trade goods took as a starting-point the list of 54
products adopted by APEC countries but the
60,000
ambition is to further develop this list over time
50,000
40,000 as well as to include related environmental
30,000 services (e.g. for the maintenance and repair
20,000 of renewable energy equipment). As of July
10,000
2016, the list of WTO members taking part in
0
-10,000 the negotiations consists of Australia, Canada,
-20,000 China, Costa Rica, Chinese Taipei, EU, Hong
-30,000 Kong (China), Japan, Korea, New Zealand,
Norway, Switzerland, Singapore, United States,
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Israel, Turkey and Iceland. The membership
accounts for around 90 per cent of global trade in
(UNEP 2014, 7)
environmental goods, which is estimated at USD
1 trillion annually. Once agreement is reached,
The APEC list has been influential, providing a basis
the benefits of the EGA would be applied to all
for wider negotiation. Initiated in 2014, 17 WTO
WTO members using the most-favoured-nation
members, including the EU-28, are negotiating a principle. UNEP is undertaking research and
plurilateral EGA that could thereafter be extended trainings to provide developing countries with
at a multilateral (WTO-wide) level on the basis of transparent information on potential benefits
the most-favoured-nation (MFN) principle (Box 3). and challenges from the EGA, including in the
context of potential extension of the Agreement
3.3 Increased resource efficiency to goods (or services) that are not currently on
through trade the list, or to other types of (non-tariff) trade
barriers.
If properly designed and implemented, trade
policies can promote the greening of global value (Information derived from European Commission
2016)
chains and improve resource efficiency through the
use of standards. Thus, trade policy can contribute
to the sustainable and efficient use of natural
resources.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 21

 Standards are understood as ‘non-tariff measures Standards reflect certain social or environmental
aimed at setting requirements related to, for conditions of production and thereby create
example, products’ quality and safety’ (UNEP 2013, significant opportunities for producers in both
38). Their use can be a powerful tool for sustainability developed and developing countries.3 At the same
because standards push producers to comply time, depending on their design as well as on the
with state-of-the-art technologies or efficiency ability of small producers to comply with them,
requirements in order to access certain markets (e.g. standards may create barriers to market entry
through certification requirements) or by appealing and result in green protectionism and competitive
to certain categories of consumers (e.g. through disadvantages. It is therefore important that small
use of specific labels reflecting the application of producers and developing countries have the
a certain standard). Thus, standards favour both ability to understand and adjust to standards and
sustainability and resource efficiency. In turn, the opportunity to shape their content (through
market access and consumer choice promote the participation in the relevant processes).
wider acceptance of certain production processes
and methods (PPMs) by specific segments of the In order to address these concerns, five UN
GVC, which expect abidance by such PPMs from Agencies (UNEP, UNCTAD, the Food and Agriculture
their suppliers. Although standards are, as a rule, Organisation - FAO, the International Trade
voluntary (i.e. not legally binding), they have great Centre - ITC, and the UN Industrial Development
influence nevertheless because they reflect demand Organisation – UNIDO) joined efforts in 2013 to
from purchasers of intermediary goods or from end create the UN Forum on Sustainability Standards
consumers. (UNFSS). The UNFSS aims at providing information
and analysis on voluntary sustainability standards,
with a particular focus on enhancing the ability of
developing countries to promote use of VSS (Box 4).

BOX 4: THE UNITED NATIONS FORUM FOR

SUSTAINABILITY STANDARDS (UNFSS)
‘The increasing use of voluntary standards in connection with health, social and environmental impacts,
and the lack of consensus in the WTO to address the concerns of developing countries surrounding the
implications of such standards led to the creation of the UNFSS. The Forum views voluntary sustainability
standards (VSS) as a strategic policy issue in connection with both (i) the internalisation of negative social
and environmental externalities in production processes conducted in a business-as-usual manner and,
importantly, also (ii) the promotion of the competitiveness of developing countries in an inclusive green
economy, including through their access to sustainability markets. With these aims, the work of UNFSS is
organised in two working groups – one focusing on enhancing the convergence and coordination of VSS
and the other on assessing their impact –, and three sectors, namely agri-food, material/resource/energy
efficiency, and additional areas that are expected to cover other products and commodities.
(UNCTAD 2012)

3
In Module 2, a number of examples of such standards and their impact are discussed, including FSC certified tropical wood, ISO
14001 certified companies, or LEED certified hotels and resorts.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 22

 3.4 Additional opportunities to
access finance and technology
The seizing of trade opportunities,
Whereas the conditionality of financial assistance
may raise sovereignty concerns, it is important to particularly the production of
note that significant resources have been made
goods to be exported, can attract
available to developing countries from a variety
of sources ranging from ODA, to international capital, develop industry and
financial institutions, to environment-specific funds
create wealth, thus helping to
and private capital.
eradicate poverty.
As a general rule, the new and additional resources
provided for pro-environment projects cover the
‘agreed incremental costs’ of upgrading business-
as-usual processes to environmentally preferable
ones. In some exceptional cases, such as the Green
Climate Fund, considerable resources may be made
population living in extreme poverty (on US$ 1.9 a
available to cover the ‘agreed full costs’ of mitigation
day) from 12.8 percent in 2012 to 9.6 percent in
and adaptation related projects in developing
2015 (World Bank 2015). However, in order to be
countries.
consistent with an IGE, trade-driven wealth creation
needs to be sustainable in that increased production
Similarly, the diffusion of technology can take place
must not deplete resources used for production or
through different processes, including trade (the
generate negative externalities (especially regarding
technology is either embedded in the product or
air, water and land pollution).
implied by its production), licensing of technologies
(for use by certain entities in the receiving country)
The experience of China is a case in point. Over the
or foreign direct investment. If appropriately
last 30 years, China maintained a GDP growth rate
designed, policies aimed at attracting investment
of approximately 10 percent and lifted 500 million
or at acquiring lower-cost foreign products may
people out of extreme poverty (UNEP 2015a). A key
be beneficial for receiving countries both in socio-
growth factor was the outsourcing of manufacturing
economic and environmental terms. For instance,
activities to China, i.e. the provision of goods
such policies may drive countries’ transformation of
integrated within the global supply chain or sold
infrastructure or manufacturing processes.
to end consumers abroad. However, the Chinese
‘economic miracle’ came at a high environmental
3.5 Poverty eradication
cost, including resource use (e.g. the energy and
water consumption per unit of GDP is between
The seizing of trade opportunities, particularly the
2.5-3 times higher than the world average) (UNEP
production of goods to be exported, can attract
2015a), environmental pollution (e.g. air pollution
capital, develop industry and create wealth, thus
has become a key problem in Eastern, Northern and
helping to eradicate poverty. Although we have
Central China), and environmental deterioration
seen that the gap between the wealthiest and the
(e.g. wetlands degradation and soil erosion, with
poorest has widened in the last decades, we have
ensuing impacts on water and agriculture).
also witnessed the percentage decline of the global

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 23

 The Chinese government has realised the magnitude
and importance of these environmental challenges
and gradually adopted a number of steps in
response. In 2013, China decided to mainstream the
concept of Ecological Civilization in its development
path by focusing on four main areas of action: smart
development of national land space; conservation
of natural resources; ecosystem conservation and
environmental protection; and institution building
for an Ecological Civilization (UNEP 2015a, 5).

Over time, China has heavily invested in the

development of renewable energy technologies
and equipment, both for foreign markets and
for national deployment (Box 5), with important
effects on the share of renewable energy in the
national energy mix and on the manufacturing of
environmental goods.

The opportunities discussed so far have been

identified by many countries in their efforts to pursue
sustainable development pathways. As discussed
next, the global transition to an IGE is significantly
influencing the patterns of world trade, with an
© World Bank/ Chor Sokunthea
increasing production of EGS and with increasing
participation of developing countries.

BOX 5: CHINA’S CONSOLIDATION OF THE

PHOTOVOLTAIC MANUFACTURING SECTOR
By 2012, the global photovoltaic (PV) sector faced an overcapacity crisis. China, which exports a large
share of its production in the PV segment, was adversely affected by the slowdown in demand from
foreign markets. Aware of this risk, the Chinese government designed a strategy focusing on two goals: (1)
concentrating support only on a limited number of utility-scale and internationally competitive enterprises,
and (2) developing the domestic market.

Regarding the first goal, starting in January 2011, the Chinese government set several standards (related
to production, efficiency, environment and finance) to be met by new PV manufacturers wanting to benefit
from government support. By 2014, the Government had identified a small number (slightly over 100
producers) who would continue to receive support. As for the second goal, the government uses three
main tools, namely (i) a feed-in-tariff scheme for utility-scale solar PV, financed by a surcharge paid by
consumers, (ii) a special Renewable Energy Fund used to support key deployment projects, and (iii) regular
increases in the targets for solar-power capacity installations in China.
(UNEP 2014, 55)

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 24

 4

TRADE AND ENVIRONMENT

NEXUS: A FUTURE OUTLOOK

4.1 Overview

Building on the previous lessons, it is possible to identify some broad

emerging trends at the nexus of trade and environment that will
determine their future interplay.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 25

 © World Bank/Dominic Chavez

The discussion in the previous sections suggests that for certain countries depends upon their domestic
the transition to an IGE may present both challenges industrial policies and their ability to seize business
and opportunities relating to international trade. opportunities arising from the transition to an IGE.
Both are linked to the extent that a given trend, This is also the case for the availability of financial
such as increased trade in EGS, resource utilisation, and technological resources to the extent that a
availability of financial resources or the degree of country pursuing a ‘brown’ economy model may
social inclusiveness, may constitute a challenge or find itself disadvantaged in trying to access new and
an opportunity depending on a number of variables. additional resources mobilised at the international
These are, for example, specific endowments level to effect the transition to an IGE.
of different countries but also certain enabling Whether a given trend should ultimately best be
conditions and the appropriate design of trade characterised as a challenge or an opportunity can
policies and institutions (see Module 2). only be assessed from an empirical perspective and
at the level of a country or sector. A more detailed
Thus, whether environmental standards operate discussion in this regard is provided in Modules 2,
as barriers to market access and devices of 3A and 3B.
protectionism or as a motor for exports of EGS
from certain countries depends on how such 4.2. Emerging trends in the trade
standards are designed and used. The provision and environment nexus
of appropriate ‘upstream’ assistance to developing
countries, as envisioned by the UNFSS, also plays Building on the previous lessons, it is possible to
a key role. Similarly, whether the greening of GVCs identify some broad emerging trends at the nexus
creates comparative advantages or disadvantages of trade and environment that will determine their
future interplay.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 26

 Global trade in environmental
goods is already estimated at
US$ 1 trillion annually

© World Bank/ Arne Hoel

Increase in investment Developing countries taking the lead

Investment in the production of EGS, both for trade Developing countries are key contributors to
and local consumption, is becoming more and increased investment in the production of EGS, as
more important, as illustrated by Figure 4 and Box suggested not only by their overall increasing share
5. Global trade in environmental goods is already in global trade in EGS (see green line in Figure 4
estimated at US$ 1 trillion annually (Office of the above) but also as illustrated by the growth in South-
United States Trade Representative 2016), and is South trade in major renewable energy segments
expected to significantly increase from initiatives (Figure 6).
such as the Environmental Goods Agreement. .

Figure 6: South-South trade in environmental goods as a share of global trade in these sectors

% RE products Solar** Wind*** Hydro Biomass

45

40

35

30

25

2%

15

10

0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 27

 Pronounced growth in trade in specific sectors
BOX 6: INVESTMENT IN
A particularly important area in the abovementioned
growth in trade flows is renewable energy (RE) RENEWABLE ENERGY IN
equipment. This trend is in turn driven by the DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
decrease in price of such equipment made possible
by heavy investments in the renewable energy The year 2015 was notable as the first in which
sector (both in equipment production and power investment in renewables (excluding large
generation, which drives demand) in the last hydro) in developing countries outweighed that
years. After a slowdown during 2011-2013 due to in developed economies. The developing world
overcapacity, global investment in renewable power including China, India and Brazil committed
and fuels (excluding large hydro-electric projects) a total of US$ 156 billion, up 19 percent on
increased by 17 percent in 2014 and 5 percent in 2014, while developed countries invested US$
2015, amounting to overall RE investment of around 130 billion, down 8 percent. A large element
US$ 286 billion (UNEP 2016, 11). Importantly, as in this turnaround was China, which lifted its
investment by 17 percent to US$ 102.9 billion, or
outlined in Box 6, developing countries have taken
36 percent of the world total. Other developing
a major part in this trend.
countries also raised their game – India saw its
commitments rise 22 percent to US$ 10.2 billion,
Bilateralisation and regionalisation of trade
while Brazil (US$ 7.1 billion, down 10 percent),
and investment governance
South Africa (US$ 4.5 billion, up 329 percent),
Mexico (US$ 4 billion, up 105 percent) and Chile
Regarding institutional developments, the trend (US$ 3.4 billion, up 151 percent) all joined the
triggered by the failure of the Seattle Conference in list of the top 10 investing countries in 2015.
1999 towards the bilateralisation or regionalisation The list of developing countries investing more
of trade and investment governance tended to than US$ 500 million last year also included
consolidate with the negotiation of important Morocco, Uruguay, the Philippines, Pakistan and
‘mega-regional’ agreements, such as the Honduras.
Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (UNEP 2016, 11)
(CETA) between Canada and the EU as well as the
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) among 12 countries, needed, as so far, internationally agreed goals have
including the United States, Canada and Japan, only been partially achieved. As noted in the 2012
though not including China. The reflection of the Global Environment Outlook:
trade and environment nexus in these agreements
was a particularly important and debated issue (see ‘[m]any sub-national, national and international
Module 4 for further information). instruments in place are contributing to environmental
improvements. There is evidence (…) of continuing
Increasing interlinkage between trade and deterioration in many places and for most of the
environment global environmental issues reported on in GEO-
5’[Global Environment Outlook 5] (UNEP 2012, 7).
The above trends regarding both trade patterns
and trade governance can contribute significantly The objective of the following modules is to
to international efforts to reverse the profound identify specific opportunities and discuss concrete
environmental footprint that human activities trade-related actions that can be taken to further
are inflicting on the planet. More action is indeed contribute to environmental improvements.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 28

 © World Bank/ A'Melody Lee

© World Bank/ Daniella Van Leggelo-Padilla © World Bank/ Arne Hoel

KEY LEARNING POINTS

― Trade is correlated with GDP growth, ― Environmental regulations and standards may
particularly for developing countries. Today, operate as an obstacle to accessing foreign
global trade is characterised by the concept markets or as a potential advantage for
of global value chains. exporters of certain environmental goods and
services; a key consideration is the design of
― The current focus of modern environmental trade policies.
governance is effective implementation,
particularly of the 2030 Agenda for ― The greening of global value chains offers
Sustainable Development and its SDGs. significant opportunities for environmental
goods and services from developing countries.
― The inclusive green economy concept is a
tool to achieve sustainable development, ― Increased access to financial and technological
with an emphasis on the opportunities resources will be available to countries and
arising from the transition from a fossil fuel sectors focusing on new business opportunities
dependent, resource intensive, inequitable arising from the transition to an IGE.
economy to an efficient and clean one.
― Whether countries will experience aspects of
the transition to an IGE mostly as a challenge or
as an opportunity depends on several factors,
including the policies they adopt to position
themselves within this transition.

GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 29

 RESOURCES
 

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GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 30

 RESOURCES
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GREEN ECONOMY AND TRADE 31

For further information:
PAGE Secretariat
UNEP/Economic and Trade Branch
11-13 Chemin des Anémones
CH-1219 Chatelaine-Geneva
Switzerland

www.un-page.org

greeneconomyunep

@PAGEXchange

[email protected]