CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION

Osteoporosis: Primary Prevention in the Community

K Y Loh, MMed, H K Shong, FRCS
*Department of Family Medicine, **Department of Orthopaedic, International Medical Universiti Malaysia, Jalan Rasah,
Seremban 70300, Negeri Sembilan

SUMMARY
The incidence of osteoporosis is increasing worldwide. It has
great impact on the life of the elderly population. The most
significant medical consequence of osteoporosis is fragility
fracture which without proper treatment will cause severe
medical and psychosocial complications. The overall cost in
managing osteoporosis and its related fractures is escalating.
Using bone densitometry to measure bone mineral density is
useful in the diagnosis of osteoporosis but it is costly and not
feasible in the community. Drugs such as estrogen
replacement, raloxifene and calcitonin are effective in
prevention and treatment of osteoporosis but they are also
expensive. Identifying modifiable risk factors such as
smoking, lack of exercise, low dietary calcium and vitamin D
intake and healthy life style remain strategy in the primary
prevention of osteoporosis in the community.

INTRODUCTION
Osteoporosis remains one of the most important public
health issues affecting the elderly population. It is a silent
progressive disease and becomes clinically evident when
there is a fracture. In view of its clinical significance, the
World Health Organization (WHO) formed a working group
in 1994 to define osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is defined as "a
progressive systemic skeletal disease characterized by low
bone mass and micro- architectural deterioration of bone
tissue, with a consequent increase in bone fragility and
susceptibility to fracture" 1. Bone densitometry is the most
widely used imaging technique for objective measurement of
bone mineral density (BMD). The BMD is expressed as Tscore. The WHO working group recommended that the
diagnosis of osteoporosis is based on T-score of at least - 2.5
standard deviation 1. The most important consequence of
osteoporosis is bone fracture particularly involving the
vertebrae, hips and forearm. Many of these are fragility
fractures caused by trivial force which usually should not
cause a fracture in healthy individuals. Severe osteoporosis is
defined as BMD value of at least T-2.5 standard deviation or
more below the young adult mean with the presence of one
or more fragility fractures.
Magnitude of the problem
According to the WHO working group definition, about 30%
of postmenopausal women suffer from osteoporosis1.
Published studies worldwide indicate that the incidence of
osteoporosis is increasing yearly. In Hong Kong, the incidence
is approximately 10 per 1000 population in women and men
above the age of 70 years old2. The prevalence of osteoporosis
in Malaysia was reported as 24.1% in 2005, predominantly

affecting the hip3. Prevalence of osteoporosis in Thailand was

12.6%,4 in China 16.1%5 and in Taiwan 10.08%6. The overall
prevalence of osteoporosis in the Asian population is higher
than the western countries due to the fact that the Asian
population has lower body mass index and shorter height7. A
study conducted in the United States comparing immigrant
Chinese women from Hong Kong and Mainland China
showed lower BMD at both the lumbar spine and femoral
neck compared to US Caucasian women7 . It was also
projected that 50% of all fragility fractures in the world will
occur in Asia by the next century2.
Impact of osteoporosis
Osteoporosis has great impact on the society. The most
significant medical problem associated with osteoporosis is
fragility fracture. Among the well documented sites of
fractures are the spine, hips and arms. Fractures of the spine,
vertebrae and hips are associated with long term morbidity
such as chronic pain, deformity and disability. A study done
in Japan had shown a significant correlation between annual
bone mass reduction and decreased activity of daily living of
Indirect morbidities include
the elderly population8.
depression, self isolation, low self esteem and loss of
independence following fracture. Each episode of fracture
also increases the future risk of fracture; for example femoral
neck fracture carries a relative risk of 1.5 for further fracture
in the future9.
The costs involved in the diagnosis and management of
osteoporosis related fracture is another great concern
affecting health care policy planning. Studies done in Europe
documented hip fracture unit cost was the highest, ranging
from Euro 8,346 for Italy to Euro 9,907 in France10. Similar
findings were reported in Thailand where the cost incurred
from diagnosis and management of hip fracture in one year
was high amounting to 116,458.6 Baht11. In Malaysia, the
direct cost for hospitalization due to hip fracture in 1997 was
estimated at Ringgit Malaysia 22 million12. This is a huge
amount which most patients in the developing country
cannot afford. Rising yearly incidence of osteoporosis will
have a significant impact on the healthcare financing system
of the country.
Pathogenesis and Risk factors
Primary osteoporosis is characterized by reduction of bone
mass due to to the ageing process. Secondary osteoporosis is
caused by exogenous drugs or systemic disease affecting bone
metabolism. These causes (Table I) must be excluded before
primary osteoporosis is diagnosed as some of these are
treatable medical conditions. Recent studies had postulated

This article was accepted: 22 August 2007

Corresponding Author: Loh Keng Yin, Department of Family Medicine, International Medical Universiti Malaysia, Jalan Rasah, Seremban 70300, Negeri
Sembilan Email: [email protected]
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Continuing Medical Education

Table I: Secondary causes of osteoporosis

Endocrine disorder: Hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, Cushing disease
Gastrointestinal problems: Post gastrectomy, chronic liver disease, malabsorption syndrome
Bone disease: osteogenesis imperfecta, malignancy.
Drugs: Steroids, heparin, frusemide, thyroxin, progesterone, cytotoxic drugs.
Others: hypercalciuria, vitamin D deficiency, Hemochromatosis, hypophosphatasia

Table II: Common risk factors for osteoporosis

Modifiable risk factors
Smoking
Sedentary life style
Low body mass index
Past history of fracture
Low calcium and vitamin D intake
Malnutrition
Drugs: steroids, heparin, thyroid hormone

a few mechanisms in the pathogenesis of primary

osteoporosis. One theory is related to chronic inflammatory
process influence on the bone turnover. Pro-inflammatory
cytokines have been implicated in the regulation of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts and activation of immune system
in the ageing process13, 14 . Pelvic bone marrow adipose tissue
(BMAT) is another factor postulated in the pathogenesis.
MRI-measured BMAT is strongly inversely correlated with
DXA-measured BMD independent of other predictor
variables15. More research in this area is currently being
carried out. The risk factors for osteoporosis are well
established in many epidemiological studies. They are
classified into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors.
(Table II) Intervention on the modifiable risk factors forms
the basis for counseling and primary prevention of
osteoporosis in the community.
Preventive measures of osteoporosis in the
community
Among the proven effective measures in the primary
prevention of osteoporosis are:
(1) life style modification (2) Calcium and vitamin D
supplements and (3) the use of medication to prevent bone
loss.
Life Style modification
Majority of the patients in the community usually have a
combination of the risk factors. All risk factors need to be
assessed and a planned life style modification is necessary.
Published research in the west and east both have
documented smoking as a major risk factor for osteoporosis.
Lower bone mineral density and reduced cortical thickness
leading to fragility fractures were reported in many
community studies15, 16. Therefore, quitting cigarette smoking
is an important strategy in both primary and secondary
prevention of fracture. Physical activity and exercise are
protective factors for osteoporosis17. Sedentary life style
increases the risk of osteoporosis. Regular physical exercise
gives the effect of mechanical stress on bone remodeling and
is associated with increased bone strength besides increasing
muscle bulk and strength, thus reducing the risk of fall17.
There is no solid data on which type of exercise is best to
prevent osteoporosis; most doctors will advise on regular
weight bearing exercises such as daily walking. Other lifestyle

356

Non modifiable risk factors

Ageing
Postmenopausal
Female
Family history of osteoporosis/fracture
Small body build
Asian population

factors such as reduced alcohol and caffeine intake are also

important factors to be considered in preventing
osteoporosis.
Calcium and vitamin D supplements
A high dietary calcium intake and calcium tablet supplement
have been proven to reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Studies
done in Malaysia have also demonstrated ingestion of high
calcium skimmed milk effective in reducing the rate of bone
loss18. The recommended daily calcium intakes is 1,200-1,500
mg/day in Western population and 800mg/day in Japan19.
The total daily intake of calcium should not exceed 2000 mg
in view of the risk of renal dysfunction. Side effects include
indigestion and constipation. Vitamin D helps in
maintaining normal calcium absorption and metabolism.
Exposure to sunlight is a major source of vitamin D in
tropical countries. Recommended vitamin D intake above
the age of 50 is about 10 ug/day (about 200-600 i.u.)20 . Food
that contains high calcium and vitamin D such as milk,
cheese, egg and cod liver oil should be encouraged.
Besides the above measures, the patient must be counseled
about medicines which he or she is taking for chronic
medical disorder which may lead to osteoporosis. Steroids,
thyroid hormones and frusemides are well known to cause
osteoporosis.
Medication preventing bone loss
The three most widely used medications in preventing bone
loss are Bisphosphonates, estrogen replacement therapy and
raloxifene. Bisphosphonates inhibit osteoclast activity and
reduce bone turn over and have been proven in many clinical
trials as an effective agent in the prevention and treatment of
osteoporosis. Estrogen replacement therapy (both oral
estrogen and trans-dermal patch ) has been proven to reduce
bone turnover and lower the risk of fracture22,23. Many clinical
trials have shown that estrogen prevents bone loss at the
spine and hips if started within ten years post menopause22.
However, estrogen is contraindicated in women with a
history of breast cancer or history of vascular thrombosis.
Stopping this medicine will lead to increased bone loss and
the risk of fracture will resurface. Raloxifene is a selective
estrogen-receptor modulator. Daily therapy with raloxifene
increases bone mineral density especially at the spine and

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Osteoporosis: Primary Prevention in the Community

hip, and lowers serum concentrations of total and lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol. The effect on any increased
of bone mass is slightly less than estrogen but it has the
advantage of having no known effect on
uterine
endometrium stimulation. Another drug used to treat
postmenopausal osteoporosis is Calcitonin, a 32-amino-acid
peptide which inhibits the action of osteoclasts with resulting
increase in BMD. It can be given by subcutaneous,
These
intramuscular injection or intranasal spray22.
medications are costly, and the treating physician must
consider the cost effectiveness when prescribing.

8.

9.

10.

11.
12.
13.

CONCLUSIONS
Osteoporosis is an important health problem affecting the
elderly population. The yearly incidence of osteoporosis is
increasing. This problem has great impact on society, leading
to escalating healthcare cost. As the use of medications in the
treatment of osteoporosis is expensive, healthy lifestyle and
risk factors modification remain the most important primary
prevention strategy in the community setting.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

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Osteoporosis: Primary Prevention in the Community

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
T=True

F=False

1. The following are causes of secondary osteoporosis:

A. Cushings disease
B. Hypothyroidism
C. Long term heparin therapy
D. Malabsorption syndrome
E. Steroid therapy

2. Known modifiable risk factors for primary osteoporosis include:

A. Smoking
B. High caffeine intake
C. Low dietary calcium
D. Sedentary life style
E. Lack of exposure to sun light

3. The following statements are true regarding osteoporosis.

A. Asian population has lower incidence of osteoporosis compared to western population.
B. It is defined as bone mineral density T score below 2.5 standard deviation of the population according to
WHO definition.
C. Bone densitometry is the most widely used imaging technique in assessing bone mass.
D. Osteoporosis presents with early bone pain.
E. Chronic inflammatory process has been postulated in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis.

4. Which of the following substance is effective in management of osteoporosis.

A. Estrogen
B. Raloxifene
C. Bisphosphonates
D. Thyroxin
E. Calcium supplements
5. Complications of osteoporosis include:
A. Fragility fracture
B. Bony deformity
C. Reduce activity of daily living
D. Depression
E. Social isolation

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